Dismal State of Social Sciences in Pakistan

Author(s): S. Akbar Zaidi

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, No. 35 (Aug. 31 - Sep. 6, 2002), pp. 3644-3661
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4412553
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 Dismal State of Social Sciences
in Pakistan
This paper attempts to explain and understandthe disnal condition of the social sciences and
social science research in Pakistan. It establishes some encompassing parameters which help
explain why things are the way they are. These include attempts to place the role of Pakistan's
state and its bureaucracy in a certain context, and also delineates on the collapse of
institutionsin Pakistan leading the way for.individuals, rather than institutions, to undertake
and produce research. The dominance and presence of internationaldonors and their roles
with regard to social science research are also discussed at length. There is no 'communityof
scholars' in Pakistan, nor any social science professional association to speak of The paper
argues that with current trends in the academic community,the future for social science and
social science research in Pakistan looks even more bleak.
S AKBARZAIDI

is any agreementandconsensusamongst InternationalRelations, Demography,

Introduction
If one were to pose the following
questionto a varietyof Pakistanisocial
scientists:"Has any Pakistanisocial
scientist,in any of theirfields in the last
threedecades,developed,reconstructed,
reformulated, expandedupon,disputedor
rejected,any theoryor theoreticalformu-
lation,quatheory,or even in the specific
contextof Pakistan?"the answer would
probablybea simple'no'.Orperhaps,one,
or two, or at best three,nameswould be
mentionedby some of them, almost al-
ways with many qualifications, from
amongst the many thousandsof social
scientistsproducedby Pakistanacrossthe
diversedisciplines.What would be con-
tested thoughis whetherindeed, any of
these handfulhave actually contributed
anythingoriginalin orderto be considered
differentfrom the othersocial scientists,
or whetherthey too have merelyrestated
a problem.
Whetherit is in thedisciplineof history,
politics,sociology, anthropology,or even
economics, by far the most dominantof
the social sciences in Pakistan,it would
be difficult to find social scientists who
have made a marked impression even
regionally,leave alone globally, on the
expansionin ideas,theoryandknowledge
relatedto theirdisciplines.At best, a few
mayhavemadesomeimpressiveempirical
contributions,butlittleelse.Pakistanisocial
scientistscontinueto applytheoreticalar-
gumentsandconstructsto Pakistanicon-
ditions,withoutquestioning,debatingor
commentinguponthetheoryitself.If there
Pakistanisocial scientists, it is that the
social sciencesin Pakistanarein a dismal
stateand,thatthings,if theypossiblycan,
aregettingfar worse.Whatis it aboutthe
Pakistansocial science 'condition'which
accountsfor this situation?
Thisquestion,perhapstostartwith,needs
to be answeredwith recourse to some
strandsfromwhatone'cancall a 'political
economy' approach,or fromwhatwould
broadlydescribea 'sociology of know-
ledge' construct.In orderto addressthis
question,we wouldneedto identifysome
characteristicsof Pakistan'ssociety, state
and economy, which would have an im-
pacton theproductionandnatureof social
science.Basedon ourreadingof Pakistani
society and on discussionswith a large
numberofsocialscientistsovermanyyears
and also specificallyfor this paper,} we
identifysuch characteristicsof Pakistani
society which, in orderto keep the scale
andscopeof thispaperwithinmanageable
limits,arenotexplainedinsufficientdegree
and hence are liable to question,debate
and contestation.Nevertheless,we feel
that these assumptionsor claims emerge
fromsomesortof consensusamongstsocial
scientists in Pakistan, and are largely
legitimateandvalid.Beforewe layoutthe
general premises which form the main
theme and directionof this paper,some
general commentsabout the social sci-
ences need to be made.
