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1.1 A thermoelectric (TE) cooler, sometimes called a thermoelectric module or Peltier cooler, is a
semiconductor-based electronic component that functions as a small heat pump. By applying a low
voltage DC power source to a TE module, heat will be moved through the module from one side to
the other. One module face, therefore, will be cooled while the opposite face simultaneously is
heated. It is important to note that this phenomenon may be reversed whereby a change in the
polarity (plus and minus) of the applied DC voltage will cause heat to be moved in the opposite
direction. Consequently, a thermoelectric module may be used for both heating and cooling thereby
1.1.1 To provide the new user with a general idea of a thermoelectric cooler's capabilities, it might be
helpful to offer this example. If a typical single-stage thermoelectric module was placed on a heat
sink that was maintained at room temperature and the module was then connected to a suitable
battery or other DC power source, the "cold" side of the module would cool down to approximately -
40°C. At this point, the module would be pumping al most no heat and would have reached its
maximum rated "DeltaT (DT)." If heat was gradually added to the module's cold side, the cold side
temperature would increase progressively until it eventually equaled the heat sink temperature. At
this point the TE cooler would have attained its maximum rated "heat pumping capacity" (Qmax).
1.2 Both thermoelectric coolers and mechanical refrigerators are governed by the same fundamental
laws of thermodynamics and both refrigeration systems, although considerably different in form,
In a mechanical refrigeration unit, a compressor raises the pressure of a liquid and circulates the
refrigerant through the system. In the evaporator or "freezer" area the refrigerant boils and, in the
process of changing to a vapor, the refrigerant absorbs heat causing the freezer to become cold. The
heat absorbed in the freezer area is moved to the condenser where it is transferred to the
semiconductor material essentially takes the place of the liquid refrigerant, the condenser is replaced
by a finned heat sink, and the compressor is replaced by a DC power source. The application of DC
power to the thermoelectric module causes electrons to move through the semiconductor material. At
the cold end (or "freezer side") of the semiconductor material, heat is absorbed by the electron
movement, moved through the material, and expelled at the hot end. Since the hot end of the
material is physically attached to a heat sink, the heat is passed from the material to the heat sink
1.3 The physical principles upon which modern thermoelectric coolers are based actually date back
to the early 1800's, although commercial TE modules were not available until almost 1960. The first
important discovery relating to thermoelectricity occurred in 1821 when a German scientist, Thomas
Seebeck, found that an electric current would flow continuously in a closed circuit made up of two
dissimilar metals provided that the junctions of the metals were maintained at two different
temperatures. Seebeck did not actually comprehend the scientific basis for his discovery, however,
and falsely assumed that flowing heat produced the same effect as flowing electric current. In 1834,
a French watchmaker and part time physicist, Jean Peltier, while investigating the "Seebeck Effect,"
found that there was an opposite phenomenon whereby thermal energy could be absorbed at one
dissimilar metal junction and discharged at the other junction when an electric current flowed within
the closed circuit. Twenty years later, William Thomson (eventually known as Lord Kelvin) issued a
comprehensive explanation of the Seebeck and Peltier Effects and described their interrelationship.
At the time, however, these phenomena were still considered to be mere laboratory curiosities and
In the 1930's Russian scientists began studying some of the earlier thermoelectric work in an effort to
construct power generators for use at remote locations throughout the country. This Russian interest
in thermoelectricity eventually caught the attention of the rest of the world and inspired the
modern semiconductor technology whereby doped semiconductor material takes the place of
basis of functional thermoelectric modules. Without going into too much detail, we will examine some
1.4.1 SEEBECK EFFECT: To illustrate the Seebeck Effect let us look at a simple thermocouple
circuit as shown in Figure (1.1). The thermocouple conductors are two dissimilar metals denoted as
temperature of interest (Th) which, in this example, is higher than temperature Tc. With heat applied
to thermocouple B, a voltage will appear across terminals Tl and T2. This voltage (Vo), known as the
where:
1.4.2 PELTIER EFFECT: If we modify our thermocouple circuit to obtain the configuration shown in
Figure (1.2), it will be possible to observe an opposite phenomenon known as the Peltier Effect.
If a voltage (Vin) is applied to terminals Tl and T2 an electrical current (I) will flow in the circuit. As a
result of the current flow, a slight cooling effect (Qc) will occur at thermocouple junction A where heat
is absorbed and a heating effect (Qh) will occur at junction B where heat is expelled. Note that this
a change in the direction of electric current flow will reverse the direction of heat flow. The Peltier
Qc or Qh=pxy x I
Where: pxy is the differential Peltier coefficient between the two materials, x and y, in volts I is the
electric current flow in amperes Qc, Qh is the rate of cooling and heating, respectively, in watts
Joule heating, having a magnitude of I x R (where R is the electrical resistance), also occurs in the
conductors as a result of current flow. This Joule heating effect acts in opposition to the Peltier effect
1.4.3 THOMSON EFFECT: When an electric current is passed through a conductor having a
temperature gradient over its length, heat will be either absorbed by or expelled from the conductor.
Whether heat is absorbed or expelled depends upon the direction of both the electric current and
temperature gradient. This phenomenon, known as the Thomson Effect, is of interest in respect to
the principles involved but plays a negligible role in the operation of practical thermoelectric modules.
2.1 THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS: The thermoelectric semiconductor material most often used
in today's TE coolers is an alloy of Bismuth Telluride that has been suitably doped to provide
individual blocks or elements having distinct "N" and "P" characteristics. Thermoelectric materials
most often are fabricated by either directional crystallization from a melt or pressed powder
metallurgy. Each manufacturing method has its own particular advantage, but directionally grown
materials are most common. In addition to Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3), there are other thermoelectric
materials including Lead Telluride (PbTe), Silicon Germanium (SiGe), and Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb)
alloys that may be used in specific situations. Figure (2.1) illustrates the relative performance or
Figure-of-Merit of various materials over a range of temperatures. It can be seen from this graph that
the performance of Bismuth Telluride peaks within a temperature range that is best suited for most
cooling applications.
characteristics that merit discussion. Due to the crystal structure, Bi2Te3 is highly anisotropic in
nature. This results in the material's electrical resistivity being approximately four times greater
parallel to the axis of crystal growth (C-axis) than in the perpendicular orientation. In addition, thermal
conductivity is about two times greater parallel to the C-axis than in the perpendicular direction. Since
the anisotropic behavior of resistivity is greater than that of thermal conductivity, the maximum
thermoelectric elements must be assembled into a cooling module so that the crystal growth axis is
parallel to the length or height of each element and, therefore, perpendicular to the ceramic
substrates.
There is one other interesting characteristic of Bismuth Telluride that also is related to the material's
crystal structure. Bi2Te3 crystals are made up of hexagonal layers of similar atoms.
While layers of Bismuth and Tellurium are held together by strong covalent bonds, weak van der
Waals bonds link the adjoining [Te¹] layers. As a result, crystalline Bismuth Telluride cleaves readily
along these [Te¹][Te¹] layers, with the behavior being very similar to that of Mica sheets. Fortunately,
the cleavage planes generally run parallel to the C-axis and the material is quite strong when
2.1.2 Bismuth Telluride material, when produced by directional crystallization from a melt, typically is
fabricated in ingot or boule form and then sliced into wafers of various thicknesses. After the wafer's
surfaces have been properly prepared, the wafer is then diced into blocks that may be assembled
into thermoelectric cooling modules. The blocks of Bismuth Telluride material, which usually are
called elements or dice, also may be manufactured by a pressed powder metallurgy process.
more elements of semiconductor material that are connected electrically in series and thermally in
parallel. These thermoelectric elements and their electrical interconnects typically are mounted
between two ceramic substrates. The substrates serve to hold the overall structure together
mechanically and to insulate the individual elements electrically from one another and from external
mounting surfaces. After integrating the various component parts into a module, thermoelectric
modules ranging in size from approximately 2.5-50 mm (0.1 to 2.0 inches) square and 2.5-5mm (0.1
2.2.1 Both N-type and P-type Bismuth Telluride thermoelectric materials are used in a thermoelectric
cooler. This arrangement causes heat to move through the cooler in one direction only while the
electrical current moves back and forth alternately between the top and bottom substrates through
each N and P element. N-type material is doped so that it will have an excess of electrons (more
electrons than needed to complete a perfect molecular lattice structure) and P-type material is doped
so that it will have a deficiency of electrons (fewer electrons than are necessary to complete a perfect
lattice structure). The extra electrons in the N material and the "holes" resulting from the deficiency of
electrons in the P material are the carriers which move the heat energy through the thermoelectric
material. Figure (2.2) shows a typical thermoelectric cooler with heat being moved as a result of an
applied electrical current (I). Most thermoelectric cooling modules are fabricated with an equal
number of N-type and P-type elements where one N and P element pair form a thermoelectric
"couple." The module illustrated in Figure (2.2) has two pairs of N and P elements and is termed a
"two-couple module".
Heat flux (heat actively pumped through the thermoelectric module) is proportional to the magnitude
of the applied DC electric current. By varying the input current from zero to maximum, it is possible to
3.1 Applications for thermoelectric modules cover a wide spectrum of product areas. These include
telecommunications organizations. Uses range from simple food and beverage coolers for an
afternoon picnic to extremely sophisticated temperature control systems in missiles and space
vehicles.
Unlike a simple heat sink, a thermoelectric cooler permits lowering the temperature of an object
below ambient as well as stabilizing the temperature of objects which are subject to widely varying
ambient conditions. A thermoelectric cooler is an active cooling module whereas a heat sink provides
Thermoelectric coolers generally may be considered for applications that require heat removal
ranging from milliwatts up to several thousand watts. Most single-stage TE coolers, including both
high and low current modules, are capable of pumping a maximum of 3 to 6 watts per square
centimeter (20 to 40 watts per square inch) of module surface area. Multiple modules mounted
thermally in parallel may be used to increase total heat pump performance. Large thermoelectric
systems in the kilowatt range have been built in the past for specialized applications such as cooling
within submarines and railroad cars. Systems of this magnitude are now proving quite valuable in
• Avionics
• Calorimeters
• Cold Chambers
• Cold Plates
• Compact Heat Exchangers
• Dehumidifiers
• Environmental Analyzers
• Immersion Coolers
• Infrared Detectors
• Laser Collimators
• Microprocessor Cooling
• NEMA Enclosures
• Parametric Amplifiers
• Refrigerators and on-board refrigeration systems (Aircraft, Automobile, Boat, Hotel, Insulin,
• Stir Coolers
• Wine Cabinets
4.1 The use of thermoelectric modules often provides solutions, and in some cases the ONLY
solution, to many difficult thermal management problems where a low to moderate amount of heat
must be handled. While no one cooling method is ideal in all respects and the use of thermoelectric
modules will not be suitable for every application, TE coolers will often provide substantial
advantages over alternative technologies. Some of the more significant features of thermoelectric
modules include:
No Moving Parts: A TE module works electrically without any moving parts so they are virtually
maintenance free.
