Strong Stochastic Stability

for Dynamic Source Routing

R. Timo∗† , K. Blackmore† and J. Papandriopoulos‡
∗
Fundamental Limits of Wireless Project, Networked Systems, NICTA, Canberra
†
Department of Engineering, the Australian National University, Canberra
Email: {roy.timo, kim.blackmore}@anu.edu.au
‡
Research Center for Ultra-Broadband Information Networks (CUBIN), the University of Melbourne, Melbourne
Email: jpap@ee.unimelb.edu.au

Abstract— Node movement in a Mobile Ad-Hoc Network
(MANET) simulation is defined by the mobility model. To ensure
reliable simulation results, many research papers have investi-
gated the stability (or instability) of popular mobility models.
In general, these works have been concerned with the following
question: Will time-averaged measurements of “mobility model
events” converge? For example, will average node speed or
position converge as simulation time increases? These works,
however, do not address stability questions at different network
layers. In this paper, we study the following problem: When is
the output of a network protocol stable?
Network protocols are complex distributed systems, which may
(or may not) preserve the stability of the mobility model. We
study a basic version of the popular Dynamic Source Routing
(DSR) protocol and show that if a pointwise ergodic theorem (a
generalized strong law of large numbers) holds for the mobility
model, then it also holds for the output of DSR; that is, time
averaged measurements made at the network layer will converge
almost everywhere. This, the first stability result for a network
layer protocol, opens up a new area of research.
I. I NTRODUCTION
The design of routing protocols for Mobile Ad-Hoc Net-
works (MANETs) is an important, active, research area [1]. In
this paper, we study the stochastic stability of a basic version
of the popular Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol [2].
“Stochastic stability,” as defined in this paper, will refer to
the convergence of time-averaged measurements of network
events. For example, the time-averaged number of packets
forwarded by a particular router.
Several research papers [3–9] have studied the stability of
mobility models. In general, these works have been concerned
with the following question: Will “time-averaged measure-
ments” of mobility model events converge? For example, will
average node speed or position converge as simulation time
increases? Although the motivation of [3–9] is clear – reliable
simulations require a sound understanding of the stochastic
properties of the mobility model – these stability results only
address part of the reliable simulation problem [10, 11]. In
The work of R. Timo was supported by NICTA. NICTA is funded by
the Australian Government’s Department of Communications, Information
Technology, and the Arts and the Australian Research Council through
Backing Australia’s Ability and the ICT Research Centre of Excellence
programs.
1–4244–1557–8/07/$25.002007
c IEEE
particular, network researchers are interested in the behavior
of events (and functions of events) at different layers in the
network; they are not just interested in the behavior of the
mobility model. For example, what is the mean probability
that a particular node will relay a packet? Or, what is the
expected traffic for a particular subset of the network? The
answers to these questions will depend on both the mobility
model and the network protocol(s) of interest. Hence, stability
results for both mobility models and network protocols are
required.
In [9], it was shown that a general class of Random Way-
point Mobility Models (RWMMs) is stable. There, a mobility
model was said to be stable if it satisfied a pointwise ergodic
theorem (a generalized “strong law of large numbers”) [9, Def.
4]. In this paper, we extend this definition to include routing
protocols.
Routing protocols control how packets travel through the
network topology. They are complex distributed systems which
may (or may not) preserve the stability of the mobility model.
In this paper, we ask: If a mobility model is stable, then is
the output of particular routing protocol stable? That is, if
time averages of mobility model events converge, then do time
averages of network layer events converge? Or more generally:
Can an ergodic theorem for route selection be inferred from
an ergodic theorem for node movement?
For a basic1 version of the DSR routing protocol, our main
result demonstrates that an ergodic theorem for route selection
can indeed be inferred from an ergodic theorem for node
movement. This simple result follows from an application
of a theorem for finite-state source coders [12] and from
the theory of Asymptotically Mean Stationary (AMS) random
process [13].
The paper outline is as follows. Section II reviews stable
mobility models and presents a simple network topology
model. Section III reviews the DSR protocol and presents our
main result. A proof of our main result is given in Section IV,
and Sections V and VI conclude the paper and discuss future
work respectively.
1 We use the basic DSR protocol model [2, Section 3] with some assump-
tions on the operation of the route discovery and route maintenance protocols.
 II. P RELIMINARIES exists. That is, time averages of any measurement function will
Let us briefly review some relevant definitions and results converge to some value for a sufficiently long simulation.
for mobility models and network topologies. Remark 1: The type of “strong stochastic stability” used in
this paper has been previously used for source codes [15] and
A. Strong Stable Mobility Models random processes [16].

