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A. Magnetoresistance
The basic principle of the magnetoresistance (MR) is the variation of the resistance
(R) of a material or a structure as a function of an external magnetic field (B), as
generally described by the following general equation:
R = f (B) (1)
Magnetoresistance (MR) is defined as a change in the electrical resistance of a substance
in the presence of a magnetic field. The signal response of a device is often characterised
by the percentage MR, as shown by Eqn. (2), where ∆R is the change in resistance in an
applied field and R is the resistance in the absence of an applied field
∆R (2)
MR(%) = × 100%
R
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polycrystalline films prepared by using the sputtering method. These films are formed as
multilayers, for example a ‘sandwich structure’ (fig. 1(a)) where a third, very thin
nonmagnetic film (the spacer), is placed between two magnetic films. The border
between the films is called the interface. The artificially grown structure consists of
periodically alternating single-crystal film layers and is called the superlattice. Small
magnetic entities may be introduced into the nonmagnetic matrix and this nanocomposite
system is called the granular system (fig. 1(c)).
Fig. 1. Various types of GMR structures: (a) multilayer; (b) spin valve and (c) granular
films.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 2. The spin-valve structure and results reported by Dieny and co-workers [8] for
NiFe/Cu/NiFe/FeMn structure.
The origin of spin valves are a particular case of multilayered structure. In spin
valves, an additional antiferromagnetic (pinning) layer is added to the top or bottom
part of the structure, as shown in Figure 1(b). In this sort of structures, there is no
need of an external excitation to get the antiparallel alignment. In spite of this, the
pinned direction (easy axis) is usually fixed by raising the temperature above the knee
temperature (at which the antiferromagnetic coupling disappears) and then cooling it
within a fixing magnetic field. Obviously, so obtained devices have a temperature
limitation below the knee temperature. Typical values displayed by spin valves are a
MR of 4%–20% with saturation fields of 0.8–6 kA/m [9].
For linear applications, and without excitation, pinned (easy axis) and free layers
are arranged in a crossed axis configuration (at 900). The response this structure is
given by [10]:
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1 ∆R iW
cos(Θ p − Θ f ) (3)
∆R = Rs
2 R h
where (∆R=R) is the maximum MR level (5%–20%), Rs is the sensor sheet
resistance (15–20 Ω/m), L is the length of the element, W is its width, h is the
thickness, i is the sensor current, and Θp and Θf are the angle of the magnetization
angle of pinned and free layers, respectively. Assuming uniform magnetization for
the free and pinned layers, for a linearized output, Θp = π/2 and Θf = 0.
The term ‘spin-valve’ followed from the term ‘magnetic valve’ introduced by
Slonczewski (1989) [11] for the tunnelling effect in ferromagnetic layers. Spin-valve
means that the magnetizations of the layers act as a sort of valve for conduction
electrons.
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(111)-oriented Co-Ag film Co particles with diameter of 2.5 nm separated from each
other by a distance of 8 nm were created.
Fig. 3 presents the typical transfer characteristics ∆R/R = f(H) determined for the
CoFe/Ag composition. Characteristics ∆R/R = f(H) are similar to the transfer
characteristics describing the GMR effect in multilayers with antiferromagnetic
coupling. The granular structure may be interpreted as a special form of nanometric
entities with the resistance changed by spin-dependent scattering. After applying an
external magnetic field the particles are aligned parallel to each other. Thus the GMR
effect in multilayer structures and in granular alloys has a common origin.
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Another more promising GMR structure was proposed by Slonczewski [11] and
investigated by Moodera [21] and Miyzaki and Tezuka [22]. In this structure the
magnetic layers are separated by a thin insulator barrier. It was expected that by using
this magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) sensors with magnetoresistivity of about 10–20% for
very low magnetic fields (about 10–100 A/m) could be obtained. Typical MR levels of
MTJ are above 40%, with Al2O3 as isolating layer [23]. More recently, MR levels about
200% have been reported for MgO based structures [24]. Saturation fields are in the order
of 1-100 Oe.