Small Size and Weight: The overall thermoelectric cooling system is much smaller and lighter than
a comparable mechanical system. In addition, a variety of standard and special sizes and
Ability to Cool Below Ambient: Unlike a conventional heat sink whose temperature necessarily
must rise above ambient, a TE cooler attached to that same heat sink has the ability to reduce the
Ability to Heat and Cool With the Same module: Thermoelectric coolers will either heat or cool
depending upon the polarity of the applied DC power. This feature eliminates the necessity of
High Reliability: Thermoelectric modules exhibit very high reliability due to their solid state
construction. Although reliability is somewhat application dependent, the life of typical TE coolers is
virtually no electrical noise and can be used in conjunction with sensitive electronic sensors. They
Operation in any Orientation: TEs can be used in any orientation and in zero gravity environments.
Convenient Power Supply: TE modules operate directly from a DC power source. Modules having
a wide range of input voltages and currents are available. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) may be
Ability to Generate Electrical Power: When used "in reverse" by applying a temperature differential
Environmentally Friendly: Conventional refrigeration systems can not be fabricated without using
5.1 Rather than being a heat absorber that consumes heat by magic, a thermoelectric cooler is a
heat pump which moves heat from one location to another. When electric power is applied to a TE
module, one face becomes cold while the other is heated. In accordance with the laws of
thermodynamics, heat from the (warmer) area being cooled will pass from the cold face to the hot
face. To complete the thermal system, the hot face of the TE cooler must be attached to a suitable
heat sink that is capable of dissipating both the heat pumped by the module and Joule heat created
A heat sink is an integral part of a thermoelectric cooling system and its importance to total system
performance must be emphasized. Since all operational characteristics of TE devices are related to
heat sink temperature, heat sink selection and design should be considered carefully.
A perfect heat sink would be capable of absorbing an unlimited quantity of heat without exhibiting any
increase in temperature. Since this is not possible in practice, the designer must select a heat sink
that will have an acceptable temperature rise while handling the total heat flow from the TE device(s).
The definition of an acceptable increase in heat sink temperature necessarily is dependent upon the
with increasing temperature differential, it is highly desirable to minimize this value. A heat sink
temperature rise of 5 to 15°C above ambient (or coo ling fluid) is typical for many thermoelectric
applications.
Several types of heat sinks are available including natural convection, forced convection, and liquid-
cooled. Natural convection heat sinks may prove satisfactory for very low power applications
especially when using small TE devices operating at 2 amperes or less. For the majority of
applications, however, natural convection heat sinks will be unable to remove the required amount of
heat from the system, and forced convection or liquid-cooled heat sinks will be needed.
Ts - Ta
____________
Q s=
where:
5.2 Each thermoelectric cooling application will have a unique heat sink requirement and frequently
there will be various mechanical constraints that may complicate the overall design. Because each
case is different, it is virtually impossible to suggest one heat sink configuration suitable for most
situations. We have several off the shelf heat sinks and liquid heat exchangers appropriate for many
Note that when combining thermoelectric cooling modules and heat sinks into a total thermal system,
it normally is NOT necessary to take into account heat loss or temperature rise at the module to heat
sink junctions. Module performance data presented herein already includes such losses based on
the use of thermal grease at both hot and cold interfaces. When using commercially available heat
sinks for thermoelectric cooler applications, it is important to be aware that some off-the-shelf units
do not have adequate surface flatness. A flatness of 1mm/m (0.001 in/in) or better is recommended
for satisfactory thermal performance and it may be necessary to perform an additional lapping,
5.2.1 NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT SINKS: Natural convection heat sinks normally are useful
only for low power applications where very little heat is involved. Although it is difficult to generalize,
most natural convection heat sinks have a thermal resistance (Qs) greater than 0.5°C/watt and often
exceeding 10°C/watt. A natural convection heat sink should be positioned so that (a) the long
dimension of the fins is in the direction of normal air flow, vertical operation improves natural
convection and (b) there are no significant physical obstructions to impede air flow. It also is
important to consider that other heat generating components located near the heat sink may increase
5.2.2 FORCED CONVECTION HEAT SINKS: Probably the most common heat-sinking
method used with thermoelectric coolers is forced convection. When compared to natural convection
heat sinks, substantially better performance can be realized. The thermal resistance of quality forced
convection systems typically falls within a range of 0.02 to 0.5°C/watt. Many standard heat sink
extrusions are available that, when coupled with a suitable fan, may be used to form the basis of a
complete cooling
assembly. Cooling air may be supplied from a fan or blower and may either be passed totally through
the length of the heat sink or may be directed at the center of the fins and pass out both open ends.
This second air flow pattern, illustrated in Figure (5.l), generally provides the best performance since
the air blown into the face of the heat sink creates greater turbulence resulting in improved heat
transfer. For optimum performance, the housing of an axial fan should be mounted a distance of 8-
20mm (0.31-0.75") from the fins. Other configurations may be considered depending on the
application.
Figure (5.1) Forced Convection Heat Sink System Showing Preferred Air Flow
The thermal resistance of heat sink extrusions often is specified at an air flow rate stated in terms of
velocity whereas the output of most fans is given in terms of volume. The conversion from volume to
velocity is:
or: Linear Feet per Minute = Cubic Feet per Minute / Area in Square Feet
or: Linear Meters per Minute = Cubic Meters per Minute / Area in Square Meters
5.2.3 LIQUID COOLED HEAT SINKS: Liquid cooled heat sinks provide the highest thermal
performance per unit volume and, when optimally designed, can exhibit a very low thermal
resistance. Although there are many exceptions, the thermal resistance of liquid cooled heat sinks
Simple liquid heat sinks can be constructed by soldering copper tubing onto a flat copper plate or by
drilling holes in a metal block through which water may pass. With greater complexity (and greater
thermal performance), an elaborate serpentine water channel may be milled in a copper or aluminum
block that later is sealed-off with a cover plate. We offer several liquid-type heat sinks that may be
used advantageously in thermoelectric systems. With other commercial heat sinks, always check the
surface flatness prior to installation. While liquid cooling may be considered undesirable and/or
unsatisfactory for many applications, it may be the only viable approach in specific situations.
This section of the technical reference guide explaines the techniques that can used to install or
» Clamping
» Soldering
Techniques used to install thermoelectric modules in a cooling system are extremely important.
Failure to observe certain basic principles may result in unsatisfactory performance or reliability.
Some of the factors to be considered in system design and module installation include the following:
• Thermoelectric modules have high mechanical strength in the compression mode but shear
strength is relatively low. As a result, a TE cooler should not be designed into a system where it
• All interfaces between system components must be flat, parallel, and clean to minimize
thermal resistance. High conductivity thermal interface material is often used to ensure good
• The "hot" and "cold" sides of standard thermoelectric modules may be identified by the
position of the wire leads. Wires are attached to the hot side of the module, which is the module
face that is in contact with the heat sink. For modules having insulated wire leads, when the red
and black leads are connected to the respective positive and negative terminals of a DC power
supply, heat will be pumped from the module's cold side, through the module, and into the heat
sink. Note that for TE modules having bare wire leads, the positive connection is on the right
side and the negative connection is on the left when the leads are facing toward the viewer and
• When cooling below ambient, the object being cooled should be insulated as much as
possible to minimize heat loss to the ambient air. To reduce convective losses, fans should not
be positioned so that air is blowing directly at the cooled object. Conductive losses also may be
minimized by limiting direct contact between the cooled object and external structural members.
• When cooling below the dew point, moisture or frost will tend to form on exposed cooled
surfaces. To prevent moisture from entering a TE module and severely reducing its thermal
performance, an effective moisture seal should be installed. This seal should be formed
between the heat sink and cooled object in the area surrounding the TE module(s). Flexible
foam insulating tape or sheet material and/or silicone rubber RTV are relatively easy to install
and make an effective moisture seal. Several methods for mounting thermoelectric modules are
available and the specific product application often dictates the method to be used. Possible
6.1.1 HEIGHT TOLERANCE: Most thermoelectric cooling modules are available with two height
tolerance values, +/-0.3mm (+/-0.010") and +/-0.03mm (0.001"). When only one module is used in a
slight cost advantage over a comparable tight-tolerance module. For applications where more than
one module is to be mounted between the heat sink and cooled object, however, it is necessary to
closely match the thickness of all modules in the group to ensure good heat transfer. For this reason,
6.2 Clamping
The most common mounting method involves clamping the thermoelectric module(s) between a heat
sink and flat surface of the article to be cooled. This approach, as illustrated in Figure (6.1), usually is
a) Machine or grind flat the mounting surfaces between which the TE module(s) will be located. To
achieve optimum thermal performance mounting surfaces should be flat to within 1mm/m (0.001
in/in).
b) If several TE modules are mounted between a given pair of mounting surfaces, all modules within
the group must be matched in height/thickness so that the overall thickness variation does not
exceed 0.06mm (0.002"). Module P/N with a "B" ending should be specified.
components.
d) Clean the module(s) and mounting surfaces to ensure that all burrs, dirt, etc., have been removed.
e) Coat the "hot" side of the module(s) with a thin layer (typically 0.02mm / 0.001" or less thickness)
of thermally conductive grease and place the module, hot side down, on the heat sink in the desired
location. Gently push down on the module and apply a back and forth turning motion to squeeze out
excess thermal grease. Continue the combined downward pressure and turning motion until a slight
resistance is detected. Ferrotec America recommends and stocks American Oil and Supply (AOS)
f) Coat the "cold" side of the module(s) with thermal grease as specified in step (e) above. Position
and place the object to be cooled in contact with the cold side of the module(s). Squeeze out the
g) Bolt the heat sink and cooled object together using the stainless steel screws and spring washers.
It is important to apply uniform pressure across the mounting surfaces so that good parallelism is
worse, the TE module(s) may be damaged. To ensure that pressure is applied uniformly, first tighten
all mounting screws finger tight starting with the center screw (if any). Using a torque screwdriver,
gradually tighten each screw by moving from screw to screw in a crosswise pattern and increase
torque in small increments. Continue the tightening procedure until the proper torque value is
reached. Typical mounting pressure ranges from 25 - 100 psi depending on the application. If a
torque screwdriver is not available, the correct torque value may be approximated by using the
following procedure:
In a crosswise pattern, tighten the screws until they are "snug" but not actually tight. In the same
crosswise pattern, tighten each screw approximately one quarter turn until the spring action of the
first clamped together. In order to insure that the proper screw torque is maintained, wait a minimum
of one hour and recheck the torque by repeating step (g) above.
i) CAUTION: Over-tightening of the clamping screws may result in bending or bowing of either the
heat sink or cold object surface especially if these components are constructed of relatively thin
material. Such bowing will, at best, reduce thermal performance and in severe cases may cause
physical damage to system components. Bowing may be minimized by positioning the clamping
screws close to the thermoelectric module(s) and by using moderately thick materials. However, if
hot and/or cold surfaces are constructed of aluminum which is less than 6mm (0.25") thick or copper
which is less than 3.3mm (0.13") thick, it may be necessary to apply screw torque of a lower value
Figure (6.1)
TE Module Installation Using the Clamping Method The proper bolt torque for TE module assemblies
T=((Sa x A)/N) x K x d
Where:
The following recommended torque is calculated for nine 9500/065/018 modules held by four 4-40
steel fasteners:
2
T=((75 lbs/in. x (.44" x .48") x 9)/4)x 0.2 x .112 in. = 0.8 in-lbs.