For the purposesof this paper,in the
contextof Pakistan,thebroadgenericterm
'the social sciences' specifically include
thedisciplinesof PoliticalScience,History,
Sociology, Economics, Anthropology,
PakistanStudies,and whatare knownas
(the different)Area Studies. In termsof
number, prominence,power, privilege,
influenceandvisibility,economicsdomi-
nates all the social sciences collectively.
by a largemultiple.2Forthisreason,there
is far greaterpublishedresearchon the
state of economics in Pakistan,on the
teaching of economics, on institutions
whereresearchon economicstakesplace,
andon economists.In this papertoo, this
dominanceof economics is reflectedin
many places.3
Establishing Broad Parameters4
As a firstpremiseonecanprobablystate
thatgiven thenatureof thePakistanistate,.
where institutionshave been subverted
and side-stepped,and where there is a
strongtendencyfor authoritarianism, the
groups who hold power over the state
thriveon the state'spowerto offerpatron-
age and largesse.State patronage,which
ignoresand overridesinstitutions,norms
and even legality, and is in a positionto
distributeprivileges, will probablygive
rise to a sycophanticculture,whereindi-
vidualsandgroups,even those belonging
to some section of the intelligentsia,will
appeasethe representatives of the statein
order to benefit fromtits largesse. It is
improbablethat dissenting individuals,
creativeor otherwise,and those who do
not 'toe the line', will benefit from the-
structuresandinstitutionsof thestate.This
situationis also likelyto breedconformity
and conservatism,with intellectualsand
theirpursuitscompromisedin theirquest

3644 Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002

for power, recognition and acceptance. or after completion of service, lead to a the dominanceof economistsis precisely
Perhapsthe poor quality of output of social prominent - ministerial - position in this, thateconomicsand economistsplay
scientists, particularly in terms of intel- government in Pakistan.The status of even policy relevantroles, unlikepoliticalsci-
lectual pursuit (as opposed to problem- junior staff members of the lending agen- entists,anthropologistshistorians,etc,and
solving) can be explained by this need for cies stands far higher than that of the thatis whyeconomicsdominatesthesocial
social scientists to find acceptance by the 'generalist civil servants, and particularly sciences in Pakistan.In the context of
institutionsand representatives of the state. with regard to that of the domestic expert. Pakistanthereseems to be no researchin
If the state dominates, and if the bureau- For those economists seeking either power the social sciences which expands the
cracy plays a key role in influencing and or recognition, the signals and route are spectrumof knowledge and ideas, and
running society and, importantly, where well defined. For these reasons, perhaps, Pakistanisocial scientistsareprimarilyin
alternative organic institutions (such as there has been "very little space for the the 'businessof giving advice'.1l Unfor-
mass based political parties) do not exist, contribution to the country's economic tunately,thereis no such thingas policy
the roadto power and influence must travel development by economists outside of irrelevantresearchin the social sciences
through the bureaucratic/stateroute. This government[andtheIFIs],especially'thosein in Pakistan.12
seems to be specifically so for economists the universities and research institutes".8 Onegeneralexplanationgiven by some
who are requiredin the Planning Commis- If the acquisition of power, privilege and socialscientistsforthepoorstatusof social
sion, ministry of finance and other gov- wealth throughthe added structureof state science in Pakistanis the lackof a culture
ernment departments to provide advice patronage is the first-premise which may promotingfree floating discussion and
and formulate policy. Over the years, they help explain the state of social science and debate.13 Many social scientists would
have become influential'and powerful particularlyof economics in Pakistan, the arguethatPakistanis an intolerantsociety
members of the state, and still are able to next premise is felt to be social values, madeupof individualswhoarenotwilling
remaineconomists, unlike say, anthropolo- incentives and clear alternatives which to be criticised, and hence, there is no
gists or historians, who if they joined the dissuade budding academics and social traditionof an exchangeof ideas. Some
civil service, would cease to remain rooted scientists to seriously takeup social science linkthisto theabsenceof democracy,even
in their academic disciplines since their as a profession. Teaching is no longer in its symbolic,electioneeringform.The
particular expertise would no longer be considered to be a 'noble' profession as lackof democracyis a favouritewhipping
required for the purposes of 'problem it was in the past, in sections of society horseformanysocialscientists,andwhile
solving'. Not so for economists. which are rapidly upwardly mobi:; and this could be a cause for many of the
If the acquisition of power, and influ- where economic gain and the acquisition problemsfacedby Pakistan,includingthe
ence, and perhaps even prestige, is an of wealth now determine the new set of lack of a vibrantsocial science culture,it
importantgoal for an economist, then the personalandsocial values.9 Membersfrom is aninsufficientexplanationas it does not
career path for such economists will have the elite and from the upwardly mobile explainhow in numerousothercountries,
to be through government. No academic classes who could play an important role authoritarianism anda lackof democracy
economist wields power or much influ- in the establishment of social science as producea thrivingoppositionto govern-
ence in Pakistan.As Naseem demonstrates a profession, are not likely to turn to mentsupportedby anactivesocialscience
in his historical evaluation of the econo- academics as there are few social and community.Significantly,Pakistanlacks
mics profession in Pakistan: "for a variety material returns from investing in such both.