Suppose we have a network with |V| mobile nodes V = Gray and Keiffer [13, Theorem 1] showed that a random
{v1 , v2 , . . . , v|V| }, where each node moves randomly within process satisfies the above pointwise ergodic theorem (Defini-
a finite discrete state space S according to some arbi- tion 1) if and only if it satisfies a property called Asymptotic
trary mobility model. The movement of each node vi , i ∈ Mean Stationary (AMS). Intuitively, a random process is AMS
{1, 2, . . . , |V|}, may be described by a discrete finite alphabet if its long run behavior is governed by a stationary random
random process {Sn,i }∞ n=0 . Here, the n
th
random variable process. This class of random processes is useful for the
Sn,i represents the location of node vi at time n. Let Xn = study of mobility models (and routing protocols) because it
(Sn,1 , Sn,2 , . . . , Sn,|V| ) denote the location of each node in S provides a large “tool bag” to study stability type problems.
at time n. The discrete finite alphabet of Xn is given by the On combining [13, Theorem 1] with the definition of a stable
|V|-fold cartesian product of S: mobility model, we immediately get the following lemma.
|V| Lemma 1 ([9]): A discrete mobility model with random

process representation {Xn }∞
X = Si , Si = S. (1) n=0 is strong stable if and only

i=1
if {Xn }∞n=0 AMS.
Throughout the remainder of the paper we shall deal exclu-
A complete probabilistic description of the mobility mo-
sively with stable mobility models.
bility model is given by the discrete finite alphabet random
process {Xn }∞n=0 . We denote by B. A Model for the Network Topology
∞

To connect the “movement of nodes” to “routing decisions,”
X∞ = Xi , Xi = X , (2) it is convenient to use a simple, practical, model for the
n=0 network topology. The DSR specification [2] does not provide
the sequence space for {Xn }∞
n=0 , and we identify a particular
a topology model, so in this section we define a general model
element of this space with bold face: which we believe captures a large family of topology models
used in practice and simulations.
x = x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , (3) The network topology may be viewed as a directed graph;
where xi ∈ X for all i = 0, 1, 2, . . .. The sequence x may be the graph vertices represent nodes, and the weighted edges
thought of as a particular realization of a long mobility model represent link qualities, capacities, or costs. Unfortunately,
simulation. there is no single topology model which is suitable for a
We shall define stable mobility models (and routing pro- generic MANET [17]. We assume that link costs (or capaci-
tocols) with respect to the family of bounded “measurement ties) are assigned values based on the physical location of each
functions” which map X ∞ to the real line. Let us denote this node in S. It may be possible to accommodate more complex
set by BX . Some example bounded functions are, the distance topology models, for example [18], within this framework by
between two nodes2 , the location of a node, or an indicator introducing additional random processes.
function for the occurrence on non-occurrence of a particular Definition 2 (Network Topology): Consider a mobile net-
node-location event. work with |V| mobile nodes V = {v1 , . . . , v|V| }. Suppose node
Following [9], we say that a mobility model with random movement is described by a mobility model with random pro-
process representation {Xn }∞ n=0 is strong stable if the fol-
cess representation {Xn }∞ n=0 . Recall Xn = (Sn,1 , . . . , Sn,|V| )
lowing ergodic theorem holds. Given a function f ∈ BX and represents the location of each node vi ∈ V at time n. Let C
the output x of a long mobility model simulation, the Césaro be a finite (cost, or capacity) set, and let H : S × S → C be a
mean (time average) of f on x over N time steps is given bounded function defined for each pair of points s, s ∈ S. We
by [14, Pg. 84] define the network topology at time n as the |V| × |V| matrix
N −1
given by:
  1     
f N (x) = f xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . . (4) H(Sn,1 , Sn,1 ) · · · H(Sn,1 , Sn,|V| )
N n=0  H(Sn,2 , Sn,1 ) · · · H(Sn,2 , Sn,|V| ) 
 