A second module mounting method that is useful for certain applications involves bonding the
module(s) to one or both mounting surfaces using a special high thermal-conductivity epoxy
adhesive. Since the coefficients of expansion of the module's ceramics, heat sink and cooled object
vary, we do not recommend bonding with epoxy for larger modules. Please consult your applications
engineer for guidance. Note: Unless suitable procedures are used to prevent outgassing, epoxy
bonding is not recommended if the TE cooling system is to be used in a vacuum. For module
a) Machine or grind flat the mounting surfaces between which the TE module(s) will be located.
Although surface flatness is less critical when using epoxy, it is always desirable for mounting
b) Clean and degrease the module(s) and mounting surfaces to insure that all burrs, oil, dirt, etc.,
have been removed. Follow the epoxy manufacturer's recommendations regarding proper surface
preparation.
c) Coat the hot side of the module with a thin layer of the thermally conductive epoxy and place the
module, hot side down, on the heat sink in the desired location. Gently push down on the module and
apply a back and forth turning motion to squeeze out excess epoxy. Continue the combined
d) Weight or clamp the module in position until the epoxy has properly cured. Consult the epoxy
manufacturer's data sheet for specific curing information. If an oven cure is specified, be sure that the
maximum operating temperature of the TE module is not exceeded during the heating procedure.
Note that most TE cooling modules manufactured by Ferrotec have maximum operating
6.4 SOLDERING
Thermoelectric modules that have metallized external faces may be soldered into an assembly
provided that reasonable care is taken to prevent module overheating. Soldering to a rigid structural
member of an assembly should be performed on one side of the module only (normally the hot side)
in order to avoid excessive mechanical stress on the module. Note that with a module's hot side
soldered to a rigid body, however, a component or small electronic circuit may be soldered to the
module's cold side provided that the component or circuit is not rigidly coupled to the external
structure. Good temperature control must be maintained within the soldering system in order to
prevent damage to the TE module due to overheating. Our thermoelectric modules are rated for
continuous operation at relatively high temperatures (150 or 200°C) so they are suitable in most
applications where soldering is desirable. Naturally these relative temperatures should not be
exceeded in the process. Since the coefficients of expansion of the module ceramics, heat sink and
cooled object vary, we do not recommend soldering modules larger than 15 x 15 millimeters.
Soldering should not be considered in any thermal cycling application. For module mounting with
a) Machine or grind flat the mounting surface on which the module(s) will be located. Although
surface flatness is not highly critical with the soldering method, it is always desirable for mounting
surfaces to be as flat as possible. Obviously, the heat sink surface must be a solderable material
b) Clean and degrease the heat sink surface and remove any heavy oxidation. Make sure that there
are no burrs, chips, or other foreign material in the module mounting area.
c) Pre tin the heat sink surface in the module mounting area with the appropriate solder. The
selected solder must have a melting point that is less than or equal to the rated maximum operating
temperature of the TE device being installed. When tinning the heat sink with solder, the heat sink's
temperature should be just high enough so that the solder will melt but in no case should the
temperature be raised more than the maximum value specified for the TE device.
d) Apply soldering flux to the TE module's hot side and place the module on the pre tinned area of
the heat sink. Allow the module to "float" in the solder pool and apply a back and forth turning motion
on the module to facilitate solder tinning of the module surface. A tendency for the module to drag on
the solder surface rather than to float is an indication that there is an insufficient amount of solder. In
this event, remove the module and add more solder to the heat sink.
e) After several seconds the module surface should be tinned satisfactorily. Clamp or weight the
module in the desired position, remove the heat sink from the heat source, and allow the assembly to
cool. When sufficiently cooled, degrease the assembly to remove flux residue.
There are a wide variety of products available designed to replace thermally conductive grease as an
interface material. Perhaps the most common are silicon-based mounting pads. Originally for use in
mounting semiconductor devices, these pads often exhibit excessive thermal resistance in
thermoelectric applications. Since the pads allow for rapid production and eliminate cleanup time,
they are popular in less demanding applications. Leading manufacturers in this area include The
7.1 Thermoelectric coolers operate directly from DC power suitable power sources can range from
batteries to simple unregulated "brute force" DC power supplies to extremely sophisticated closed-
semiconductor device that presents a resistive load to its power source. Due to the nature of the
approximately 0.5 percent per degree C based on average module temperature. For many noncritical
applications, a lightly filtered conventional battery charger may provide adequate power for a TE
cooler provided that the AC ripple is not excessive. Simple temperature control may be obtained
through the use of a standard thermostat or by means of a variable-output DC power supply used to
adjust the input power level to the TE device. In applications where the thermal load is reasonably
constant, a manually adjustable DC power supply often will provide temperature control on the order
of +/- 1°C over a period of several hours or more. Where precise temperature control is required, a
closed-loop (feedback) system generally is used whereby the input current level or duty cycle of the
thermoelectric device is automatically controlled. With such a system, temperature control to +/-
0.1°C may be readily achieved and much tighter cont rol is not unusual.
7.2 Power supply ripple filtering normally is of less importance for thermoelectric devices than for
typical electronic applications. However we recommend limiting power supply ripple to a maximum of
7.2.1 Multistage cooling and low-level signal detection are two applications which may require lower
values of power supply ripple. In the case of multistage thermoelectric devices, achieving a large
temperature differential is the typical goal, and a ripple component of less than two percent may be
necessary to maximize module performance. In situations where very low level signals must be
detected and/or measured, even though the TE module itself is electrically quiet, the presence of an
AC ripple signal within the module and wire leads may be unsatisfactory. The acceptable level of
power supply ripple for such applications will have to be determined on a case-by-case basis.
7.3 Figure (7.1) illustrates a simple power supply capable of driving a 71-couple, 6-ampere module.
This circuit features a bridge rectifier configuration and capacitive-input filter. With suitable
component changes, a full-wave-center-tap rectifier could be used and/or a filter choke added ahead
of the capacitor. A switching power supply, having a size and weight advantage over a comparable
Figure (7.1)
7.4 A typical analog closed-loop temperature controller is illustrated in Figure (7.2). This system is
capable of closely controlling and maintaining the temperature of an object and will automatically
correct for temperature variations by means of the feedback loop. Many variations of this system are
8.1 The first step in the design of a thermoelectric cooling system involves making an analysis of the
system's overall thermal characteristics. This analysis, which may be quite simple for some
applications or highly complex in other cases, must never be neglected if a satisfactory and efficient
design is to be realized. Some of the more important factors to be considered are discussed in the
following paragraphs. Although we have made certain simplifications that may horrify the pure
thermodynamicist, the results obtained have been found to satisfy all but those few applications that
Please note that design information contained in this manual is presented for the purpose of assisting
those engineers and scientists who wish either to estimate cooling requirements or to actually
develop their own cooling systems. For the many individuals who prefer not to become involved in
the details of the thermoelectric design process, however, we encourage you to contact us for
assistance. Ferrotec America is committed to providing strong customer technical support and our
8.2 ACTIVE HEAT LOAD: The active heat load is the actual heat generated by the component,
"black box" or system to be cooled. For most applications, the active load will be equal to the
electrical power input to the article being cooled (Watts = Volts x Amps) but in other situations the
load may be more difficult to determine. Since the total electrical input power generally represents
the worst case active heat load, we recommend that you use this value for design purposes.
8.3 PASSIVE HEAT LOAD: The passive heat load (sometimes called heat leak or parasitic heat
load) is that heat energy which is lost or gained by the article being cooled due to conduction,
convection, and/or radiation. Passive heat losses may occur through any heat-conductive path
including air, insulation, and electrical wiring. In applications where there is no active heat generation,
the passive heat leak will represent the entire heat load on the thermoelectric cooler.
Determination of the total heat leak within a cooling system is a relatively complicated issue but a
reasonable estimate of these losses often can be made by means of some basic heat transfer
calculations. If there is any uncertainty about heat losses in a given design, we highly recommend
that you contact our engineering staff for assistance and suggestions.
8.4 HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS: Several fundamental heat transfer equations are presented to
assist the engineer in evaluating some of the thermal aspects of a design or system.
8.4.1 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL: The relationship that describes the
transfer of heat through a solid material was suggested by J.B. Fourier in the early 1800's. Thermal
conduction is dependent upon the geometry and thermal conductivity of a given material plus the
existing temperature gradient through the material. Although thermal conductivity varies with
temperature, the actual variation is quite small and can be neglected for our purposes.
Q= (K)(DT)(A) / x
English
Symbol Definition Metric Units
Units
BTU/hour- watts/meter-
K Thermal conductivity of the material
o o
ft F C
square
A Cross-sectional area of the material square feet
meters
leak to or from an uninsulated metal surface can constitute a significant heat load in a thermal
system. Isaac Newton proposed the relationship describing the transfer of heat when a cooled (or
heated) surface is exposed directly to the ambient air. To account for the degree of thermal coupling
between the surface and surrounding air, a numerical value (h), called the Heat Transfer Coefficient,
must be incorporated into the equation. Heat lost or gained in this manner may be expressed
English
Symbol Definition Metric Units
Units
2
Heat transfer coefficient. BTU/hour- watts/meter -
2 o o
For still air use a value of: ft - F C
h
For turbulent air use a 4 to 5 23 to 28
Temperature difference
8.4.3 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH THE WALLS OF AN INSULATED ENCLOSURE: Heat leak to
or from an insulated container combines an element of thermal conduction through the insulating
material with an element of convection loss at the external insulation surfaces. Heat lost from (or
Q = (A)(DT)
x + 1
K h
English
Symbol Definition Metric Units
Units
Temperature difference
2
Heat transfer coefficient BTU/hour- watts/meter -
2 o o
For still air use a value of: ft - F C
h
For turbulent air use a 4 to 5 23 to 28
time required to thermoelectrically cool or heat a given object is a moderately complicated matter.
For good accuracy, it would be necessary to make a detailed analysis of the entire thermal system
including all component parts and interfaces. By using the simplified method presented here,
(m)(Cp)(DT)
t=
Q
English Metric
Symbol Definition
Units Units
Note (2):Thermoelectric modules pump heat at a rate that is proportional to the temperature
difference (DT) across the module. In order to approximate actual module performance, the average
heat removal rate should be used when determining the transient behavior of a thermal system. The
Where: Qc at DTmin is the amount of heat a thermoelectric module is pumping at the initial object
temperature when DC power is first applied to the module. The DT is zero at this time and the heat
Qc at DTmax is the amount of heat a thermoelectric module is pumping when the object has cooled to
the desired temperature. The DT is higher at this time and the heat pumping rate is lower.