of reasons, the economics profession has professions, especially given an environ- A convincingargument,on whichmost
been dominated by practitioners, initially ment where business administration and academics concur, which explains the
bureaucrats,ratherthan by those who have computer and technology related fields dismal state of the social sciences in
academic and research interests",5 and offer far more lucrative opportunities. Pakistan,is relatedtothemarkedandhighly
that "governmenteconomists and bureau- Perhapsthis is whythere is only one private visible declineof all sortsof institutions,
cratshave generally enjoyed a much higher sector university which has only recently particularly thosein thepublicsector.This
pecking-order than their academic or re- begun to offer undergraduatedegrees in 'crisis of governance' in World Bank
searchcounterpartsin the Pakistaniecono- the social sciences, while there are literally parlance,is manifestin the visibledemise
mists' establishment".6 One must also add hundreds of colleges, universities and of publicsectoreducationaland research
that, given the acknowledgement that the institutes in the private sector which offer institutionsin Pakistan.This theme re-
institutions of the state in Pakistan are degrees in management, information tech- appearson manyoccasions in this paper
highly corrupt, government sector jobs, nology, and medicine. with regardto specific institutionsand
while providing power and prestige, also Added to the above observation about disciplines.A majorconclusionfromdis-
provide opportunitiesfor untold wealth. In incentives, opportunitiesand priorities,and cussionsheld with social scientistsis that
a society which values wealth for itself and with comments made about state patron- most of the social science researchin the
as a means to other goals, this gives added age and the bureaucracy, there is another publicsectorin Pakistanis done by indi-
impetus. aspect which has been expressed by social vidualswho happento be basedthere,and
While the route through the structures scientists in writing- and as part of this not by the institution,as such.14If these
of the state has been the traditional route study. There seems to be an obsession with handfulof individualswho are active in
to power for economists, over the last 'policy relevant' research in Pakistan. researchare placedsomewhereelse, they
decade or so, the route has shifted to the Particularlyfor economists, and not them wouldcontinuedoing researchregardless
international financial institutions, in alone, there is the need to determine what of wherethey happento be; theirformer
particularto theWorldBank andthe IMF.7 role they can play in the 'development of institution,on theotherhand,wouldprob-
Numerous high profile cases in the last the country' and how they can contribute ably have no researchoutputto speakof.
decade suggest thata stint in either of these to the 'country's development'.10 One Institutionsin the publicsectorno longer
two international institutions can, before explanation by other social scientists for provide a base for social scientists to

Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002 3645

congregate as they once did three decades
ago; there is no academic or intellectual
community. Having said this, however,
there is an important caveat which needs
to be added: while individuals are becom-
ing very important, in some cases even
bigger than the institution itself, the indi-
vidual must be based at an institution.
There is no credible category of the free-
floating 'independent' research scholar.15
(This theme of the individual/institutional
also appears with regard to other ques-
tions, such as links with south Asia, dis-
cussed elsewhere in the text). Interest-
ingly, some privatesector anddonor funded
research institutions, and some non-
governmental organisations, may have
emerged in recent years to replace the
public sector institutions as homes for
research and may in fact, have been able
to 'institutionalise' their research.
To summarise then, there are a number
of encompassing premises or parameters
through which one should examine the
state of the social sciences in Pakistan.
