CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL BONDING

Problems: 1-18, 21-34, 43-44

5.1 FROM POISON TO SEASONING

Sodium is a shiny metal that is equally reactive and toxic.

– It is so reactive, that it explodes violently when dropped in water.

Chlorine (Cl2) is a pale yellow gas that reacts with nearly everything.
– It is toxic and cause death, so it was used as a chemical weapon during World War I.

Sodium and chlorine react explosively with one another to form sodium chloride (NaCl), which
is common table salt. The image below shows sodium metal (gray spheres) and chlorine gas
(Cl2 molecules in green) reacting to form sodium chloride (green and grey particles together).

While sodium metal and chlorine gas are so reactive, the resulting white sodium chloride solid
they form is so harmless, we generally use it to season our food.

Ex. 1: Write the electron configuration (using core notation) for each element below:

sodium: _________________________ chlorine: _________________________

Ex. 2: How many electrons does each of the following have

to gain or lose to achieve a noble gas electron configuration? Na: ______ Cl: ______

Ex. 3: When sodium and chlorine react to form white sodium chloride solid, the resulting
compound consists of Na+ and Cl− ions. Write the electron configuration (using core
notation) for each ion below:

Na+: _________________________ Cl−: _________________________

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Ex. 4: Given the electron configurations for the ions in Ex. 3, explain why sodium chloride is
not reactive and toxic like the sodium metal and chlorine gas used to produce it.

5.2 CHEMICAL BONDING AND PROFESSOR G.N. LEWIS

core electrons: innermost electrons belonging to filled electron shells, corresponding to the
number of electrons in the Noble gas in the period above the element.

valence electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell, corresponding to the number of

electrons in the same period as the element.

Example: Fill in the table below:

# of valence
Element Electron configuration using core notation # of core electrons
electrons

potassium

magnesium

sulfur

fluorine

Why are valence electrons important?

– Since atoms want filled electron shells to be most stable, they’ll combine with other atoms
with unfilled shells (gaining or losing e–s) to become stable.
→ Valence electrons lead to chemical bonds and reactions between atoms.

For Main Group (A) elements, Group # → # of valence electrons

– Elements in Group IA: Each has 1 valence electron
– Elements in Group IIA: Each has 2 valence electrons
– Elements in Group IIIA: Each has 3 valence electrons
– Elements in Group IVA: Each has 4 valence electrons
– Elements in Group VA: Each has 5 valence electrons
– Elements in Group VIA: Each has 6 valence electrons
– Elements in Group VIIA: Each has 7 valence electrons
– Elements in Group VIIIA: Each has 8 valence electrons

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Example: Indicate the number of valence electrons for each element below:

Mg: _____ P: _____ Al: _____ Br: _____ K: _____ Si: _____ Se: _____ Xe: _____

Electron Dot Formula (or Lewis Symbols)

– Show the atom of an element with
– Element symbol representing the nucleus and core electrons
– Dots representing the valence e–

Guidelines for writing Electron Dot Formula

1. Write down the element symbol.
2. Determine the number of valence electrons using the group number.
3. Assume the atom has four sides, and distribute electrons with one electron per side
before pairing electrons.

Ex. 1: Write the Electron Dot Formula or Lewis Symbols for each of the following atoms:
neon boron phosphorus carbon chlorine

5.3 IONIC LEWIS STRUCTURES

Ex. 1 Give the Lewis electron-dot formula below for each of the following atoms and ions:
sodium magnesium chlorine oxygen

sodium ion magnesium ion chloride ion oxide ion

Example: Draw the electron-dot formulas representing each of the following:

a. sodium atom + chlorine atom react to form sodium ion and chloride ion

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 b. magnesium atom + oxygen atom react to form magnesium ion and oxide ion

Thus, in reality, metal atoms transfer valence electrons to nonmetal atoms

→ positively charged cations and negatively charged anions
– Ions come together → ionic compound = 3D network of ions

Ionic compounds consist of ions held together by

ionic bonds
– ionic bond: electrostatic attraction holding
together positively charged metal cations
and negatively charged nonmetal anions

In the 3D representation of NaCl at the right,

the Na+ ions (purple) are attracted to the Cl–
ions (green) because of their charges.

IONIC RADII: distance from the nucleus to the outermost electrons in an ion
– An atom loses electrons to form a cation
→ the cation has a smaller radius than its corresponding atom
– An atom gains electrons to form an anion
→ the anion has a larger radius than its corresponding atom

11 p+ loses 1 e– 11 p+ 17 p+ gains 1 e– 17 p+
11 e– 10 e– 17 e– 18 e–

Na atom Na+ ion Cl atom

Cl– ion

Ex. 1: Order the following in terms of increasing ionic radii: Mg2+, Sr, K+, Al3+, Ca.