8.4.5 HEAT TRANSFER FROM A BODY BY RADIATION: Most thermoelectric cooling applications
involve relatively moderate temperatures and small surface areas where radiation heat losses usually
are negligible. Probably the only situation where thermal radiation may be of concern is that of a
multistage cooler operating at a very low temperature and close to its lower limit. For such
applications, it sometimes is possible to attach a small radiation shield to one of the lower module
stages. By fabricating this shield so that it surrounds the upper stage and cooled object, thermal
As an indication of the magnitude of heat leak due to thermal radiation, consider the following. A
2
perfect black-body having a surface area of 1.0 cm and operating at -100°C (173K) will receive
approximately 43 milliwatts of heat from its 30°C ( 303K) surroundings. Be aware that the accurate
determination of radiation loss is a highly complicated issue and a suitable heat transfer textbook
should be consulted for detailed information. A very simplified estimation of such losses may be
4 4
QR=(s)(A) (e) (Th – Tc )
English
Symbol Definition Metric Units
Units
-9 -8
1.714 x 10 5.67 x 10
Stefan-Boltzmann
2 2
s BTU/hour-ft - watts/meter -
constant
o 4 4
R K
Emissivity of exposed
e -- --
surfaces
Absolute temperature of
Th Degrees R Degrees K
warmer surface
Absolute temperature of
Tc Degrees R Degrees K
colder surface
insulation's overall effectiveness or resistance to heat flow. R-value is not a scientific term, per se,
but the expression is used extensively within the building construction industry in the United States.
The relationship between R-value, insulation thickness, and thermal conductivity may be expressed
by the equation:
x
R=
12K
where:
conductivity values in Appendix B are expressed in feet, the k value in the equation's denominator
minimize condensation, all cooled objects should be properly insulated. Insulation type and thickness
often is governed by the application and it may not be possible to achieve the optimum insulation
arrangement in all cases. Every effort should be made, however, to prevent ambient air from blowing
Figures (8.1) and (8.2) illustrate the relationship between the heat leak from an insulated surface and
the insulation thickness. It can be seen that even a small amount of insulation will provide a
significant reduction in heat loss but, beyond a certain point, greater thicknesses give little benefit.
The two heat leak graphs show heat loss in watts per square unit of surface area for a one degree
temperature difference (DT) through the insulation. Total heat leak (Qtot) in watts for other surface
Qtot = Qleak x SA x DT
Figure (8.1)
9.1 Selection of the proper TE Cooler for a specific application requires an evaluation of the total
system in which the cooler will be used. For most applications it should be possible to use one of the
standard module configurations while in certain cases a special design may be needed to meet
stringent electrical, mechanical, or other requirements. Although we encourage the use of a standard
device whenever possible, Ferrotec America specializes in the development and manufacture of
custom TE modules and we will be pleased to quote on unique devices that will exactly meet your
requirements.
The overall cooling system is dynamic in nature and system performance is a function of several
to "zero-in" on the correct operating parameters. If there is any uncertainty about which TE device
would be most suitable for a particular application, we highly recommend that you contact our
Before starting the actual TE module selection process, the designer should be prepared to answer
4. What is the expected ambient temperature? Will the ambient temperature change
5. What is the extraneous heat input (heat leak) to the object as a result of conduction,
6. How much space is available for the module and heat sink?
8. Does the temperature of the cooled object have to be controlled? If yes, to what precision?
9. What is the expected approximate temperature of the heat sink during operation? Is it
possible that the heat sink temperature will change significantly due to ambient fluctuations,
etc.?
Each application obviously will have its own set of requirements that likely will vary in level of
importance. Based upon any critical requirements that can not be altered, the designer's job will be to
select compatible components and operating parameters that ultimately will form an efficient and
reliable cooling system. A design example is presented in section 9.5 to illustrate the concepts
9.2 USE OF TE MODULE PERFORMANCE GRAPHS: Before beginning any thermoelectric design
Performance data is presented graphically and is referenced to a specific heat sink base
temperature. Most performance graphs are standardized at a heat sink temperature (Th) of +50°C
and the resultant data is usable over a range of approximately 40°C to 60°C with only a slight error.
Upon request, we can supply module performance graphs referenced to any temperature within a
9.3 To demonstrate the use of these performance curves let us present a simple example. Suppose
we have a small electronic "black box" that is dissipating 15 watts of heat. For the electronic unit to
function properly its temperature may not exceed 20°C. The room ambient temperature often rises
well above the 20°C level thereby dictating the use of a thermoelectric cooler to reduce the unit's
temperature. For the purpose of this example we will neglect the heat sink (we cannot do this in
practice) other than to state that its temperature can be maintained at 50°C under worst-case
conditions. We will investigate the use of a 71-couple, 6-ampere module to provide the required
cooling.
9.3.1 GRAPH: Qc vs. I This graph, shown in Figure (9.1), relates a module's heat pumping capacity
(Qc) and temperature difference (DT) as a function of input current (I). In this example, established
operating parameters for the TE module include Th = 50°C, Tc = 20°C, and Qc = 15 watts. The
providing sufficient heat removal to meet application requirements. We locate the DT=30 line and find
that the maximum Qc value occurs at point A and with an input current of 6 amperes. By extending a
line from point A to the left y-axis, we can see that the module is capable of pumping approximately
18 watts while maintaining a Tc of 20°C. Since this Qc is slightly higher than necessary, we follow the
DT=30 line downward until we reach a position (point B) that corresponds to a Qc of 15 watts. Point
B is the operating point that satisfies our thermal requirements. By extending a line downward from
point B to the x-axis, we find that the proper input current is 4.0 amperes.
Figure (9.1)
Heat Pumping Capacity Related to Temperature Differential as a Function of Input Current for a 71-
9.3.2 GRAPH: Vin vs. I This graph, shown in Figure (9.2), relates a module's input voltage (Vin) and
temperature difference (DT) as a function of input current (I). In this example, parameters for the TE
module include Th = 50°C, DT = 30°C, and I = 4.0 am peres. We locate the DT=30 line and, at the 4.0
ampere intersection, mark point C. By extending a line from point C to the left y-axis, we can see that
Figure (9.2)
9.3.3 GRAPH:COP vs. I This graph, shown in Figure (9.3), relates a module's coefficient of
performance (COP) and temperature differential (DT) as a function of input current (I). In this
example, parameters for the TE module include Th = 50°C, DT = 30°C, and I = 4.0 amperes.
We locate the DT=30 line and, at the 4.0 ampere intersection, mark point D. By extending a line from
point D to the left y-axis, we can see that the module's coefficient of performance is approximately
0.58.
Figure (9.3)
Coefficient of Performance Related to Temperature Differential as a
Note that COP is a measure of a module's efficiency and it is always desirable to maximize COP
9.4 An additional graph of Vin vs. Th, of the type shown in Figure (9.4), relates a module's input
voltage (Vin) and input current (I) as a function of module hot side temperature (Th). Due to the
Seebeck effect, input voltage at a given value of I and Th is lowest when DT=O and highest when DT
is at its maximum point. Consequently, the graph of Vin vs. Th usually is presented for a DT=30
Figure (9.4)
9.5 DESIGN EXAMPLE: To illustrate the typical design process let us present an example of a TE
cooler application involving the temperature stabilization of a laser diode. The diode, along with
temperature of 25°C. With the housing mounted on th e system circuit board, tests show that the
housing has a thermal resistance of 6°C/watt. The l aser electronics dissipate a total of 0.5 watts and
maintain the proper temperature, but also will meet the dimensional requirements imposed by the
housing. An 18-couple, 1.2 ampere TE cooler is chosen initially because it does have compatible
dimensions and also appears to have appropriate performance characteristics. Performance graphs
for this module will be used to derive relevant parameters for making mathematical calculations. To
begin the design process we must first evaluate the heat sink and make an estimate of the worst-
case module hot side temperature (Th). For the TE cooler chosen, the maximum input power (Pin)
• Max. Module Input Power (Pin) = 1.2 amps x 2.4 volts = 2.9 watts
• Max. Heat Input to the Housing = 2.9 watts + 0.5 watts = 3.4 watts
• Max. Housing Temperature (T,) = 35°C ambient + 20. 4°C rise = 55.4°C Since the hot side
temperature (Th) of 55.4°C is reasonably close to t he available Tin = 50°C performance graphs,
these graphs may be used to determine thermal performance with very little error.
Figure (9.5)
Now that we have established the worst-case Th value it is possible to assess module performance.
From Figure (9.6) it can be seen that the maximum heat pumping rate (Qc) for DT=30 occurs at point
B and is approximately 0.9 watts. Since a Qc of only 0.5 watts is needed, we can follow the DT=30
line down until it intersects the 0.5 watt line marked as point C. By extending a line downward from
point C to the x-axis, we can see that an input current (I) of approximately 0.55 amperes will provide
the required cooling performance. Referring back to the Vin vs. I graph in Figure (9.5), a current of
0.55 amperes, marked as point D, requires a voltage (Vin) of about 1.2 volts. We now have to repeat
our analysis because the required input power is considerably lower than the value used for our initial
• Max. Module Input Power (Pin) = 0.55 amps x 1.2 volts = 0.66 watts
• Max. Heat Input to the Housing = 0.66 watts + 0.50 watts = 1.16 watts
It can be seen that because we now have another new value for Th it will be necessary to continue
repeating the steps outlined above until a stable condition is obtained. Note that calculations usually
are repeated until the difference in the Th values from successive calculations is quite small (often
less that 0.1°C for good accuracy). There is no rea son to present the repetitive calculations here but
we can conclude that the selected 18-couple TE module will function very well in this application.
This analysis clearly shows the importance of the heat sink in any thermoelectric cooling application.
9.6 USE OF MULTIPLE MODULES: Relatively large thermoelectric cooling applications may require
the use of several individual modules in order to obtain the required rate of heat removal. For such
applications, TE modules normally are mounted thermally in parallel and connected electrically in
certain instances. Because heat sink performance becomes increasingly important as power levels
rise, be sure that the selected heat sink is adequate for the application.
components due to their solid-state construction. For most applications they will provide long,
trouble-free service. There have been many instances where TE modules have been used
continuously for twenty or more years and the life of a module often exceeds the life of the
associated equipment. The specific reliability of thermoelectric devices tends to be difficult to define,
however, because failure rates are highly dependent upon the particular application. For applications
involving relatively steady-state cooling where DC power is being applied to the module on more-or-
less continuous and uniform basis, thermoelectric module reliability is extremely high. Mean Time
Between Failures (MTBFs) in excess of 200,000 hours are not uncommon in such cases and this
MTBF value generally is considered to be an industry standard. On the other hand, applications
involving thermal cycling show significantly worse MTBFs especially when TE modules are cycled up
to a high temperature.
