UNIT 16 CORRELATION - ITS

INTERPRETATION AND
IMPORTANCE
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 The Concept of Correlation
16.4 Co-efficient of Correlation
16.5 Maximum Range of values of Co-efficient of Correlation
16.6 Types of Correlation
16.6.1 Positive, Negative and Zero Correlation
16.6.2 Linear and Curvilinear Correlation
16.7 Methods of Computing Co-efficient of Correlation (Ungrouped Data)
16.7.1 Rank Difference Co-efficient of Correlation
16.7.2 Pearson's Product Moment Co-efficient of Correlation
16.7.3 Pearson's Product Moment Co-efficient of Correlation (when grouped data are given)
16.8 Interpretation of the Co-efficient of Correlation
16.9 Misinterpretation of the Co-efficient of Correlation

16.10 Factors Influencing the Size of the Correlation Co-efficient

16.11 Importance and Use of Correlation in Educational Measurement and Evaluation
14.12 L e t U s S u m U p
16.1 3 Unit-end Exercises
16.14 ~ o i n ' t sfor Discussion
16.15 Answers to Check Your Progress
16.16 Suggested Readings

16.1 INTRODUCTION .
In the foregoing units we have discussed those statistical measures that we use for a single
variable i.e. the distributions relating to one quantitative variable. Now we shall study the
problem of describing the degree of simultaneous variation of two variables.
The data in which we secure measures of one variable for each individual is called aunivariate
distribution. If we have pairs of measures on.two variables of each individual, the joint
presentation of the two sets of scores is called a bivatiate distribution.
We come across a number of situations involving the study of two or more variables. For
example, consider the scores of five students in mathematics and physics as under :

Students 1 2 3 4 5
Scores in Maths (X) 40 !7 29 36 25
Scores in Physics (Y) 38 16 30 32 24

Here each student has values on two variables X and Y i.e. the scores in Mathematics and
Physics respectively; hence the distribution is called bivariate distribution.
Similarly,' the distr~butioninvolving more than two variables are called multivariate
distributions. In the present unit we will deal with bivariate distribution;. In a bivariate
distribution the pair of scores made by the same set of individuals on two variables are given. 73
Statistical Techniques of Analysis
16.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:

defifle correlation;
define co-efficient of correlation:

recognize the various types of correlation;

calculate the co-efficient of correlation according to the nature of scores and their
distribution;

interpret the results obtained i.e. interpret the Co-efficient of correlation;

take necessary precautions in interpreting the co-efficient of correlation; and

'1
discuss the importance of correlation.

16.3 THE CONCEPT OF CORRELATION

To illustrate what we mean by a relationship between two variables, let us use the example
cited in \6.1 i.e. the scores of 5 students in mathematics and physics. What pattern do you
find in the data ?You may notice that in general those students who score well in mathematics
also get high scores in physics. Those who are average in mathematics, get just average
scores in physics and those who are poor in mathematics get low scores in physics. In short,
in this case there is a tendency for students to score at par on both variables. Performance on
the two variables is related; in other words the two variables are related, hence co-vary.
If the change in one variable appears to be accompanied by a change in the other variable,
the two tariables are said to be co-related and this inter-dependence is called correlation.

16.4 CO-EFFICIENT OF CORRELATION

To measqre the degree of association or relationship between two variables quantitatively, an
index of relationship is used and is termed as co-efficient of correlation.
Co-efficient of correlation is a single number that tells us to what extent the two variables
are related and to what extent the variations in one variable changes with the variations
in the other.
Symbol ~f co-efficient of correlation
i
The co-efficient of correlation is always symbolized either by r or p (Rho). The notion 'r' is
known as product moment correlation co-efficient or Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation.
The symbdl 'P' (Rho) is known as Rank Difference Correlation Coefficient or Spearman's
Rank Correlation Coefficient.