Definition 1: A mobility model with random process repre- Gn =  .. .. ..  (6)
 . . . 
sentation {Xn }∞n=0 is said to be strong stable if, for every x H(Sn,|V| , Sn,1 ) ··· H(Sn,|V| , Sn,|V| )
in a set of probability one and every bounded function f , the
limit Let G denote the (discrete finite) alphabet of Gn . The ma-
   
f (x) = lim f N (x) (5) trix (6) may, equivalently, be represented by a graph with |V|
N →∞ vertices and edge weights H(Sn,i , Sn,j ), 1 ≤ i, j ≤ |V|. For
2 Assuming, of course, that the maximum distance between any two points example, Figure 1 shows the random graph associate with a
in S is finite. three node network.
 H(Sn,1,Sn,1) description of this protocol, outline our assumptions, and
present our main result.
v1 A. Dynamic Source Routing: Basic Operation

2
n,

n,
1

1
n,
The DSR protocol has three main elements, a route discov-

n,
3
ery protocol, a route maintenance protocol, and a route cache.
Let us consider the problem of routing data from node vi (the
n,1
source) to node vj (the sink) at times n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. (Where

n,3
n,2

i = j and 1 ≤ i, j ≤ |V|).

n,1
First, node vi calculates a route to node vj using the
H(Sn,2,Sn,3) route discovery protocol. The route discovery protocol takes
v2 v3
the current network topology G ∈ G and other relevant
H(Sn,2,Sn,2)
H(Sn,3,Sn,2)
H(Sn,3,Sn,3)
information, and calculates a suitable route. For example, a
“suitable route” may be the route of least cost between vi
and vj for the network topology G. There are many potential
Fig. 1. An example graph representation for the topology of a three node
mobile network. For i = 1, 2, 3, the random variable Sn,i represents the
route discovery protocols, and the actual choice is left to the
location of node vi at time n in S. The “link cost” function H maps each network designer. In this paper, we assume that the route
pair of points s, s
∈ S to a link cost (or capacity). Some specific link cost selected by the route discovery protocol is determined by a
functions are given in Examples 1–3.
function of the current network topology G. More specifically,
let R denote the collection of all possible routes connecting
vi to vj with the inclusion of a “disconnected route” for each
Some special cases of our general topology models are as
network topology where there exists no route connecting vi
follows.
and vj , and let a : G → R denote the mapping induced by
Example 1 (On-Off Links): A link between any two nodes
the route discovery protocol.
exists if the distance separating the nodes is less than a
Remark 2: We have assumed that the action of the route
predefined transmission range R [19]. For each pair of points
discovery protocol may be modeled by a function. In general,
s, s ∈ S, let d(s, s ) denote the Euclidean distance separating
such functional mappings may not be suitable models for all
s and s , then

route discovery algorithms. For example, let us suppose that a
 1, if d(s, s ) ≤ R particular topology g has no direct connection from the source
H(s, s ) = (7)
0, otherwise. node to the sink node. If there exists multiple two hop (one

relay) routes, then the discovery algorithm may simply select
Example 2 (Distance Based Link Costs): A simple topol- the first two hop route that it finds. If the order in which it
ogy model that includes large scale fading is as follows. For finds these two hop routes is random, then the overall mapping
each s, s ∈ S, set is also random.

In general, route discovery protocols consume a relatively
1
H(s, s ) =  δ (8) large proportion of a node’s computation power and the
1 + d(s, s ) network’s bandwidth. It is therefore desirable to reduce the
number of times these protocols are used. The DSR protocol
for some δ > 0 [20].

does this by using a route cache. After a suitable route has
Example 3 (Physical Measurements): Suppose S corre-
been determined by the route discovery protocol, it is stored
sponds to some real-world terrain in which the MANET
in the route cache3 of node vi for future reference. If, in the
operates. For each pair of points, s, s ∈ S, let H(s, s )
future, the node vi wishes to send data to node vj , it may
and H(s , s) denote the measured signal large scale fading
simply take this route from the route cache.
coefficient from s to s and s to s respectively.