The publishing of thermoelectric module reliability data entails some risk because there are
numerous application parameters and conditions that will affect the end result. Although reliability
data is valid for the conditions under which a test was conducted, it is not necessarily applicable to
other configurations. Module assembly and mounting methods, power supply and temperature
control systems and techniques, and temperature profiles, together with a host of external factors,
can combine to produce failure rates ranging from extremely low to very high. In an effort to provide
users with certain basic information about thermoelectric module life and to aid engineers in
designing systems for optimum reliability, we instituted several test programs to acquire the
necessary reliability data. Test results to date are presented for several situations that may be useful
to end-users having similar or related applications. This data will be shared on a case-by-case basis
General requirements for the proper installation of thermoelectric modules may be found in Section 6
of this technical manual. It is important that modules are installed in accordance with these general
requirements in order to minimize the possibility of premature module failure due to faulty assembly
techniques. Some installation related factors that can affect module reliability include:
a) Thermoelectric modules exhibit relatively high mechanical strength in a compression mode but
shear strength is comparatively low. A TE cooler should not be designed into a system where it
where severe shock and vibration will be present, a thermoelectric cooling module should be
thermoelectric coolers have successfully met the shock and vibration requirements of aerospace,
kilograms per square centimeter (200 pounds per square inch) of module surface area, tests have
shown that well over 75 kilograms per square centimeter (1000 pounds per square inch)
compression normally can be applied to most of our modules without causing failure. It is important
to ensure that when modules are installed using the clamping method, sufficient pressure is
maintained so that a module is not "loose" whereby it may easily be moved by applying a small
sideways or lateral force. Loose modules may be a particular problem when several modules are
grouped together in the same cooling assembly. In this situation, the lack of adequate clamping
pressure may result in both reduced cooling performance and early module failure. When multiple
modules are mounted in an array, modules with a close height tolerance of +/- .03mm (.001") are
recommended. In all cases, clamping pressure must be applied uniformly and mating surfaces must
c) A large unsupported mass should not be directly bonded to a module's cold surface to prevent the
possible fracture of module components when subjected to significant mechanical shock. Where a
large mass is involved, thermoelectric modules should be clamped between the heat sink and either
the mass itself or an intermediate "cold plate" on which the mass is mounted. In this arrangement,
the clamping screws will effectively increase shear strength of the overall mechanical system.
d) Moisture should not be allowed to enter the inside of a thermoelectric module in order to prevent
both a reduction in cooling performance and the possible corrosion of module materials through
electro-chemical action or electrolysis. When cooling below the dew point, a moisture seal should be
provided either on the module itself or between the heat sink and cooled object in the area
surrounding the TE module. An electronic-grade silicone rubber RTV may be used to directly seal a
thermoelectric module. Flexible closed-cell foam insulating tape or sheet material, possibly combined
with RTV to fill small gaps, may be used for a seal between the cold object and the heat sink.
e) When an application will involve large temperature changes or thermal cycling, thermoelectric
modules should not be installed using solder or epoxy whereby an object is rigidly bonded to the
module. Unless the thermal coefficients of expansion of all system components are similar, rigid
bonding combined with temperature cycling often will result in early module failure due to the induced
thermal stresses. Rigid bonding to the module's hot side generally is less of a problem because the
hot side temperature tends to be relatively constant during operation. When significant temperature
clamping (compression) using a flexible mounting material such as thermal grease or foils of graphite
or indium. In addition, rigid mounting to both sides of modules is not recommended for devices larger
Temperature control methods also have an impact on thermoelectric module reliability. Linear or
proportional control should always be chosen over ON/OFF techniques when prolong life of the
module is required.
Thermoelectric module failures typically may be classified into two groups: catastrophic failures and
degradation failures. Degradation failures tend to be long-term in nature and usually are caused by
temperature exposure may lead to material parameter changes and, therefore, reduced
thermoelectric performance. A test was conducted to study this effect. Ferrotec's 95-Series TE
normal air atmosphere. During the test period, relevant module parameters were regularly measured
and recorded. One parameter that is a good indicator of overall module performance is the maximum
temperature differential (DTmax). This parameter was tracked over a 42-month period with the
average value being shown the graph of Figure (10.1). It can be seen that a small (2.5%) decline in
DTmax, with a decreasing rate of change, occurred in the first 12 months of high temperature
exposure. In the remaining 30 months, however, the additional reduction in DTmax was only about
Figure (10.1)
The continuous thermal cycling of thermoelectric modules over a wide temperature range effectively
constitutes a module "torture test," especially when the modules are raised to a relatively high
temperature at one end of the cycle. Except for a few unusual applications, module failure rates are
higher for this mode of operation than for any other operating condition. The basis for most thermal
cycling failures is the unavoidable mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients of the various module
components and materials. Such failures tend to be catastrophic in nature but some degradation
It is necessary, at this point, to define thermal cycling. Many thermoelectric applications involve the
periodic raising and lowering of the control temperature, sometimes over a fairly wide temperature
range. Although there often is not a well defined line between a cycling and noncycling application,
thermal cycling usually is considered to be an operation where the temperature is regularly, and
more or less continuously, raised and lowered over a long period of operation. A cycling application
tends to suggest automatic or machine control of the temperature excursion as opposed to manual
control. If the temperature of an apparatus is temperature-cycled up and down a few times each day,
this generally is not considered to be a temperature-cycling application for the purpose of this
discussion. If you are uncertain about the status of your particular application, please do not hesitate
the total temperature excursion over the cycle, (3) the upper temperature limit of the cycle, and (4)
the rate of temperature change. Highest reliability and module life is seen when the number of cycles
is small, the temperature excursion or range is narrow, the upper temperature limit is relatively low
and the rate of temperature change is minimalized. (Conversely, a large number of cycles over a
wide temperature range with a rapid rate of change and a high temperature value on the up cycle
results in significantly lower module life.) It is important to note that absolute module life is dependent
upon the total number of cycles rather that the total time required to accrue those cycles.
Consequently, when discussing thermal cycling, MTBF is best stated in terms of number of cycles
instead of hours; we will take the liberty of using MTBF in this manner in the following discussion.
The type of module used in thermal cycling applications also is important in respect to failure rate.
Modules rated at higher maximum operating temperatures provide substantially better life than do
lower rated devices. This is true even though the upper temperature of the cycle is well below the
assembly that was being cycled between -55°C and +1 25°C, a 150°C rated module provided a
MTBF of 8100 cycles while a module rated at 200°C e xhibited a MTBF of 17,500 cycles. Modules
rated at even lower maximum operating temperatures should only be used for relatively low
temperature cycling applications. In general, we recommend the SuperTEC series modules (rated for
It should be mentioned that two other factors also may affect thermal cycling MTBFs. Physically
smaller modules having fewer couples appear to provide improved life as do modules having larger
elements or "dice." Sufficient data is available to suggest that modules having a size of 30mm (1.17")
square or less exhibit better reliability in thermal cycling applications than do physically larger
modules. Thermally induced mechanical stresses are greater in larger modules and such modules
generally have a greater number of couples resulting in many more individual solder connections
In order to better define module failure rates under high temperature thermal cycling conditions, a
test was conducted involving the continuous cycling of SuperTEC™ Series modules between +30°C
and +100°C. Modules were mounted on a forced convec tion heat sink and covered with an insulated
aluminum plate. Polarity of the applied DC power was alternately reversed to provide active heating
and cooling and the cover-plate temperature was measured to determine cycling limits. The total time
period of the cycle was 5 minutes (2.5 minutes from 30°C to 100°C and 2.5 minutes from 100°C to
30°C) resulting in 288 cycles per day or 2016 cycle s per week. Module parameters were measured
Modules showed a slow and predictable rise in electrical resistance until reaching a point where a
rapid resistance increase occurred indicating failure. All modules achieved a minimum of 25,000
cycles without failure, see Figure (10.2), and the test was continued until 50% of the modules failed.
MTBF of the module group was calculated to be 68,000 cycles. Once again it is important to note
that mounting methods, and overall assembly details are important factors when the application
involves thermal cycling. Some applications have been tested between 5°C and 95°C exhibiting
Figure (10.2) Before leaving the subject of thermal cycling it might be worthwhile to mention a
practical use for this process. Because of the resulting mechanical stresses within a thermoelectric
module, thermal cycling has been shown to be an effective "burn-in" technique. By subjecting
unsatisfactory modules thereby reducing the likelihood of infant mortality failures. There obviously is
some cost associated with this operation but it may be useful when extremely high reliability is
required.
As discussed previously, the accepted industry standard for thermoelectric module MTBF is 200,000
hours minimum. This MTBF value is based on relatively steady-state module operation where system
power is occasionally (typically a few times per day) turned on and off. In some applications power is
turned on and off more frequently especially where thermostatic temperature control is used. A test
was conducted using ValueTEC™ Series modules to study the effects of ON/OFF power cycling at a
relatively constant temperature. Modules were mounted between a pair of forced convection cooled
heat sinks using thermal grease at the module/heat sink interfaces. Full rated current was supplied to
the modules for a period of 7.5 seconds followed by a 7.5 second "off" period that resulted in one
complete ON/OFF cycle every 15 seconds. The input current to each module was monitored and a
failure was indicated by an appreciable current decrease resulting from an increase in module
electrical resistance. The test was run until an arbitrary total of 25,000 hours or approximately 6
million cycles was accrued. For these test conditions, the calculated MTBF was 125,000 hours or
7
3x10 on off cycles.
CAUTION: Most conventional thermostats inherently have moderately large open/close temperature
differentials. This condition may effectively set up a thermal cycling situation where the temperature
of the TE module is continuously varying between the upper and lower differential limits. Since
thermal cycling is known to reduce the life of thermoelectric modules, the use of traditional ON/OFF
Thermoelectric modules often are installed in systems that are subject to significant shock, vibration,
and/or other potentially detrimental environmental conditions. As mentioned earlier in this report,
modules will withstand moderate compression forces but shear strength is relatively low. However,
when thermoelectric modules are properly mounted within a mechanical subassembly, they will
and have successfully met those conditions without failure. Such tests include:
Mechanical Shock: (a) 100G, 200G 2 6msec; 500G, 1000G @1 sec 3-axis, three
Vibration: (a) 10/55/10 Hz,1 minute cycle, 9.1G, 3-axis, 2-hours each
axis
Thermoelectric device manufacturers have independently developed quality control and test
procedures to insure that products meet published specifications and exhibit acceptable standards of
workmanship. While few formal standards (Military Specifications, etc.) exist within the industry, there
have emerged certain minimum recognized criteria to which most major thermoelectric
manufacturers adhere. However, if users have particular concerns about quality-related issues that
may affect their specific application, it generally is desirable for users to discuss their concerns with
Ferrotec America's test and quality program has evolved from many years of industry experience
covering an extensive range of thermoelectric cooling applications. General aspects of this program
include 100% electrical and mechanical testing/inspection of products prior to shipment; in-process
testing and screening using either 100% inspection or sampling inspection as per MIL-STD-105; and
the use of statistical process control techniques on various critical operations. The overall quality
In the foregoing discussion we have emphasized the great dependence of thermoelectric module
reliability on application conditions. By following some basic guidelines, and with knowledge of how
certain factors tend to affect module life, it should be possible for designers to optimize system
reliability. While some may wish to perform a comprehensive analysis and model all relevant
parameters, many users having unusual requirements or nontraditional configurations often turn to
mathematically and device performance can readily be modeled on a personal computer. Since the
We have not attempted to provide a highly detailed description of computer modeling techniques, but
rather to present the basic algebraic expressions needed to simulate thermoelectric module
performance.