16.5 MAXIMUM RANGE OF VALUES OF CO-EFFICIENT

OF CORRELATION
The measurement of correlation between two variables results in a maximum value that ranges
from -1 to + I , through zero. The k 1 values denote perfect coefficient of correlation.
 .. - - - .. - - -- - -- - - ----- --- - --
-
1
, 8 . *, ' I ' I 7 '
Correlation Its Interpretation
and Importance

16.6 TYPES OF CORRELATION

In a bivariate distribution, the correlation may be :
1. Positive, Negative or Zero; and
2. Linear or Curvilinear (Non-Linear)
16.6.1 Positive, Negative and Zero Correlation
When the increase in one variable (X) is followed by a c~rrespondingincrease in the other
variable (Y); the correlation is said to be positive correlation. The positive correlations range
from 0 to + l ; the upper limit i.e. +1 is the perfect positive co-efficient of correlation. The
perfect positive correlation specifies that, for every unit increase in one variable, there is
proportional increase in the other. For example "Heat" and "Temperature" have a perfect
positive correlation.
If, on th.e other hand, the increase in one variable (X) results in a corresponding decrease in
the other variable (Y), the correlation is said to be negative correlation. The negative correlation
ranges from 0 to -1; the lower limit giving the perfect negative correlation. The perfect
negative correlation indicates that for every unit increase in one variable, there is
proportional unit decrease in the other. .
Zero correlation means no relationship between the two variables X and Y;i.e. the change in
one variable (X) is not associated with the change in the other variable (Y). For example,
body weight and intelligence, shoe size and monthly salary; etc. The zero correlation is-the
mid-point of the range -1 to +l.

Perfect Zero Perfect

Negative Correlation Correlation Positive Correlation
-
-.l Negative Correlation 0 Positive Correlation- +1
Statistical Techniques of Analysis 16.6.2 Linear and Curvilinear Correlation
Linear correlation is-the ratio of change between the two variables either in the same direction
or oppasite direction and the graphical representation of the one variable with respect to other
variable is straight line.

/ 0.. 0.

... .
... O<r<+l -1 < r < O
0 0
Positive Negative Zero
correlation cor~lation correlation
Y Y

I / * ~
Perfect
Positive
Correlation
X*

Negative
Correlation

Eig. 16.1 : Scatter Diagrams Showing Varying Degree of Relationship between X and Y.

Consider another situation. First, with increase of one variable, the second variable increases
proportionately upto some point; after that with an increase in the first variable the second
variable starts decreasing. The gaphical representation of the two variable will be a curved
line. Such a relationship between the two variables is termed as the curvilinear correlation.

x-0 0 X
Linear Curvilinear
Correlation Correlation Correlation

Fig. 16.2 :Scatter Diagram Illustrating Linear and Curvilinear relationships

 Correlation - Its Interpretation
16.7 METHODS OF COMPUTING CO-EFFICIENT OF and Importance

CORRELATION (UNGROUPED DATA)

In case of ungrouped data of bivariate distribution, the following three methods are used to
compule the value of co-efficient of correlation.
I. Rank Difference Co-efficient of Correlation or Spearman's Rank Order Co-efficient of
Correlation.
2. Pearson's Product Moment Co-efficient of Coi~elation.
3. Pearson's Product Moment Co-efficient of correlation from Scatter Diagram.

I1 a
16.7.1 Rank Difference C6-efficient of Correlation (p)
When the observations or measurements of the bivariate variable is based on the ordinal scale
in the form of ranks, the rank difference co-efficient of correlation is computed by using t k
following formula.

~CD'
p=l-
N(N' - I)

Where : p = The Spearman's Rank Co-efficient of Correlation

D = Difference between paired Ranks
N = Number of subjects or items ranked
Example 1 : In a speech contest Prof. Mehrotra and Prof. Shukla, judged ten pupils. Their
judgements were in ranks, which are presented below. Determine the extent to which their
judgements were in agreement.
Table 16.1
Pupil Prof. Mehrotra's Prof. Shukla's Difference
Ranks (Rl) Ranks (R2) D = (R2-R 1) DZ
A I 1 0 0
B 3 2 -1 1
C 4 5 +I 1
D 7 9 +2 4
E 6 6 0 0
F 9 8 ,-1 I
G 8 10 +2 4
I
1
H 10 7 -3 9
I 2 4 +2 4
$ J 5 3 -2 4
N=lO CD = 0 CD2 = 28

The value of co-efficient of correlation is +.83, This shows ahigh degree of agreement between
the two judges.
Example 2
The following data give the scores of 5 students on tests in Hindi and English respectively.
Compute the correlation between the two series of test scores by Rank Difference Method.
Statistical Techniques of Analysis Table 16.2

Students Scores in Hindi Scores in English R1 R2 D = R2-R1 D2

The value of co-efficient of correlation between scores in Hindi and English is positive and
moderate.

Steps of Calculation of Spearman's Co-efficient of Correlation

Step 1 : List the students, names or their serial numbers in Column 1.