These are: the patronage role of the state;
the prominence of the bureaucracyand its
power and privilege; social and cultural
values which encourage the acquisition of
power, privilege and wealth; an intolerant
culture where dissent and debate are dis-
couraged; and, the lack of any effective,
working,institutionsto speak of, andhence,
outcome and output is based on individual
effort and endeavour.
I1
FivePhasesof Social
ScienceResearch
In order to extract some general pre-
mises on which much of our discussion
and themes are based in the substantive
part of this paper, we have above, made
recourse to issues related to the state, to
society, institutions, structureand culture.
Now, in this present section, where we
need to examine some general and histori-
cal trends in the social sciences, we will
need to identify key aspects of Pakistan's
history which will help us in locating and
determining these trends.
It is not possible to examine the nature
of social science in any country without
.understandingand studying broad trends
in the political economy and the history
of that society, even in the case of countries
which have followed a somewhat steady
trajectoryor evolutionary path. However,
in the case of Pakistan, it is not possible
to talk about the social sciences at all,
or much else for that matter, without
identifying important developments in
3646
the past, many of which have been tur-
bulent and disruptive of steady, evolution-
ary, trends.
There have been a number of phases in
Pakistan's history, each with its unique
and distinctive features having an impact
on the evolution of the social sciences. For
our purposes, perhapsthe first phase 1947-
58, can be called a phase of the continu-
ation of many of the traditions from the
times of pre-independence India, particu-
larlywith regardto education andthe social
sciences. The next phase from 1958-71
can be considered to be one where the
military-bureaucraticnexus set the rules
for much of the administrativestructureof
modem Pakistan,where the huge presence
and influence of the US was most visible
in military, economic, administrative, and
even academic terms. These two phases
also constitute the 25 years of United
Pakistan, a factor having a significant
impact on the social sciences in the coun-
try. The third phase is the first democratic
era in the new Pakistan, from 1971-77, an
era which was far freer and liberal, and
perhaps creative, than any we may have
known. It was not just the ideology and
ethos of the Z A Bhutto regime which
through its policies left a critical mark on
the academic environment in Pakistan, but
also, that this was the formative phase of
the new Pakistan.
The 1977-88 era marksyet anotherstruc-
tural shift in the political economy and
evolution of Pakistan with its imprint of
the 'Ideology of Pakistan', and the state/
public assertion and use of Islam. Without
a doubt, this ideological expression had
not left a hugely significant impact on its
own'times, but perhaps, redefined Paki-
stan once again. Present day Pakistan is
the legacy of the Zia era, despite having
attempted to break free from this past. The
period between 1988-99 or even to the
present, could be treated as yet another
significant period in Pakistan's evolution,
and as we show in subsequent sections,
due more to global and regional changes
rather than to national ones, having an
impact on the social sciences and on re-
search in all disciplines.16
In the first two phases following
Pakistan's creation, research output in the
social sciences was constrained by the
dearth of institutions, such as universities,
and was largely restricted to the univer-
sities of the Punjab,Dhaka, and to Karachi,
Pakistan's first capital. It was a-so limited
to the fields of demography,politics, history
and of course, economics. The composi-
tion of research scholars of that era was
primarilyUrduspeakingmigrants(the latter
Economic and Political Weekly
day muhajirs) who migrated from India to
independent Pakistan, and Bengalis.
Pakistan's social and economic formation
was largely weakly-developed capitalism,
with the urban population a mere 18 per
cent of the population and literacy only 15
per cent. In the discipline of history, the
focus of research was on Muslim United
India and the Freedom Movement in a
nationalistic Islamic guise, on the Muslim
League, and on the period from the early
20th Century up to the Partition of India.
This trend in history continued well into
the 1960s and even later. What was signi-
ficant in the late 1950s and throughoutthe
1960s was the influence of economic
planning andof the Planning Commission,
and of administrative and managerial
concepts related to political science and
political administration, a la Barrington'
Moore andSamuel Huntingtonandtheirilk.