Ferrotec America has performed a comprehensive analysis of many thermoelectric cooling modules
over a wide temperature range. This study has resulted in the development of mathematical models
that may be used to reliably predict module performance under typical operating conditions. Data
presented herein is based on module operation in a normal air atmosphere with thermally conductive
grease (heat sink compound) used at both hot and cold module interfaces. These conditions are
applicable to the majority of thermoelectric cooling applications. It should be noted that for modules
having metabolized external surfaces, slight performance improvement may be observed if the
modules are mounted with solder as opposed to thermal grease. In addition, when modules are
operated in a vacuum, a small to moderate performance increase may be seen, especially in the
associated with thermoelectric materials and modules that normally would have to be considered in a
mathematical model. However, since actual module test data was used to derive several important
coefficients, certain factors may be neglected thereby simplifying the modeling process. Elements
that must be incorporated into the model include the module's effective Seebeck coefficient (SM),
The values of SM, RM, and KM can be expressed mathematically by polynomial equations. The
specified equation coefficients, applicable over a range of -100°C to +150°C, were derived from an
industry-standard 71-couple, 6-ampere module. Other module configurations easily can be modeled
by applying a simple correction factor as described in paragraph 11.2.4. Note that when using the
An alternative method for estimating temperature-dependent module properties, which may be useful
under certain circumstances, involves the use of tabulated module data. Values representing
average SM, RM, and KM characteristics for selected modules over a wide temperature range will be
found in Appendix A at the end of this manual. Although somewhat less accurate than using
calculated values, this method provides a relatively simple approach to predicting module
performance.
thermoelectric device, a voltage can be detected at the input terminals. The magnitude of the
resultant voltage, called the Seebeck emf, is proportional to the magnitude of the temperature
difference. The Seebeck coefficient, as a function of temperature, can be expressed as a third order
polynomial:
2 3
SM = s1 + s2T = s3T + s4T
The above polynomial expression represent the Seebeck coefficient when the temperature difference
across the module is zero (DT = Th - Tc = 0). When DT>0, the Seebeck coefficient must be
2 3 4
s2T s3T s4T
_____ ______ ______
SMTh or SMTc = s1T + + +
2 3 4
SM = (SMTh - SMTc) / DT
Where: SMTh is the module's Seebeck coefficient at the hot side temperature Th
of temperature, can be expressed as third order polynomials for the two conditions (a) and (b):
2 3
(a) when DT = 0: RM = r1 + r2T + r3T + r4T
2 3 4
r2T r3T r4T
____ ____ ____
(b) when DT > 0: RMTh or RMTC = r1T + + +
2 3 4
RM = (RMTh - RMTc) / DT
Where:
r1 = 2.08317
-2
r2 = -1.98763 x 10
-5
r3 = 8.53832 x 10
-8
r4 = -9.03143 x 10
module, as a function of temperature, can be expressed as third order polynomials for the two
2 3
(a) when DT = 0: KM = k1 + k2T + k3T + k4T
2 3 4
k2T k3T k4T
____ ____ ____
(b) when DT > 0: KMTh or KMTc = k1T + + +
2 3 4
KMTh - KMTc
= ___________
KM
DT
Where:
11.2.4 PARAMETER CONVERSIONS FOR OTHER MODULE CONFIGURATIONS: The SM, RM,
and KM parameters shown are calculated for a 71-couple, 6-ampere thermoelectric module. If a new
Nnew
_____
Snew = SM x
71
6 Nnew
_____ _____
Rnew = RM x x
Inew 71
Inew Nnew
_____ _____
Knew = KM x x
6 71
Where:
parameters applicable to a thermoelectric module that affect its operation. These parameters include:
Qc - the heat input to (or heat pumped by) the module expressed in watts
In order to calculate module performance it is necessary to set at least three of these variables to
specific values. Two common calculation schemes involve either (a) fixing the values of Th, I, and Qc
or, (b) fixing the values of Th, I and Tc. For the computer-oriented individual, a relatively
straightforward calculation routine can be developed to incrementally step through a series of fixed
numerical data, do not forget that temperature values must be expressed in degrees Kelvin (°K).
Figure (11-1)
DT = Th - Tc
2
Qc = (SM x Tc x I) - (0.5 x I x RM) - (KM x DT)
Pin = Vin x I
Qh = Pin + Qc
COP = Qc / Pin
11.5 HEATING MODE OPERATION: Thermoelectric modules may be operated in the heating mode
by reversing the polarity of the applied DC power. When used in this manner, the TE module
functions as a "heat pump" and heating efficiencies in excess of 100 percent may be realized under
certain conditions. A rapid increase in temperature occurs when heating a small-mass object, and
care must be taken to avoid overheating either the module or object. In the heating mode, illustrated
in Figure (11-2), the heat sink and object effectively are in opposite positions whereby the object is
Figure (11-2) a) Heat flow to the object (Qh) is given by the expression:
2
Qh = (SM x Th x I) + (0.5 x I x RM) - (KM x (Th - Tc))
COPH = Qh / Pin
11.5.1 Heating mode performance of a standard 71-Couple, 6-Ampere module is presented
graphically in Figures (11-3) and (11-4). These graphs illustrate module performance at a heat sink
temperature of 25°C.
Figure (11-3)
Figure (11-4)
11.6 OTHER THERMOELECTRIC DEVICE ATTRIBUTES: There are many other properties of
thermoelectric devices that can be described mathematically. Several characteristics that might be of
interest for specific situations follow. Remember that temperature values must be expressed in °K.
a) The maximum heat pumping capacity (Qmax) in watts of a thermoelectric module is given by the
following expression. Note that DT =0 at the maximum Qc condition and, therefore, Tc = Th.
2 2
SM x TC
__________
Qmax =
2 x RM
obtain an accurate DTmax value, however, it will be necessary to perform an iterative series of
2 2
SM x TC
__________
DTmax =
2 x RM x KM
material. Z always is higher for raw thermoelectric semiconductor material than for an actual module
functioning within a thermal system. Since an operating module is affected by interface, conductive,
convective, and other losses, the effective Figure-of-Merit is less than that of the raw material. The
pxk RM x KM
where:
d) The optimum current (Iopt) in amperes required to produce the maximum heat removal rate
(Qmax) is:
For Raw Material For a TE Module
a x Tc x a a x Tc SM x Tc
___________ = _________ _____________
Iopt = Iopt =
pxl R RM
where:
modules as opposed to complete thermal systems. By incorporating the module calculations into a
more sophisticated system model, it is possible to accurately simulate the overall thermal
performance. Two heat leak sources that must not be overlooked in a complete thermal model
include (a) heat conduction between the cooled object and heat sink, and, (b) heat conduction
through clamping screws, if any, that physically connect the heat sink and cooled object.
Heat conduction between the heat sink and object generally involves the transfer of heat through the
air gap surrounding the module mounting area. The actual heat leak value can be calculated using
the equation in paragraph 8.4.1 where area (A) is the "open" surface area not covered by the
thermoelectric modules, distance (x) is the width of the air gap, and thermal conductivity (K) is the
Heat conduction through the clamping screws also can be calculated by means of the same
equation. In this case, area (A) is the cross-sectional area of all mounting screws calculated from the
screw'spitch diameter and (K) is the thermal conductivity of the screw material.
12.1 A standard single-stage thermoelectric cooling module is capable of achieving a maximum no-
130°C by mechanically stacking modules on top of on e another whereby the cold side of one module
becomes the hot side of another module mounted above. This stacking arrangement is called
aCascade or Multi-Stage module configuration. Cascade modules usually, but not always, have a
pyramid shape thereby the higher stages are physically smaller than those below. Regardless of the
physical shape, however, lower stages must always have greater heat pumping capacity than the
higher stages. although cascade configurations of up to six and seven stages have been
constructed, practical cascade devices usually have from two to four stages.
The principal factor that limits cascade module performance is related to the temperature dependent
alloys used in most thermoelectric coolers generally peaks near 70°C and performance falls-off
returns where, as successive stages are added, the increase in DT becomes smaller.
Figure (12-1)
coolers is somewhat more complicated than for single-stage devices. With multi-stage coolers, the
temperature between each stage is critically important and module performance cannot be
established until each interstage temperature value is known. With a two-stage cooler only one
interstage temperature must be determined but, as more stages are added, the thermal analysis
laborious, yet with a computer, the required calculations can be performed with little effort.
The most common method for computer-modeling cascade modules involves carrying out an
iterative series of performance calculations beginning with assumed interstage temperature values.
Using this technique, the performance of each stage is repeatedly calculated until the difference
between successive interstage temperature calculations becomes very small (typically 0.1°C or less).
When this point is reached, each of the relevant module performance parameters can be
ascertained. Note that the temperature-dependent value of SM, RM, and KM must be converted as
explained in paragraph 11.2.4 to reflect the number of couples in each stage together with their
optimum TE element currents. The following paragraphs describe the calculations needed to model
two and three-stage cascaded thermoelectric modules. Four and greater-stage modules may be
modeled in a similar manner by expanding the three-stage calculation routines to include terms for
each additional stage. Calculations of the various parameters should be performed in the order
shown.
illustrated in Figure (12-2). The following new terms will be used in the module performance
calculations:
2
(0.5 x I ) x (RM2 + RM1) + (KM1 x Th) + (KM2 x Tc)
________________________________________________________________
I x
TM12 =
(SM1- SM2) + KM1 + KM2
2
Qc = (SM2 x Tc x I) - (0.5 x I x RM2) - (KM2 x (TM12 -Tc))
Pin = Vin x I
2
Qh = (SM1 x Th x I) + (0.5 x I x RM1) - (KM1 x (Th - TM12)
or
Qh = Qc - Pin
COP = Qc / Pin
Figure (12-3). The following new terms will be used in the module performance calculations:
o
Figure (12-3) a) The lower interstage temperature (TM12) in K is:
2
(0.5 x I x (RM1 + RM2)) + (KM1 x Th) + (KM2 x TM23)
___________________________________________
TM12 =
I x (SM1 - SM2) + KM1 + KM2
o
b) The upper interstage temperature (TM23) in K is:
2
(0.5 x I x (RM2 + RM3)) + (KM2 x TM12) + (KM3 x Tc)
___________________________________________
TM23=
I x (SM2 - SM3) + KM2 + KM3
2
Qc = (SM3 x Tc x I) - (0.5 x I x RM3) - (KM3 x (TM23 - Tc))
e) The input power (Pin) to the module in watts is: Pin = Vin x I
12.1 A standard single-stage thermoelectric cooling module is capable of achieving a maximum no-
130°C by mechanically stacking modules on top of on e another whereby the cold side of one module
becomes the hot side of another module mounted above. This stacking arrangement is called
aCascade or Multi-Stage module configuration. Cascade modules usually, but not always, have a
pyramid shape thereby the higher stages are physically smaller than those below. Regardless of the
physical shape, however, lower stages must always have greater heat pumping capacity than the
higher stages. although cascade configurations of up to six and seven stages have been
constructed, practical cascade devices usually have from two to four stages.
The principal factor that limits cascade module performance is related to the temperature dependent
alloys used in most thermoelectric coolers generally peaks near 70°C and performance falls-off
appreciably at lower temperatures. Consequently, cascade modules exhibit a condition of diminishing
returns where, as successive stages are added, the increase in DT becomes smaller.
Figure (12-1)
coolers is somewhat more complicated than for single-stage devices. With multi-stage coolers, the
temperature between each stage is critically important and module performance cannot be
established until each interstage temperature value is known. With a two-stage cooler only one
interstage temperature must be determined but, as more stages are added, the thermal analysis
laborious, yet with a computer, the required calculations can be performed with little effort.