Step 2 : In column 2 and 3 write scores of each student or individual in test I and test 11.

Step 3 : Take one set of score of column 2 and assign a rank of 1 to the highest score,
which is 9, a rank of 2 to the next highest score which is 8 and so on, till the lowest
score get a rank equal to N; which is 5.

Step 4 : Take the 11set of scores of column 3, and assign the rank 1 to highest score. In the
second set the highest score in 10; hence obtain a rank 1 (see column 5). The next
highest score of B student is 8; hence his rank is 2. The rank of student C is 3, the
rank of E is 4, and the rank of D is 5.

Step 5 : Calculate the difference ofranks of each student (Column 6).

Step 6 : Check the sum of the differences recorded in column 6. It is always zero.

Step 7 : Each difference of ranks of column 6 is squared and recorded in column 7. Get the
sum ED2.

Step 8 : Put the value of N and ED2 in the formula of Spearman's co-efficient of correlation.

Example 3 :The following data give the scores of 10 students on two trials of test with a gap
of 2 weeks in Trial I and Trial 11. Compute the correlation between the scores of
78 two trials by rank difference method :
 Table 16.3 Correlation - I c ~Interpretation
and Importance
Students Trial I Trial I1 Rank Rank Difference -
on on R1-R2
Trial I Trial I1
(x) (y) R1 R2 (Dl DZ
A 10 16 6.5 5.5 1.O 1.OO

N=10 Total 00 24.00

The correlafion between trial I and I1 is positive and very high.

Look carefully at the scores obtained by the 10 students on tiral I and trial I1 of the test. Do you
find any special feature in the scores obtained by the 10 students? Probably, your answer will
be "Yes".
In the table 16.3 in column 2 and 3 you will find that more than one students are getting the
same scores' e.g. In column 2 the students A and G are getting the same score viz 10. In
column 3, the students A & B, C & F and G & J are also getting the same scores. Which are 16,
24 and 14 respectively. Definitely these pairs will have the same ranks; known as Tied Ranks.
The procedure of assigning the ranks to the repeated scores is somewhat different from the
non-repeated scores.
Look at column 4. Student A and G have similar scores of 10 each and they possess 6th and
7th rank in the group. Instead of assigning the 6 and 7th rank: the average of the two rank, i.e.
+ 7 ) 13
6.5. ( y ' T ) h a s been assigned to each of them.

The same procedure has been followed in respect of scores on trial 11. In this case, ties occur at
three places. Students C and F have the same score and hence obtain the average rank of

(v) = I >. Student Aand B have rank position 5 and 6; hence are assigned 5.5 ( 5
- i
6, rank

i ')
each. Similarly student G and J have been assigned 7.5 ( 7- rank each.

If the values are repeated more than twice, the same procedure can be followed t o assign the
ranks. For example, if threB students get a score of 10, at 5th, 6th and 7th ranks, each one of
, I
79
Statistical Techniques of Analysis
5+6+7
them will be assigned a rank of -- -6.
3
The rest of the steps of procedure followed for calculation of p (rho) are the same as explained
in example 2.
The Speamkan's Rank Order Coefficient of Correlation computation is quicker and easier. It is
an acceptable method if data are available only in ordinal form or number of paired variable is
'more than 5 and not greater than 30 with minimum or a few ties in ranks.

16.7.2 Pearson's Product - Moment Coefficient of Correlation

The most often used and most precise coefficient of correlation is known as the Pearson's
Product - Moment Coefficient. It is computed when data are expressed in interval or ratio
form and distribution of X and Y have a linear relationship. Here linear relationship means, if
we draw aline graph by taking X variable on X-axis and Y variable on Y axis the obtained
graph shodld be straight line.

The formula used for computing the Pearson's coefficient of correlation is :-

NXXY - (CX)(XY)
r=
4{ m-(zx)~}{NxY
~ ~ -(N)'}

where

I' = Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation

zi = Sum of the Scores of X Variable
CY = Sum of the Scores of Y Variable

zX2 = Sum of the Squared X Scores

ZyZ = Sum of the Squared Y Scores

CXY = Sum of the Product of Paired X and Y Scores
N = Number of Paired Scores

Example 4

The scores given below were obtained on an Intelligence Test and Algebra Test by 10 students
of class V'III. Compute Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation.