The network topology of a mobile network is dynamic, and
The next lemma shows that the random process which
a route stored in the route cache at time n is likely to become
describes topology change is stable if the mobility model
disconnected at some future time n > n. To address this
is stable. This lemma is a simple consequence of Lemma 1
problem, the DSR protocol attaches an expiration time M ≥ 1
and [21, Lemma 4.2.3].
to each route in the route cache. When the route is first entered
Lemma 2: Consider a mobility model with random process
into the cache, its expiration time is set to M . After M time
representation {Xn }∞ n=0 . Suppose the topology Gn at times steps, the route is deemed “out of date” and disregarded. The
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . is given by Definition 2. If the mobility model
actual choice of M is left to the network designer. We assume
is stable, then {Xn }∞ ∞
n=0 and {Gn }n=0 are AMS. that M is any positive integer.
III. T HE DYNAMIC S OURCE ROUTING P ROTOCOL Some routes in the route cache may become disconnected
before the route expiration time is reached. For this situa-
The main result of this paper concerns a basic version of the
tion, the DSR protocol uses a route maintenance protocol
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) routing protocol developed
by Johnson and Maltz in [2]. In this section we give a brief 3 The route cache has one entry corresponding to each possible sink node.
to determine if the links along the route are active. Again, Definition 3 (Stable Route Process): Let R∞ denote the
there are many route maintenance protocols from which a sequence space for the route selection random process
network designer may choose. We shall simply assume that the {Rn }∞ ∞
n=0 . The random process {Rn }n=0 is strong stable if it
route maintenance protocol correctly determines when a route satisfies the pointwise ergodic theorem. Specifically, {Rn }∞ n=0
becomes disconnected. More specifically, let b : G × R → is stable if there exists a subset of sequences R ∞ ⊆ R∞ , with
{0, 1} denote the mapping induced by the route maintenance probability one, such that for each r ∈ R  ∞ the following limit
protocol, where exists

N −1
  1, if r is fully connected on g   1   
b g, r = (9) f (r) = lim f rn , rn+1 , rn+2 , . . . (10)
0, otherwise. N →∞ N
n=0
for g ∈ G and r ∈ R. for every bounded function f on R∞ . More informally, the
route process is stable if the frequency of which each route is
B. Summary of Assumptions used converges to some value as the simulation time increases.
Let M be any fixed positive integer, vi be the source node, We wish to show that the DSR protocol preserves the sta-
and vj be the sink node. For simplicity, we assume the source bility of mobility model. The following definition formalizes
node vi wishes to send data to the sink node vj at times this requirement.
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . using the DSR protocol. Let R denote the Definition 4 (Stable Routing Protocol): A routing protocol
collection of all possible routes connecting vi to vj (including is stable if, for every stable mobility model, {Rn }∞
n=0 is stable.
the “disconnected route”), and let rn ∈ R be the route selected
D. Main Result
by the DSR protocol at time n. Finally, we assume the route
discovery and route maintenance protocols may be modeled With reference to Definition 4, our main result is as follows.
by functions a : G → R and b : G ×R → {0, 1} respectively. Theorem 1: The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol de-
The basic operation of the DSR protocol is as follows. scribed in Section III with topology model given by Defini-
tion 2 is stable.
(I) At time n = 0, node vi uses the route discovery protocol
to calculate the first route r0 which connects vi to vj . IV. P ROOF OF T HEOREM 1
Node vi updates its route cache entry corresponding to In this section we prove Theorem 1. Suppose we have a
node vj . mobility model with random process representation {Xn }∞
n=0 .
(II) At time n > 0, node vi takes the previous route rn−1 If the mobility model is stable, by Lemma 2, {Xn }∞n=0 and
from the route cache. {Gn }∞ are AMS.
n=0
(II.a) If it has been less than M time steps since the route We now show that the DSR protocol may be described by
to node vj was last changed, then node vi uses the a finite state coder. Let
route maintenance protocol to determine if rn−1 is
still fully connected. If rn−1 is connected, then node E = {1, 2, . . . , M } × R (11)
vi sets rn = rn−1 . denote the (internal) state space of the DSR protocol. The
(II.b) If it has been less than M time steps since the route protocol’s operation may be reduced to two functions: a “state
to node vj was last changed, then node vi uses the update function” h : G × E → E and a “route selection
route maintenance protocol to determine if rn−1 is function” f : G × E → R. The state update function keeps
still fully connected. If rn−1 is not connected, then track of the time since the route cache was last changed, and it
node vi uses the route discovery protocol to calculate keeps track of the occurrence of a topology where nodes vi and
a new route rn . Node vi then updates its route cache vj are disconnected. The route selection function determines
entry for node vj . what route the DSR protocol selects when given a particular
(II.c) If it has been M time steps since the route to node network topology and internal state.
vj was last changed, then node vi uses the route As outlined in Section III, the route discovery and mainte-
discovery protocol to calculate a new route rn . Node nance protocols may be described by functions a : G → R
vi then updates its route cache entry for node vj . and b : G × R → {0, 1} respectively. Let rd ∈ R denote the
Given a mobility model with random process representation disconnected route, and set the initial state s0 ∈ E equal to
{Xn }∞ n=0 , we are interested in the stochastic properties of the s0 = (1, rd ). Given sn and network gn , the next state sn+1 is
random process {Rn }∞ n=0 which describes the routes node vi defined by
selects to connect to node vj at times n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. The  
sn+1 = h gn , sn (12)
properties of this random process are defined by the mobility   
model and the DSR protocol above. 
 M, a(gn ) , if sn (1) = 1,