The Pakistan Institute of Development
Economics- (PIDE) set up in Karachi in
1957 with the help of the Ford Foundation
began conducting research on economics
and in demography and since it was, along
with the Planning Commission, the main
source of employment for 'professional'
economists, attracted the best economists
at that time from both -east and west
Pakistan.Their focus of research was very
significantly focused towards solving
young Pakistan's numerous economic
problems and the Instituteplayed an active
role in giving 'policy relevant' advice. An
interesting differentiation between econo-
mists drawn to academics and those drawn
to the policy relevant, problem-solving
bureaucracy, has been pointed out by
Naseem: "a much higher proportion of
good students from east Pakistan were
inclined towards academic and research
careers than those in west Pakistan, who
preferred administrative and civil service
and military careers".17 The consequence
of this difference, according to Naseem,
was expressed when east Pakistan became
Bangladesh when it was quickly able to
set up the Bangladesh Institute of Devel-
opment Studies, unlike Pakistan, where
the "economics profession paid the price
for the neglect of research and academic
activities as a result of its overemphasis
of any zeal for policy-making and planning
functions".18
Pakistan's first 20 years, particularlythe
second 10 years, were very heavily influ-
enced by western, and particularly,Ameri-
can contacts.19 The Pakistani intelligen-
tsia was very closely linked with the west,
and the bureaucracy had close links with
Britain and the US. Not only was the
curriculum of university courses in politi-
August 31, 2002
cal science and in economics drawnalmost
exclusively from primarily US and from
some British texts and sources, but many
of the well known western political sci-
entistsof thatera,came andworked, taught,
and wrote in and on Pakistan. Samuel
Huntington, Gunnar Myrdal, Gustav
Papanek,and Ralph Briabanti,to name but
a very few, all had had stints in Pakistan,
either as advisors, or doing research and/
or teaching, although as one observer has
written about economists, "their main
interest was of gaining experience in a
developing countrywhich would help-them
rise on the economic ladder at home".20
Infact, it is difficult to think of any analysis
in the form of a book produced by any
Pakistanieconomistuntilwell intothe 1960s;
all the research in that era was undertaken
by British and American economists. In-
terestingly,as Inayatullahpointsout, unlike
the 1950s and 1960s when a "large number
of social scientists were importedas teach-
ers, advisersand consultants, in [the] 1980s
there are very few foreign social scientists
working in Pakistan".21
The Ayub Khan government's heavy
dependence on the US, in terms of advice
and economic and military aid, with ad-
ditional assistance for education and in-
stitutional development from the Ford
Foundation, and USAID, and with the
presence of the HarvardAdvisory Group,
meant that not only were American poli-
cies and theories taught, but not surpris-
ingly, many Pakistani scholars also deve-
loped their empirical work strongly
located in the Anglo-US academic tradi-
tion in the political and economic sciences.
Mainly American, and some other western
political scientists, anthropologists and
management advisors were sitting at the
heart of academic and administrative
Pakistan, documenting and supporting
Pakistan's modernising economic and
political agenda.
Towardstheend ofthe 1960s as it became
clear thateast Pakistanwas being discrimi-
nated against, in the eastern province, and
eventually amongstwell established main-
stream social scientists, studies and re-
search began to emerge which showed the
extent and nature of this discrimination.
Social science research took on a notice-
ably political colour, perhaps for the first
time, a trend which was to continue till
about 1977. The political revolution which
took place from the late 1960s onwards
in what was left of United Pakistan had
a democratic and leftist colour, which was
reflected in the type of research being
undertaken.Studies were published which
showed the extent of income and regional
Economic and Political Weekly August 31, 2002
inequality, some on the rising expression
of different forms of nationalism, on the
state, and many other subjects. This was
a highly political and politicised era which
had also enlarged its composition to in-
clude a newly emergentmiddleclass, which
was vocal and had played a key role in the
movement to bringdemocracy to Pakistan.
New colleges and universities were opened
in the public sector to cater to this group
which allowed these social groups to
acquire education for the first time, and
the policy of nationalisation of education
also contributed in allowing middle and
lower middle income students to go to
school. This was an active period of re-
search in the social sciences, when re-
search was far freer and open, secular,
political, interventionist and activist.22
With the end of the Bhutto regime, a new
Islamic ideology began to dominate every
single aspect of Pakistan's existence, and
social science was, perhaps, at the fore-
front of this reaction.