Table 16.4
Students Scores on Scores on
Intelligence Test Algebra Test
X Y X2 YZ XY
 Correlation - Its Interpretation
and Importance

The steps in computing 'r' from ungiouped scores may be outlined thus:
Step 1 : Find the sum of the scores of X and Y variable.
Step 2 : Square each score of X variable and find their sum i.e. C x 2 (Col. 4)
Step 3 : Square each score of Y variable and find their sum i.e. Cy2 (Col. 5)
Step 4 : Multiply the X scores and Y scores in the same rows, and enter these products
in the column XY, i.e. Col. 6; and get the sum of XY i.e. (ZXY)

Step 5 : Put all the values of N, CX, CY, Cx2, Cy2 and ZXY in the formula, and simplify.

16.7.3 Pearson's Product - Moment Coefficient of Correlation (when

grouped data are given)
When N is large and even when N is moderate and when no calculating machine is available,
the customary procedure is to group data in both X and Y and to form a scatter diagram or
correlation diagram.
Example 5: The scores given below are obtained by a class in educational measurement in
two objectively scored papers. Find the coefficient of correlation, use an interval of 5 for Y
and 10 for X.
Achievement Test I Achievement Test I1
Statistical Techniques of Analysis Such probkems are solved in two phases. In first phase, the table for bivariate frequency
distribution is prepared. In the second phase the co-efficient of correlation is to be calculated
with the help of the bivariate f~equencydistribution.
Phase I
In setting up a double grouping of data, a table is prepared with columns and rows: Columns
for the dispersions of Y scores within each class interval for the X scale; and rows for the
dispersions of Y scores within each class interval for the Y scale. Along the top of the table
(see table) are listed the score limits for the class intervals in test X. Along the left hand margin
are listed the score limits for the class intervals in test Y. We make one tally mark for each
individual's X and Y scores. For example in the given problem, the individual has a score of
150 in achievement test I (say X) and 60 in achievement test I1 (say Y) . We place a tally mark
for him in the cell of the diagram at the intersection of the column for interval 145- 154 for X
and row for interval 60- 64 in Y. All other individuals are similarly located in their proper
cells.
Table 16.5
X Scores in First Achievement Test