The most common method for computer-modeling cascade modules involves carrying out an
iterative series of performance calculations beginning with assumed interstage temperature values.
Using this technique, the performance of each stage is repeatedly calculated until the difference
between successive interstage temperature calculations becomes very small (typically 0.1°C or less).
When this point is reached, each of the relevant module performance parameters can be
ascertained. Note that the temperature-dependent value of SM, RM, and KM must be converted as
explained in paragraph 11.2.4 to reflect the number of couples in each stage together with their
optimum TE element currents. The following paragraphs describe the calculations needed to model
two and three-stage cascaded thermoelectric modules. Four and greater-stage modules may be
modeled in a similar manner by expanding the three-stage calculation routines to include terms for
each additional stage. Calculations of the various parameters should be performed in the order
shown.
illustrated in Figure (12-2). The following new terms will be used in the module performance
calculations:
2
(0.5 x I ) x (RM2 + RM1) + (KM1 x Th) + (KM2 x Tc)
________________________________________________________________
Ix
TM12 =
(SM1- SM2) + KM1 + KM2
2
Qc = (SM2 x Tc x I) - (0.5 x I x RM2) - (KM2 x (TM12 -Tc))
Pin = Vin x I
e) The heat rejected by the module (Qh) in watts is:
2
Qh = (SM1 x Th x I) + (0.5 x I x RM1) - (KM1 x (Th - TM12)
or
Qh = Qc - Pin
COP = Qc / Pin
Figure (12-3). The following new terms will be used in the module performance calculations:
o
Figure (12-3) a) The lower interstage temperature (TM12) in K is:
2
(0.5 x I x (RM1 + RM2)) + (KM1 x Th) + (KM2 x TM23)
___________________________________________
TM12 =
I x (SM1 - SM2) + KM1 + KM2
o
b) The upper interstage temperature (TM23) in K is:
2
(0.5 x I x (RM2 + RM3)) + (KM2 x TM12) + (KM3 x Tc)
___________________________________________
TM23=
I x (SM2 - SM3) + KM2 + KM3
c) Heat pumped by the module (Qc) in watts is:
2
Qc = (SM3 x Tc x I) - (0.5 x I x RM3) - (KM3 x (TM23 - Tc))
e) The input power (Pin) to the module in watts is: Pin = Vin x I
13.1 Bismuth Telluride-based thermoelectric modules are designed primarily for cooling or combined
cooling and heating applications where electrical power creates a temperature difference across the
module. By using the modules "in reverse," however, whereby a temperature differential is applied
across the faces of the module, it is possible to generate electrical power. Although power output and
generation efficiency are very low, useful power often may be obtained where a source of heat is
available.
13.2 A thermoelectric module used for power generation has certain similarities to a conventional
thermocouple. Let us look at a single thermoelectric couple with an applied temperature difference as
With no load (RL not connected), the open circuit voltage as measured between points a and b is:
V = S x DT
where:
When a load is connected to the thermoelectric couple the output voltage (V) drops as a result of
S x DT
____________________
I=
RC + RL
where :
2
Qh = (S x Th x I) - (0.5 x I x Rc) + (Kc x DT)
where:
VxI
Eg = —————
Qh
We have thus far discussed an individual thermoelectric couple, but since a complete module
consists of a number of couples, it is necessary to rewrite our equation for an actual module, as
follows:
Vo = SM x DT = I x (RM + RL)
where:
It must be remembered that module Seebeck coefficient, resistance and thermal conductance
properties are temperature dependent and their values must be calculated as described in Section
11, paragraphs 11.2 through 11.2.4. As an alternative to these calculations, however, generator
performance may be reasonably approximated through the use of the data shown in Appendix A. In
either case, the values of SM, RM, and KM must be selected at the average module temperature
Tavg where:
Th + Tc
Tavg = ————
Po = RL x
It is possible, but unlikely, that the precise conditions will exist within a given generator application
whereby one module will provide the exact output power desired. As a result, most thermoelectric
generators contain a number of individual modules which may be electrically connected in either
Figure (13.2). This generator has a NT total number of modules with NS number of modules
connected in series and NP number of modules connected in parallel. The total number of modules
NT = NS x NP
Figure (13-2)
NS x SM x DT
________________
I=
NS x RM
_________
+ RL
NP
2
NT x (SMx DT)
___________
Po = Vo x I =
4 x RM
Po
Eg = ————— x 100%
Qh
Maximum efficiency occurs when the internal resistance of the generator (RGEN) equals the load
NS x RM
RGEN = —————
NP
13.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE: To illustrate the typical design process let us analyze a requirement for a
12-volt, 1.5 ampere thermoelectric power generator. The generator is needed to power telemetry
electronics at a remotely located oil pipeline where the hot, continuously flowing oil produces a 130°C
pipe casing temperature. Flowing water (having a temperature of 10°C) also is available at the
remote site, and it has been determined that an efficient water-cooled heat sink can maintain the TE
generator cold-side at a temperature of +30°C. We w ill use Appendix A to obtain the values of SM,
To begin the design process we will review the system parameters and make some preliminary
calculations.
Given:
Th = + 130°C = 403.2K
Tc = + 30°C = 303.2K
Vo = 12 volts
I = 1.5 amperes
therefore:
Po = Vo x I = 12 x 1.5 = 18 watts
It is usually desirable to select a relatively "high power" thermoelectric module for generator
applications in order to minimize the total system cost. For this reason we will choose a 127 couple,
From Appendix A for our selected 127-couple, 6 ampere module, the following values are obtained at
Tav = 353.2K:
SM = 0.05544 volts/K
RM = 3.0994 ohms
KM = 0.6632 watts/K
The required power for the load has been calculated as 18 watts. It is now necessary to determine
the minimum number of modules needed to meet this load requirement. The maximum output power
4 x RM 4 x 3.0994
Po 18
—— = ——— =
NTmin = 7.3 » 8
Pmax 2.479
Because maximum generator efficiency occurs when RGEN = RL, it is desirable for most
applications to select the series/parallel module configuration that will best approximate this
resistance balance. One possible exception to the equalizing RGEN with RL is in the situation where
a relatively low current (in the milliampere range) and moderate voltage is required. In this case, the
connection of all modules electrically in series may give the best results. Be aware, however that the
maximum output voltage from the generator will be obtained from a straight series-connected group
of modules only when the resistance of the load is significantly higher than the internal resistance of
the generator.
As a starting point in the evaluation of any thermoelectric power generator, it is often helpful to first
examine the straight series-connected configuration. The resistance of a series string of eight
modules is:
NS x RM 8 x 3.0994
NP 1
It can be seen that the 24.8 ohm generator resistance is considerably higher than the 8.0 ohm load
resistance, thereby indicating that a straight series module connection probably is not the best
arrangement. For the all series condition where NS = 8 and NP = 1, the output voltage is:
With a group of eight modules, the next most logical connection configuration is two parallel strings of
four modules, i.e., NS = 4 and NP = 2. Generator resistance for this configuration is thus:
NS x RM 4 x 3.0994
NP 2
While 6.2 ohm RGEN value does not exactly match the 8.0 ohm load resistance, this value normally
would be considered as being within the satisfactory range. In any event, this is the closest
resistance match that can be obtained with the selected module type. The voltage for this
We can now see that Vo is quite close to the desired value and it is apparent that we have obtained
accomplish this either by some form of electronic voltage regulation or by externally altering the
applied temperature differential (DT). In certain instances it will be found that the output voltage is
significantly out of range despite trying all possible series/parallel combinations. In this event it may
be necessary to use an alternate thermoelectric module having a different current rating and/or
number of couples.
It is now possible to complete our design analysis by determining power levels and efficiency. Since
2 2
(Vo) (12.49)
RL 8.0
Po 19.5
Qh 657.5
The maximum allowable thermal resistance (Qs) of the cold-side heat sink is :
Qc 638.2
For any thermoelectric generator design it is always desirable to maximize the applied temperature
differential in order to minimize the total number of modules in the system. This situation can be
clearly seen in Figure (13.3). Module requirements for a typical 12-volt, 1-ampere power generator
are plotted at several fixed values of Th based on the use of 127-couple 6-ampere TE modules.
From this graph, it is evident that a very large number of modules is needed when the cold side
temperature (Tc) is high and the temperature differential, therefore, is small. Performance of the cold-
side heat sink is of the utmost importance and its thermal resistance must be extremely low. In many
cases, cold-side heat sink design will prove to be the most challenging engineering problem.
Figure (13-3)
The Total Number of 127 Couple, 6 Amp Modules Required for a 12-volt, 1 Ampere Thermoelectric
Power Generator
application for thermoelectric modules operating in the power generation mode is in the construction
of calorimeters. The conventional calorimeter uses common thermocouples for heat measurement
based solely on the Seebeck effect. Through the use of a multi-couple thermoelectric cooling
module, it is possible to fabricate a calorimeter having a sensitivity (output voltage per unit of heat
flux density) as much as 10 to 200 times the sensitivity of a standard copper-constantine
thermocouple. When used in a calorimeter application, the thermoelectric module is often referred to
as a thermopile. The open-circuit output voltage (V) of a single thermoelectric couple, as described in
V = S x DT
where:
For an actual TE module having a number of couples and a Seebeck coefficient of SM, the output
Vo = SM x DT
KM x Vo
—————
Q = KM x DT =
SM
where:
The total cross-sectional area (AM) of all elements in the module is:
AM = A x N
where:
2
AM = total area of all module elements in cm
2
A = cross-sectional area of one element in cm
KM x DT KM x Vo
q = ————— = —————
AM SM x AM
Most standard thermoelectric cooling modules may be used in a calorimeter application but improved
sensitivity may be realized by modifying the length-to-area (L/A) aspect ration of the TE elements. A
relatively large L/A ratio resulting in a tall and "skinny" element will produce the best calorimeter
Vo SM x AM
Sc = ————— = —————
q KM
It has been seen that sensitivity (Sc) is directly proportional to the Seebeck coefficient (SM) and total
cross-sectional element area (AM) and inversely proportional to the thermal conductance (KM). By
rewriting the above equation in respect to thermal conductivity (k) instead of thermal conductance
(KM) we have:
SM x AM
Sc= —————
k x N x A/L
SM x L
Sc = —————
From this equation, it is evident that calorimeter sensitivity is directly related to the length (L)
dimension of an element and it is desirable, therefore, to select a thermoelectric module having the
largest possible element aspect ratio. Be aware that there are practical limits on element geometry
due to the fragility of crystalline Bismuth telluride material. Working within these limits, however, it is
possible to fabricate custom modules that are particularly suited for calorimeter use.
Appendix:A
NOTE: The data on the following tables reflects effective module parameters of Ferrotec
manufactured TEs, in normal ambient air using thermal grease at both the hot and cold module
interfaces. Raw Bismuth Telluride semiconductor material not in module form has substantially
different values for these parameters. We do not recommend using this data for the analysis of other
manufacturer's modules.