_______ < _______ < _______ < _______ < _______

smallest radius largest radius

Ex. 2: Order the following in terms of increasing ionic radii: Br−, N, O, F, I−, Cl−.

_______ < _______ < _______ < _______ < _______

smallest radius largest radius
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5.4 COVALENT LEWIS STRUCTURES

Nonmetal atoms form bonds to achieve a Noble Gas electron configuration.

– However, instead of taking electrons away from one another to form ions, they simply share
the electrons in a covalent bond.

covalent bond: sharing of a pair of electrons between two nonmetal atoms

– achieved by overlapping outermost subshells with the valence electrons

Ex. 1: Use electron dot formulas to represent the reaction described.

hydrogen atom + chlorine atom → HCl molecule

Note in HCl, H has 2 e– (like He) and Cl has 8 valence e– (like other Noble gases).

We can also represent the HCl molecule as follows:

H Cl

This overlapping region is the covalent bond where electrons are shared.

MULTIPLE COVALENT BONDS (Single Bonds, Double Bonds, and Triple Bonds)
– Covalent bonds can also be shown as a line to represent the pair of electrons

•• ••
H―H O=C=O
•• ••
:N≡N:
single bond double bond triple bond

bond length: distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms
– optimum distance maximizing attraction, minimizing repulsions

Bond Length and Bond Strength

bond length
Single bonds: longest and weakest bonds
Double bonds: shorter and stronger than single bonds
Triple bonds: shortest and strongest type of covalent bond

In general, the shorter the bond, the stronger the bond.

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DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES (or ELECTRON DOT FORMULAS OF MOLECULES)

octet rule (rule of eight): atoms bond in such a way that each atom gets eight valence
electrons (an octet), except hydrogen which only needs 2 electrons

GUIDELINES for Drawing Lewis Structures

1. Calculate the total # of valence electrons for all atoms in the compound
– Number should be even

2. Divide the total number by 2 to get the number of electron pairs

3. Write symbol for central atom (usually underlined or indicated in some way), then put all the
other atoms around it.

4. Connect all the atoms together using single bonds.

5. Distribute remaining electrons around outer atoms so they all have an octet (8 e–), except
hydrogen (H) only needs 2 electrons.

bonding electrons: electron pairs shared between two atoms

nonbonding (lone pair) electrons: unshared electron pairs belonging to a single atom

6. If there are not enough electron pairs for all atoms to have an octet, move a nonbonding
electron pair from outer atom to a position between the outer atom and the central atom
– A single pair of e–s between atoms = single bond between the atoms
– Two pairs of e–s between atoms = double bond between the atoms
– Three pairs of e–s between atoms = triple bond between the atoms

Example: Draw the Lewis Structure for each of the following molecules:

H2O CH2O

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Example: Draw the Lewis Structure for each of the following molecules:

a. NH3: e. Cl2O:

b. OF2 f. PCl3:

c. CF4: e. CH2F2:

d. CO2: f. HCN:

Note: The textbook covers molecules with more than one central atom. Don’t worry about
drawing Lewis Structures for any molecule with more than one central atom.

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LEWIS STRUCTURES OF POLYATOMIC IONS
– Polyatomic ions are charged particles consisting of more than one atom.

1. Calculate the total number of electrons (e–s) for all atoms

2. Account for # of e–s associated with charge:
If ion is positively charged, subtract # of e–s from total
– If ion has +2 charge → subtract 2 e–s from total # of e–s
If ion is negatively charged, add # of e–s from total
– If ion has –3 charge → add 3 e–s to total # of e–s
3. Divide new total by 2 to get total # of e–s pairs
4. Write symbol for central atom (usually underlined or indicated in some way),
then put all the other atoms around it. Connect all the atoms together using single bonds.

5. Distribute remaining electrons around outer atoms so they all have an octet (8 e–), except
hydrogen (H) only needs 2 electrons.
6. If any atom does not have an octet, move nonbonding electrons from central atom to a
position between atoms, forming double and triple bonds until all atoms have an octet.
7. Put brackets around all the atoms, and put charge on upper right-hand side
– This indicates the charge belongs to entire entity rather than to a single atom in the ion.

Example: Draw the Electron dot formula for each of the following polyatomic ions:

a. NH4+: c. OH–:

b. SO4–2: d. PO4–3:

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5.5 CHEMICAL BONDING IN OZONE (O3); RESONANCE STRUCTURE
Given the Lewis structure for ozone, we expect either of the following structures:
•• ••
O O
••O O
•• ••O O
••
•• •• •• •• •• ••
so one bond (O—O) bond should be longer than the other (O=O).

BUT experimental evidence indicates that both oxygen-oxygen bonds in ozone are identical,
so neither of the structures accurately represents the molecule.
O
The actual structure is a cross between the two structures,
where the electron pair is actually spread over all three atoms:
••O O
••
•• ••
These electrons are considered delocalized electrons because they are spread between
more than two atoms.