Total
125-134 135-144 145-154 155-164 165-174 175-184
fy
64-69 0
60-64 1 1
P ~~~~~~
1 1
55-59 1 11 1 1 5
~~~~~~~
1 2 1 1
50-54 1 1 7
1 1
45-49 1 11 1 4
1 2 1
40-44 1 111 4

1
Total fx 2 5 6 4 1 2 20

When the tallying is completed, we write the number of cases, or the cell frequency. Next we
total the ell frequencies in the rows separately, recording each frequency in the last column
under the heading fy. When this column is filled, we have the total frequency distribution for
the text Y. We also sum the cell frequencies in all the columns, writing sums in the bottom row
headed fx. When completed, this row gives us the total frequency distribution for test X. We
can check the summing of the cell frequencies by adding up the last row and the last column.
Their sums should, of course, both be equal to N-in this case 20.
Phase I1
The product-moment 'r' is computed from the bivariate frequency distribution by the formula

To apply this formula the following steps are followed:

Step 1 : Construct a bivariate frequency distribution for the two variables with frequencies
as shown in the Table 16.6.
Step 2 : For the distribution of X and Y,find out deviations of X and Y score from Assumed
82
 -
Correlation Its Interpretation
and Importance
Statistical Techniques of Analysis Mean for achievement test-I and achievement test - 11. Here the mid point of class-
interval 45-49 for Y score distribution considered as assumed mean. For X score
distribution the mid point of the class-interval 145 - 154 is considered as assumed
mean. See column 9 and row 10.

Find the product of fy' and fxlby multiplying the corresponding frequencies of Y1
and XI and get the sums [see column 10 and row 111.

Step 4 : Find the square of fyl and fxl and get their sums i.e. fy'' and fxl' see column 11
and row 12.
Step 5 : In column 12 and row 13 thefy' and fxl are simply repeated for the checking purpose.
For this each cell frequencies are multiplied by their corresponding deviations of
scores from assumed means i.e. XLand Y1.
To fill column 13 and row 14, i.e. to find out the products of fxl andfyl, the deviation
of corresponding each cell - row-wise and column-wise - are multiplied and then
multiplied with the cell frequency, see the table in second row there is only single
frequency viz 1. Corresponding to this cell in the column the XI deviation is 0 and
corresponding to this cell row the deviation Y1 = +3 the product of two deviations is
0 (+3 x 0 = 0). Put this product in the upper right hand corner of the cell and multiply
the product with the cell frequency. The result is again zero which is recorded in the
left hand corner of the cell and seaparated by a curved line. Likewise all the product
values are calculated and arranged in the lower corner of each cell.
Find the sum of the products of each cell fxlyl the value shown in the brackets of the
cell; column-wise and row-wise.
Step 8 : Find the sum of the last column and row and check the sum. You will find both the
sums are equal. If the sums are not equal than there is a mistake in the calculations of
fxlyl hence re-check the calculations.
Step 9 : After getting all the values, put these in the formula and solve.
Thus, i s the given scattergram

r =
mfx' y' - zfx' zfy '
-(~fX)'}[mfx~'
i({rnfX1*
I
- [zfxl1 ))
I

-
- ,
20 x 2 - (2)(3)
j(20 x 39 - (312}120 x 57 - (2)')

=*

34
==

- 34
21.767x33.70

-
- 34
985.8756

r = +,036
84
iI The correlation between the two achievement tests is nearly zero. -
Correlation Its Interpretation
and Importance
-
16.8 INTERPRETATION OF THE CO-EFFICIENT OF
1 CORRELATION
I Merely computation of correlation does not have any significance until and unless we determine
I how large must the coefficient be in order to be significant, and what does correlation tell us
about the data? What do we mean by the obtained value of coefficient of correlation?
TCIhave an answer, generally, the coefficient of correlation is interpreted in verbal description.
I The rule of thumb for interpreting the size of a correlation coefficient is presented below :-

Size of Correlation , Interpretation

I It1 Perfect Positivelnegative Correlation

+ .90 to + .99 Very High PositiveINegative Correlation
r 3: .70 to + .90 High PositiveINegative Correlation
f .50 to + .70 Moderate PositiveINegative Correlation
P .30 to + .50 Low PositiveINegative Correlation
+ .10 t o + .30 Very low PositiveINegative Correlation
+ . 0 0 t o k .10 Markedly Low and Negligible PositiveINegative
Correlation

16.9 MISINTERPRETATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF

I -- CORRELATION
i Sometimes, we misinterpret the value of coefficient of correlation and establish the cause and
effect relationship, i.e. one variable causing the variation in the other variable. Actually we
cannot interpret in this way unless we have sound logical base. Correlation coefficient gives
us, a quantitative determination of the degree of relationship between two variables X and Y,
not information as to the nature of association between the two variables.
Causation implies an invariable sequence -A always leads to B, whereas correlation is simply
a measure of mutual association between two variables. For example there may be a high
correlation between maladjustment and anxiety: but on the basis of high correlation we cannot
say maladjustment causes anxiety. It may be possible that high anxiety is the cause of
maladjustment. 'This shows that maladjustment and anxiety are mutually associated variables.
Consider another example. There is a high correlation between aptitude in a subject at school
r and the achievement in the subject. At the end of the school examinations will this reflect
causal relationship? It may or may not. Aptitude in the study subject definately causes variation
in the achievement of the subject, but high achievement of the student in the subject is not the
result of the high aptitude only; it may be due to the other variables also.
Thus, when interpreting the size of the correlation co-efficient in terms of cause and effect it is
appropriate, if and only if the variables under investigation provide a logical base for such
internretation.
C l ~ e r lY
3.
i t r ~ ~Progress
r
Kill?! !::IS I'oulld ~ h corl.t:l:~tioi:
c bt;Lwccn S ~ O Cs i / ~ srind int.clligcncc 01' the students o f
I
C'Lasi 1X to IIC + .45. Interpret the result. Is ir legiti~na~c to say that'ar t i ~ cs i x ol'k)ot is
incrc..!sin; tlic intclligcncc ol'the child 1 5 incrcnsinp moderately? Ju.stify your ansvicr.
Statistical Techniques of Analysis
16.10 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SIZE OF THE
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
L e ~ n e r s ~ s h o ualso
l d be aware of the following factors which influence the size of the coefficient
of correlation and can lead to misinterpretation:
1. The size of "r" is very much dependent upon the variability of measured values in the
correlated sample. The greater the variability, the higher will be the correlation, everything
else being equal.
2. The size of "r" is altered, when an investigator selects an extreme group of subjects in
orddr to compare these groups with respect to certain behaviour. "r" obtained from the
comlbined data of extreme groups would be larger than the "r" obtained from a random
sample of the same group.
3. Addition or dropping the extreme cases from the group can lead to change on the size of
"r". Addition of the extreme case may increase the size of correlation, while dropping the
extreme cases will lower the value of "r".

. IN
16.11 IMPORTANCE AND USE OF CORRELATION
EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT AND
EVALUATION
Correlation is one of the most widely used analytic procedures in the field of Educational
Measurement and Evaluation. It not only describes the relationship of paired variables, but it
is also useful in:
a prediction of one variable - the dependent variable on the basis of the other variable the
indppendent variable.
a ' determining the reliability and validity of the test or the question paper.
a detkrmining the role of various correlates to a certain ability.
a facltor analysis technique for determining the factor loadings of the underlying variables
in human abilities.

16.12 LET US SUM UP

Measude of relationship of paired variables is quantified by a coefficient of correlation. The
correlation coefficient is a value between - 1.0 to + 1.O.
It should be noted that a high coefficient does not imply a cause-and-effect relationship, but
merely quantifies a relationship that has been logically established.
The size of the correlation coefficient is affected by the homogeneity of the scores on the
variables. If a relationship exists between two variables and that relationship is linear, then the
more hetrogeneous the scbres and the greater the range of measurement, the greater the absolute
value df correlation.
The cmelation coefficient is very useful in educational evaluation, standardizing tests and in
making predictions.

16.13 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. Calculate the correlation coefficient between the school subjects by pairing different
combinations of the subjects. Determine the utility of this relationship between various
subjects.
2. Collect the half yearly and annual (board) examination marks of class X of any school
a0d determine the relationship between the two sets of scores.
3. Take any bivariate distribution and (a) Add (b) Subtract (c) Multiply (d) Divide any constant
86 number say 10 to each score of both the sets of distribution. Find the value of correlation
I in each case and compare the value of correlation with the value of 'r' obtained from -
Correlation Its Interpretation
original data. and Importance

4. The following judgements of the two judges were obtained for five individuals on their
musical ability. Compute Spearman's Correlation and determine the extent of agreement
of the two judges.
Individuals A B C D E
Judge I 2 3 5 4 1
Judge I1 1 5 4 3 2

5. For the following pairs of values, complete the calculation of coefficient of correlation
by rank difference method.
Subjects A B C D E F G . H
Marks in Maths 13 18 15 10 16 12 14 18
I 2.
Marks in Physics 26 22 24 21 22 29 25 23

6. Calculate Rank Difference Correlation from the following achievement scores of the 10
students.
Students 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Marks in
Sanskrit 15,- 17 21 23 13 17 19 23 25 30
Marks in
Hindi 26 25 24 20 22 23 30 25 21 19

7. Find the Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation between the two sets of scores given below:

16.14 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

I. Why does the homogeniety and hetrogeniety of scores effect the size of correlation?
2. Why does the maximum value of correlation lie between -1 to + l .

[A- 16.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

I 1. i)
ii)
Correlation is the association or relationship between the variation of two variables.
Coefficient of correlation is a number that tells us the extent to which the two given
variables are related or the change in one variable is accompanied by a change in the
other variable.
iii) A coefficient of correlation can vary from a value of + 1.OO to -1.00, through zero.
2. If the increase or decrease in one variable is followed by corresponding increase or decrease
in the other variable, the two variables are said to be positively correlated. But, if the
increase in one variable is followed by corresponding decrease in the other variable or
vice-versa, the two variables are shid to be negatively correlated.
3. The correlation of +.45 found between shoe sizes and intelligence is low positive
correlation. However there is no logical base for this relationship, so the coefficient of
correlation found between shoe sizes and intelligence of the students of Class IX does not
indicate any cause and effect relationship.
Statistical Techniques of Analysis
16.16 SUGGESTED READINGS '
Agarwal, Y.P. (1990), Statistical Methods-Concepts, Applications and Computation, Sterling
Publishets Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
Ferguson, G.A. (1974), "Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education", McGraw Hill
Book Co., New York.
Garrett, H.E. & Woodworth, R.S. (1 969), Statistics in Psychology and Education, Vakils, Feffer
& Simons Pvt. Ltd., Bombay.
Guilford J.P. & Benjamin F. (1973), Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education,
McGraw Hill Book Co., New York.