The basis of linear magnetic tunnel junctions is analogous to that of linear spin valve.
When configured in a crossed axis configuration, linear ranges suitable for sensor
applications can be achieved [10]. Nevertheless, the usage of linear MTJ is still in its
initial stage and is demanding additional research efforts.
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specific for different GMR structures and have been analysed in previous chapters.
Common to all structures are the technology dependent problems of the quality of
deposited structures. The technological conditions affecting spin-valve performances as
an example will be analysed in more detail because this structure is the most promising
candidate for sensors or reading heads.
A good quality sensor should exhibit following features [25]:
• a large value of magnetoresistivity ratio (∆R/R)max, = (Rmax - Rmin)/Rmax,
• large sensitivity S = (∆R/R)max/Hs,
• small hysteresis usually described by coercive field Hc,
• small anisotropy field Hk of the unpinned layer (sensitivity depends on Hk),
• large exchange biasing field Hex,
• small changes of parameters with temperature,
• good repeatability and reliability
GMR sensors have greater output than conventional anisotropic magnetoresistive (AMR)
sensors or Hall effect sensors, and are able to operate at fields well above the range of
AMR sensors. In addition, high fields will not “flip” GMR sensors or reverse their output
as is possible with AMR sensors. GMR sensors have significant advantages over Hall
Effect and AMR sensors as shown in Table 1.
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In any case, a GMR sensor is a magnetic field sensor. These sensors can be used for
detecting a magnetic field or a disturbance in the earth magnetic field produced by a
magnetic issue. This way, the design of the sensing system is, in the most of the cases, ad
hoc.
Nordling, et.al [28] has developed the integrated sensor is a passive circuit consisting
of four GMRs, deposited in a serpentine pattern and wired together as a Wheatstone
bridge. As shown in Fig. 5, the two interdigitated GMRs serve as sense resistors (RS1 and
RS2) and the two spatially separated GMRs act as reference resistors (RR1 and RR2). Each
strip is 2 µm wide, separated from its neighbor by 2 µm, and has a total length of over 11
mm. The edges of the sense and reference GMRs are separated by 30 µm to isolate the
innate magnetic field of each resistor, which is a function of sourced current through the
leads, from each other. The sensing GMRs are coated with a thin film of silicon nitride to
planarize the active surface and protect it from sample contact.
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Fig. 5. (a) Electronic schematic of the Wheatstone bridge. (b) Photomicrograph of the
GMR sense pad used in this publication showing the reference GMR traces (top and
bottom) and the GMR sense pad (center). (c) Schematic illustration of the Wheatstone
bridge GMR sensor shown in (b) depicting the circuit as well as the direction of the
external magnetic field and the motion of the GMR relative to the sample.
In the design of thin film structures it is useful to operate at the resistivity determined
for the condition w = L (w – width, L –length):
ρ (4)
Rsq =
t
This resistance ‘ohms per square’ is the same for any square irrespective of size. It
depends only on the thickness of the film. The dependence of the output signal on the
aspect ratio L/w may be described by the following expression [29]:
(5)
For the multilayer (exchange coupling) sensor expression can be rewritten as:
(6)
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Where c is constants.
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Ix (4)
H=
2πx
Fig. 6. The detection of the electrical current: (a) around the current conducting wire; (b)
above the printed circuit board; (c) as a field produced by a coil.
The Fig 7. below illustrates the sensor package orientation for detecting the field from
a current-carrying wire. This application allows for current measurement without
breaking or interfering with the circuit of interest. The wire can be located above or
below the chip, as long as it is oriented perpendicular to the sensitive axis.
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Fig.7 GMR sensor package orientation for detecting the field from a current-carrying
wire [31].
Fig. 8 presents the experimentally determined transfer characteristic of the GMR AC004
sensor placed above the track with dimensions 1.5 mm width and 0.05 mm thickness
[25].
Fig. 8. The recommended application of the AC004 sensor for current measurements:
arrangement of the sensor and typical transfer characteristics [25].
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