31-Couple Modules
71-Couple Modules
127-Couple Modules
Appendix – B;
Different materials have different thermal properties. You can use these thermal properties as factors
to help model your thermal system. For your convenience, this page presents a list of common
materials and their associated thermal properties. Follow the links below to view the material
ASPECT RATIO: The numerical ratio of the length (height) to cross-sectional area of a
thermoelectric element. An element’s L/A aspect ratio is inversely proportional to its optimum current.
in a "room temperature" range. An alloy of bismuth telluride most often is used for thermoelectric
cooling applications.
BTU: British Thermal Unit: The amount of thermal energy required to raise one pound of water by
Thermoelectric modules, when used in a calorimeter, may exhibit much higher sensitivity than
conventional thermopiles.
one module is stacked on top of another so as to be thermally in series. This arrangement makes it
possible to reach lower temperatures than can be achieved with a single-stage module.
CFM: Cubic Feet per Minute: The volgenerallyumetric flow rate of a gas, typically air, expressed in
the English system of units. For thermoelectric applications, this refers to the amount of air passing
type of temperature sensor (thermocouple, thermistor, RTD, etc.) that will transmit or "feed back"
temperature data to the controller. Based on the returned information, the controller will automatically
device or system. Mathematically, COP is the total heat transferred through the thermoelectric device
divided by the electric input power. COP sometimes is stated as COPR (Coefficient of Performance
COLD SIDE OF A THERMOELECTRIC MODULE: The side of a module that normally is placed in
contact with the object being cooled. When the positive and negative module leads are connected to
the respective positive and negative terminals of a DC power source, heat will be absorbed by the
module's cold side. Typically, the leads of a TE module are attached to the hot side.
difference through the material. The actual material may be either a solid, liquid or gas (or a
combination) where heat will flow by means of direct contact from a high temperature region to a
CONVECTION (THERMAL): The transfer of heat by means of air (gas) movement over a surface.
Convection actually is a combined heat transfer process that involves elements of conduction, mixing
COUPLE: A pair of thermoelectric elements consisting of one N-type and one P-type connected
electrically in series and thermally in parallel. Because the input voltage to a single couple is quite
DEGREES KELVIN: Absolute temperature scale where absolute zero (0K) represents the point
where all molecular kinetic energy of a mass is zero. When calculating the temperature dependent
the Celsius scale, 0°C equals 273.15K; in respect t o quantity, one Kelvin degree equals one Celsius
degree. Note that the (°) symbol normally is not us ed when denoting degrees Kelvin.
DELTA-T: The temperature difference between the cold and hot sides of a thermoelectric module.
DENSITY: The mass of a material per unit volume; often expressed as pounds per cubic foot or
DICE: A general term for blocks of the thermoelectric semiconductor material or "elements" prepared
EFFICIENCY: For thermoelectric coolers, mathematical efficiency is the heat pumped by a module
divided by the electrical input power; for thermoelectric generators, efficiency is the electrical output
power from the module divided by the heat input. To convert to percent, multiply by 100. See
EMISSIVITY: The ratio of the energy emitted by a given object to the energy emitted by a black-body
at the same temperature. Emissivity is dependent upon an object’s material and surface finish.
ENERGY: Energy is the physical quantity which, in the context of thermoelectrics, generally is used
to express a unit of heat or electricity. Energy may be stated in British Thermal Units (BTU) or watt-
hours. It is important to note the difference between energy and power. Power is the rate at which
energy is being used, and power may be stated in BTU/hour or watts. The relationship between
Material having the highest figure-of-merit also has the highest thermoelectric performance.
FORCED CONVECTION HEAT SINK: A heat sink that incorporates a fan or blower to actively move
air over the heat sink’s fins. Greatly improved cooling performance may be realized with a forced
HEAT LEAK: The amount of energy gained or lost by an object being thermoelectrically controlled
due to heat transfer to or from external media. Heat transfer may occur due to conduction,
HEAT LOAD: The quantity of heat presented to a thermoelectric device that must be absorbed by
the device’s cold side. The term heat load, when used by itself, tends to be somewhat ambiguous
and it is preferable to be more specific. Terms such as active heat load, passive heat load or total
HEAT OF FUSION: More correctly called Latent Heat of Vaporization. The amount of heat energy
required to change a given mass of a substance from a liquid to a gas without changing the
temperature of the substance. To change water into stream, for example, requires a heat input of
HEAT PUMP: A general term describing a thermoelectric cooling device, often being used as a
synonym for a thermoelectric module. In somewhat less common usage, the term heat pump has
HEAT PUMPING CAPACITY: The amount of heat that a thermoelectric device is capable of
pumping at a given set of operating parameters. Frequently, this term will be used interchangeably
with the expression maximum heat pumping capacity. The two terms are not strictly synonymous,
however, because maximum heat pumping capacity specifically defines the maximum amount of
heat that a module will pump at the maximum rated input current and at a zero temperature
differential.
HEAT SINK: A body that is in contact with a hotter object and that expedites the removal of heat
from the object. Heat sinks typically are intermediate stages in the heat removal process whereby
heat flows into a heat sink and then is transferred to an external medium. Common heat sinks
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT: A numerical value that describes the degree of coupling that
exists between an object and a cooling or heating fluid. The heat transfer coefficient actually is an
module referenced to its nominal specified dimension. Most Ferrotec modules are available in two
tolerance ranges of +/-0.03mm (+/-0.001") and +/-0.3mm (+/-0.01"). When more than one module will
be installed between a given pair of mounting surfaces, the maximum height variation of all modules
HOT SIDE OF A THERMOELECTRIC MODULE: The face of a thermoelectric module that usually is
placed in contact with the heat sink. When the positive and negative module leads are connected to
the respective positive and negative terminals of a DC power source, heat will be rejected by the
module’s hot side. Normally, the wire leads are attached to the hot side ceramic substrate.
or cascade module.
JOULE HEATING: Heat produced by the passage of an electrical current through a conductor or
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY: The ratio of a fluid’s viscosity to its density; typically units are centimeters
LATENT HEAT: Thermal energy required to cause a change of state of a substance such as
LEAD TELLURIDE: A thermoelectric semiconductor that exhibits its optimum performance within a
temperature range of 250-450°C. Lead telluride is u sed most often for thermoelectric power
generation applications.
LIQUID COOLING: A heat sink method involving the use of water or other fluids to carry away
unwanted heat. When comparing alternative heat-sinking methods, liquid cooled heat sinks normally
MASS FLOW RATE: The weight of a fluid flowing per unit of time past a given cross-sectional area.
Typical units include pounds per hour-square foot and grams per second-square centimeter.
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL (MAXIMUM DT): The largest difference that can be
obtained between the hot and cold faces of a thermoelectric module when heat applied to the cold
face is effectively zero. DTmax or Dmax is one of the significant thermoelectric module/device
specifications.
MAXIMUM HEAT PUMPING CAPACITY (MAXIMUM Qc): The maximum quantity of heat that can
be absorbed at the cold face of a thermoelectric module when the temperature differential between
the cold and hot module faces is zero and when the module is being operated at its rated optimum
arrangement makes it possible to reach lower temperatures than can be achieved with a single-stage
module.
NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT SINK: A heat sink from which heat is transferred to the
surrounding air by means of natural air currents within the environment. No external fan, blower or
other appliance is used to facilitate air movement around the heat sink.
OPTIMUM CURRENT: The specific level of electrical current that will produce the greatest heat
absorption by the cold side of a thermoelectric module. At the optimum current, a thermoelectric
module will be capable of pumping the maximum quantity of heat; maximum temperature differential
PELTIER EFFECT: The phenomenon whereby the passage of an electrical current through a
junction consisting of two dissimilar metals results in a cooling effect; when the direction of current
PHASE CHANGE: The change of a substance from a liquid to solid, liquid to gas, etc. A phase
change occurs, for example, when water freezes and turns into ice. See Heat of Fusion and Heat of
Vaporization.
POWER SUPPLY: Any source of DC electrical power that may be used to operate a thermoelectric
device.
temperature difference between two bodies. In thermoelectric cooling applications, radiation losses
are quite small and usually have to be considered only for multi-stage coolers operating near a
DTmax condition.
to the physical dimensions of the material. Electrical resistance, on the other hand, is an absolute
value dependent upon the cross-sectional area (A) and Length (L) of the material. The relationship
SEEBECK EFFECT: The phenomenon whereby an electrical current will flow in a closed circuit
made up of two dissimilar metals when the junctions of the metals are maintained at two different
temperatures. A common thermocouple used for temperature measurement utilizes this principle.
SI: An abbreviation for System International, the international standard metric system of units.
often is used for special thermoelectric power generation applications that utilize a
SINGLE-STAGE MODULE: The most common type of thermoelectric cooling module using a single
layer of thermoelectric couples connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. Single-stage
modules will produce a maximum temperature differential of approximately 70°C under a no-load
condition.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: The ratio of the mass of any material to the mass of an equal volume of water
at a temperature of 4°C.
SPECIFIC HEAT: The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a given
substance by one degree compared to the energy required to raise the temperature of an equal
SUBSTRATE: A plate or sheet of thermally conductive and electrically insulated material on which a
thermoelectric module is fabricated. A typical module has two individual substrates each having a
metalized pattern to conduct electric current. Thermoelectric elements are sandwiched between the
two substrates to form a completed module. Most substrates used in thermoelectric coolers are
made of alumina ceramic although berylia ceramic and other materials may be used in special
circumstances.
due to a change in temperature. Common measurement units include centimeter per centimeter per
THERMAL CONDUCTANCE: The amount of heat a given object will transmit per unit of
area and length of the object. Typical units include watts per degree Celsius and BTU per hour per
degree Fahrenheit.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: The amount of heat a material will transmit per unit of temperature
filling in the microscopic voids caused by surface roughness. Most thermal greases, also known as
Transistor Heat Sink Compound or Thermal Joint Compound, are made from silicone grease loaded
with zinc oxide. Non-silicone based compounds are also available which in most cases are superior
THERMAL RESISTANCE (HEAT SINK): A measure of a heat sink’s performance based on the
temperature rise per unit of applied heat. The best heat sinks have the lowest thermal resistance.
THERMOELECTRIC DEVICE: A general and broad name for any thermoelectric apparatus. The
term Thermoelectric Device has recently been modified to exclude thermoelectric modules in favor of
thermoelectric assemblies.
THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR: A device that directly converts energy into electrical energy
based on the Seebeck Effect. Bismuth telluride-based thermoelectric generators have very low
efficiencies (generally not exceeding two or three percent) but may provide useful electrical power in
certain applications.
cooler. The term Heat Pump has been used by some specifically to denote the use of a
called a thermopile. Some have used the word thermopile as a synonym for thermoelectric module
THOMSON EFFECT: The phenomena whereby a reversible evolution or absorption of heat occurs at
opposite ends of a conductor having a thermal gradient when an electrical current passes through
the conductor.
VISCOSITY: A fluid property related to the interaction between fluid molecules that determines the
more and more applications are turning to thermoelectric cooling as an alternative to traditional
refrigeration technology. While thermoelectric cooling isn't viable for every refrigeration,
certain applications.
o No moving parts
o No hazardous gases
o Silent operation
o Low profile
• High reliability
• Dehumidification