To correctly represent such delocalized electrons using Lewis formulas we show all the Lewis
formulas with a double-arrow between each:

•• ••
O O
••O O
•• ••O O
••
•• •• •• •• •• ••
where each of these structures is called a resonance structure.

resonance structure: one of two or more Lewis structures representing a single molecule
with bonds that are usually between a single bond and a double bond
that cannot be described fully with only one Lewis structure.

resonance: the use of two or more Lewis structures to represent a molecule with these bonds
that are usually between a single and a double bond.
– The real ozone molecule does not oscillate between the two resonance structures but is a
unique, stable structure in which the bond between the oxygen atoms is a bond and a half.

Ex. 1 Give the resonance structures for NO2–:

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Ex. 2 Give the resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO32–:

5.6 THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES (and POLYATOMIC IONS)

Repulsion between electrons causes them to spread out in a molecule

→ valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model
– accounts for shape of molecule by considering repulsion between electron pairs around
a central atom in a molecule

Molecular Shape (or Molecular Geometry):

– refers to three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in molecule
– responsible for many physical and chemical properties (m.p., b.p., density, etc.)

MOLECULES WHERE CENTRAL ATOM HAS NO LONE PAIRS

– Consider a molecule composed of only two types of atoms, A and B

A=central atom B=outer atoms

If there are only two atoms, the molecule must be linear.

For molecules with three or more atoms, determine a general formula—in the form ABx (for
x=2, 3, or 4)—to determine the molecular geometry (or shape).

AB2: linear
– the two outer atoms are 180˚ from each other
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for CO2, where both carbon-oxygen
bonds are equivalent. Also indicate the bond angles.

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AB3: trigonal planar
– three outer atoms at the corners of an equilateral triangle
– each outer atom is 120˚ from the other two outer atoms
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for CH2O (including bond angles).

AB4: tetrahedral
– tetra = four, so “tetrahedral” is used to indicate four sides or four faces
– each outer atom is 109.5˚ from the other three outer atoms
– Example: Draw the Lewis structure and shape for CH4 (including bond angles).

Table of Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles Part I

General MOLECULAR # of Outer
NAME of SHAPE Bond Angles
formula GEOMETRY Atoms
180
AB2 2 linear 180˚

AB3 3 trigonal planar 120˚

120

109.5°
AB4 4 tetrahedral 109.5˚

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 MOLECULES WHERE THE CENTRAL ATOM HAS ONE OR MORE LONE PAIRS

Lone pairs of electrons take up more space than bonded pairs of electrons because the
bonded pair is held between two atoms whereas the lone pair belongs to only one atom.

A=central atom B=outer atoms E=lone pairs

AB2E: bent (or angular) (central atom and 2 outer atoms have a bent shape)
– start with AB3 (trigonal planar) molecule and replace one B atom with a lone pair
of electrons (E) → AB2E
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for SO2 (including bond angles).

AB3E: trigonal pyramid (central atom and 3 outer atoms make a pyramid)
– start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace one B atom with a lone pair of
electrons (E) → AB3E
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for NH3 (including bond angles).

AB2E2: bent (or angular) (central atom and 2 outer atoms have a bent shape)
– start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace 2 B atoms with 2 lone pairs of
electrons (E) → AB2E2
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for H2O (including bond angles).

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 Table of Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles Part II
# of Outer # of Lone Pairs
General MOLECULAR NAME of Bond
Atoms on Central
formula GEOMETRY SHAPE Angles
Atom

bent or
AB2E 2 1 <120˚
angular
<120°

trigonal
AB3E 3 1 <109.5˚
pyramid

<109.5°

bent or
AB2E2 2 2 <109.5˚
angular

<109.5°

Given any molecule or polyatomic ion, draw the Lewis Structure, then determine the
molecular geometry (or shape) and bond angle(s) for the molecule.

Ex. 1: Draw the Lewis structure (including resonance structures if they apply), and determine
the molecular geometry and bond angles for SO2.

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Ex. 2 For the following molecules and polyatomic ions (where the central atom is underlined):
i. Draw the Lewis structure, including resonance structures if they apply.
ii. Determine the molecular geometry of the molecule.
iii. Determine the approximate bond angles.

a. CH3Cl b. OF2
Lewis structure Lewis structure

ii. shape of CH3Cl: _____________________ ii. shape of OF2: _____________________

iii. bond angles in CH3Cl: ____________ iii. bond angles in OF2: ____________

c. nitrate ion, NO3– d. azide ion, N3–

Lewis structure Lewis structure

ii. shape of NO3–: ________________ ii. shape of N3–: ________________

iii. bond angles in NO3–: ___________ iii. bond angles in N3–: ___________
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5.7 WATER: POLAR BONDS AND POLAR MOLECULES

Electronegativity (EN): Ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract e–s

– F is the most electronegative (EN) element

→ Elements are less electronegative the further away from F
– Except for H which has an electronegativity value between B and C.