or sn (2) = rd ,
=
C. Stable Routing Protocols  
  or b gn , sn (2) = 0

A stable route selection random process is defined as sn (1) − 1, sn (2) , otherwise.
follows. (13)
Similarly, given state sn and topology gn , the route rn selected
by the DSR protocol at time n is given by
 
rn = f gn , sn (14)

 a(gn ), if sn (1) = 1,


or sn (2) = rd ,
= (15)

 or b gn , sn (2) = 0,

rn−1 , otherwise.
If we recall [12, Example (b)], we see immediately that the
DSR protocol is a finite state coder. This finite state coder is an
example of a one-sided Markov Channel, so by [12, Theorem
6] {Rn }∞ ∞
n=0 is AMS if {Gn }n=0 is AMS. The theorem
follows directly from Definitions 3 and 4 since {Rn }∞ n=0 is
AMS for any stable mobility model.
V. C ONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we investigated the stochastic stability of a
basic version of the popular Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
protocol. The stability definition considered is based on a
pointwise ergodic theorem (a generalized strong law of large
numbers), and it is strong in the sense that it guarantees con-
vergence (with probability one) of time average measurements
of network layer events. The main result of the paper shows
that the output of the DSR protocol is stable if the mobility
model is stable. The proof of this result is based on a simple
finite state coder argument that draws upon an existing result
for Markov Channels.
VI. F UTURE W ORK
This paper shows that a basic version of the popular DSR
protocol is strong stable. We believe that it is possible to study
more sophisticated topology models and routing strategies
using generalizations of the coding arguments presented in
this paper. It would be of enormous benefit to the networking
community if general rules guaranteeing the stability (or
otherwise) of network protocols could be found. Some possible
extensions of this work are as follows.
1) Route Discovery Protocol: We assumed that the route
discovery protocol may be modeled as a function a which
maps “network topologies” to “routes.” (See Remark 3). Such
functional mappings may not be suitable for sophisticated
route discovery protocols which use routing tables or induce
stochastic mappings.
2) Stochastic Network Topologies: The network topology
need not be a function of the position of each node. For
example, radio variability may change the topology, or a
position based routing scheme may suffer from “node location
noise.” In such cases, the actual topology used for routing
decisions will depend on a number of factors. (We thank the
anonymous reviewer for suggesting this.)
3) Route Selection Times: We considered the problem of
selecting routes from node vi to node vj at times n =
0, 1, 2, . . .. In general, one may consider routing at times
a = a0 , a1 , . . . where a is a strictly increasing sequence in
{0, 1, 2, . . .}.
4) Rate of Convergence: This paper and references [3–9]
provide asymptotic convergence theorems for time-averaged
measurements. From a simulation standpoint, it would be
useful to consider bounds on the rate of convergence.
5) Routing Overhead: Theorem 1 guarantees the Asymp-
totic Equipartition Property holds; thus, it is possible to
simulate an information theoretic lower bound for routing
overhead for the DSR protocol with a stable mobility model.
R EFERENCES
[1] K. Weniger and M. Zitterbart, “Mobile Ad Hoc Networks – Current
Approaches and Future Directions,” IEEE Network, vol. 18, no. 4, pp.
6–11, July–August 2004.
[2] D. Johnson and D. Maltz, Mobile Computing, ser. Engineering and
Computer Science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996, no. 353, ch.
Dynamic Source Routing in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, pp. 153–179.