NONPOLAR COVALENT BOND: Bond between 2 atoms with equal electronegativity values

Simplest example of nonpolar covalent bonds are those between two identical atoms:
– H–H bond in H2, F–F bond in F2, etc.

Nonpolar covalent bonds can also occur between different atoms which have equal
electronegativity values (see Table of electronegativity values above)
– e.g. N–Cl bond, C–S bond, etc.

POLAR COVALENT BONDS

– In some covalent bonds, one of the two atoms holds electrons more tightly
→ polar covalent bond results between two atoms

Delta (δ) Notation for polar bonds:

Electrons concentrate around the more EN atom in a molecule

→ Atom gains a partial negative charge, indicated with δ–.
Since electrons spend less time around the other atom
→ Other atom gains a partial positive charge, indicated with δ+.

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 Ex. 1: For each of the bonds below:
i. Use delta notation (δ+ and δ–) to indicate which atom in each bond is more
electronegative, and
ii. Use an arrow to point from the less electronegative atom to the more
electronegative atom.

C—Cl N—O Br—H

Ex. 2: Identify the type of bond described for each of the following:
ionic bond (I) polar covalent bond (P) nonpolar covalent bond (NP)

_____ i. The C–O bonds in CO2 _____ iv. The C–C bonds in C3H8

_____ ii. The bonds in F2 _____ v. The bonds in MgS

_____ iii. The bonds in K2O _____ vi. The bonds in H2O

POLARITY OF MOLECULES

For diatomic molecules:

– nonpolar molecules: when the 2 atoms have equal electronegativity values
– polar molecules: when the 2 atoms have different electronegativity values
– have dipole (+ve and –ve ends)

For molecules of three of more atoms:

– the polarity depend on the individual bonds and geometry around the central atom
– Polar molecules have an overall dipole (+ve and –ve end)
– In nonpolar molecules, there may be individual dipoles that cancel
→ no overall dipole

Guidelines for Determining if a Molecule is Polar or Nonpolar

1. Use Delta Notation and an arrow to indicate the more electronegative atom in a polar bond.

2. Determine if there is an overall dipole:

– If two arrows point in opposite directions, all arrows point in, or all arrows point out, then
the dipoles cancel → nonpolar molecule
– If all arrows point in the same direction and don’t cancel, there is an overall dipole for
the molecule → polar molecule

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Ex. 1: Determine whether the following molecules are polar or nonpolar:

CO2: H2O:

SO3

Ex. 2: Determine whether the following molecules are polar or nonpolar:

CCl4 CHCl3

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Example: For the following molecules (where the central atom is underlined):
i. Draw the Lewis structure. iv. Sketch the molecule and show the dipoles.
ii. Determine the shape of the molecule. v. Indicate if the molecule is polar/nonpolar.
iii. Determine the approximate bond angles.

i. SO2 i. CH2F2
Lewis structure Lewis structure

ii. shape of SO2: (Circle one below) ii. shape of CH2F2: (Circle one below)

linear bent tetrahedral linear bent tetrahedral

trigonal planar trigonal pyramidal trigonal planar trigonal pyramidal

iii. bond angles in SO2: (Circle one) iii. bond angles in CH2F2: (Circle one)

180˚ 120˚ 109.5˚ <109.5˚ <120˚ 180˚ 120˚ 109.5˚ <109.5˚ <120˚

iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the SO2 molecule iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the CH2F2
below, then draw an arrow to show the molecule below, then draw an arrow to
dipole on each polar bond. show the dipole on each polar bond.

v. The SO2 molecule is __________. v. The CH2F2 molecule is __________.

(Circle one) polar nonpolar (Circle one) polar nonpolar

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Example: For the following molecules:
i. Draw the Lewis structure. iv. Sketch the molecule to show the dipoles.
ii. Determine the shape of the molecule. v. Indicate if the molecule is polar/nonpolar.
iii. Determine the approximate bond angles.

i. PF3 i. COCl2 (in which the C-Cl bonds are equivalent)

Lewis structure Lewis structure

ii. shape of PF3: _______________________ ii. shape of COCl2: ______________________

iii. bond angle in PF3: ___________ iii. bond angles in COCl2: ___________

iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the PF3 molecule iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the COCl2
molecule
below, then draw an arrow to show the below, then draw an arrow to
dipole on each polar bond. show the dipole on each polar bond.

v. The PF3 molecule is __________. v. The COCl2 molecule is __________.

(Circle one) polar nonpolar (Circle one) polar nonpolar

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