[3] J. Yoon, M. Liu, and B. Noble, “Random Waypoint Considered Harm-
ful,” in Proc. IEEE Annual Joint Conf. IEEE Comp. and Commun.
Societies, INFOCOM, vol. 2, March 2003, pp. 1312–1321.
[4] ——, “Sound Mobility Models,” in Proc. IEEE Intl. Symp. Mobile Ad
Hoc Net. and Comp., MobiHoc, September 2003, pp. 205–216.
[5] W. Navidi and T. Camp, “Stationary Distributions for the Random
Waypoint Mobility Model,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing,
vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 99–108, January 2004.
[6] C. Bettstetter, H. Hartenstein, and X. Pérez-Costa, “Stochastic Proper-
ties of the Random Waypoint Mobility Model,” ACM/Kluwer Wireless
Networks, Special Issue on Modeling & Analysis of Mobile Networks.,
vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 555–567, September 2004.
[7] J. Boudec, “On the Stationary Distribution and Location of Random
Waypoint,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 4, no. 4, pp.
404–406, July/August 2005.
[8] J. Boudec and M. Vojnović, “The Random Trip Model: Stability,
Stationary Regime, and Perfect Simulation,” IEEE/ACM Transactions
on Networking, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1153–1166, December 2006.
[9] R. Timo, K. Blackmore, and L. Hanlen, “Strong Stochastic Stability for
MANET Mobility Models,” in International Conference on Networks
(ICON), Adelaide, Australia, November 2007.
[10] S. Kurkowski, T. Camp, and W. Navidi, “Two Standards for Rigorous
MANET Routing Protocol Evaluation,” in Proc. IEEE Intl. Conf. Mobile
Ad Hoc and Sensor Systems, MASS, October 2006, pp. 256–266.
[11] T. Andel and A. Yasinsac, “On the Credibility of MANET Simulations,”
Computer, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 48–54, July 2006.
[12] J. Kieffer and M. Rahe, “Markov Channels are Asymptotically Mean
Stationary,” SIAM J. Math. Anal. (SIMA), vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 293–305,
May 1981.
[13] R. Gray and J. Kieffer, “Asymptotically Mean Stationary Measures,” J.
Ann. Prob., vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 962–973, October 1980.
[14] R. Gray, Probability Random Processes, and Ergodic Properties.
Springer Verlag, 2001 (Revision 1987), http://ee.stanford.edu/∼gray/.
[15] J. Kieffer and J. Dunham, “On a Type of Stochastic Stability for a
Class of Encoding Schemes,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory,
vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 793–797, November 1983.
[16] U. Faigle and A. Schönhuth, “Asymptotic Mean Stationary of Sources
With Finite Evolution Dimension,” IEEE Transactions on Information
Theory, vol. 53, no. 7, pp. 2342–2348, July 2007.
[17] L. Kleinrock and J. Silvester, “Spatial Reuse in Multihop Packet Radio
Networks,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 156–167,
January 1987.
[18] X. Chen, H. Jones, and A. Jayalath, “Effective Link Operation Duration:
a New Routing Metric for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,” in International
Conference on Signal Processing and Communication Systems, Decem-
ber 2007.
[19] S. Xu, K. Blackmore, and H. Jones, “An Analysis Framework for
Mobility Metrics in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,” EURASIP J. Wireless
Communications and Networking, vol. 2007, pp. Article ID 19 249, 16
pages, 2007.
[20] A. Jovičić, P. Viswanath, and S. Kulkarni, “Upper Bounds to Transport
Capacity of Wireless Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Information
Theory, vol. 50, no. 11, pp. 2555–2565, November 2004.
[21] R. Gray, Entropy and Information Theory. Springer Verlag, 2000
(Revision 1990), http://ee.stanford.edu/∼gray/.