As Islam and Islamic ideology became
the hallmark of the Zia regime, we began
to see deep structural influences of this
ideology on different aspects of society.
Research under the bannerof Islam began
to thrive and there were considerable at-
tempts to recast Pakistan's identity. There
was a conscious move on partof the military
government of General Zia to dislodge
Pakistan from its south Asian roots and to
re-orient Pakistan into a Muslim, middle
and central Asian nexus. A new sense of
identity and identification was invented
with Islam playing the pivotal, cementing,
medium.
Given the basic premise of the role of
the state and its power and hegemony over
patronage, as discussed above, aspirants
to power and higher office in universities
and in research institutions, began to toe
the line and became part of the Islamic
'resurgence'. Economics became 'Islamic
economics', anthropology,Islamic anthro-
pology, research in history started focus-
ing far more on the Islamic dimension, and
the only sort of history which began to be
promoted was that related to the Pakistan
Movement and the Muslim Freedom
struggle in United India. Also, with at-
tempts to reinvent Pakistan's 'ideology' in
Islamic terms, much of the research in
political science and other social science
disciplines could not have but been influ-
enced by these important macro trends.
The establishment of the International
Islamic University in Islamabad in 1980
is part of this trend.
A key phenomenon which emerged most
forcefully in the 1980s, though not related
to the government's policy of Islamisation,
which was to have major repercussions on
the nature of social transformation in
Pakistan,was what is called the Gulf Boom.
Large amounts of remittances from Paki-
stani workers in the Gulf states made their
way back to Pakistan and much of this
money,helpedcreatenew andwealthy social
groups in dispersed regions across the
country. One of the many manifestations
of this newly rich class was the demand
for better education, at all levels. The
response by the state was not an attempt
to improve the quality of public sector
education, which was in decline, but to
allow a private sector parallel system,
particularlyat the higher levels, to emerge.
Pakistan in the post-Zia period is still
muchaffected by the majorchangesbrought
about by the military government between
1977 and 1988 and change since then has
been noticeable but slow. Probably the
greatest single change that has come about
since the end of the 1980s, which has had
an impact on society and the social sci-
ences in Pakistan, is that of globalisation
in its different forms and manifestations.
Moreover, not surprisingly, the post-So-
viet world has also had an impact on
research in Politics, History and the Social
Sciences. Yet another importantphenom-
enon in the context of Pakistan is the
highly visible presence of donors and of
nongovernmental organisations, many of
which were involved in research them-
selves or funded research institutions and
projects.
Pakistan's economy since the end of the
1980s, became dependent upon and domi-
nated by the World Bank and the Inter-
nationalMonetaryFundwho imposed their
advisors and programmes on Pakistan.
Pakistan's economic policies became the
IMF's structuraladjustment programmes,
where cuts in the budget and support for
the private sector, played a key role. This
then had an impact on education. How-
ever, significantly, research in economics
was affected considerably by the World
Bank/IMF economic programme. While
government economists and the various
government institutions and departments
churned out data and reportsjustifying the
economic policies which all governments
were following since 1988, therewas some
revival of political academics amongst
some economists, with some researchers
arguing against the imposition of struc-
tural adjustment showing its deleterious
consequences. There was never really an
exchange. of ideas or debate between the
government and nongovernmental econo-
mists, but those who carried out research
3647
to show the negative consequences of these
policies were increasingly listened to by
the public at large.
With the end of the cold war and with
the demise of the Soviet Union, disciplines
like political science and international
relations, changed considerably, also on
account of the changing Pakistan-US re-
lationship. In the cold war era, much of
the research in these disciplines was con-
cerned with US-Soviet relations and their
impact on the region and on Afghanistan
and Pakistan. Later there was a shift to-
wards nuclear issues and a continuing
interest on India-Pakistan relations with
Kashmirbeing the pivotal issue. However,
although Kashmir and India have defined
Pakistan's domestic political economy and
along with Afghanistan, Pakistan's for-
eign policy, research on the Kashmir/
India issue, both in terms of quality and
quantity, does not reflect the centrality of
its presence.
With a considerable and sharply grow-
ing donor influence in Pakistan since the
1990s, much of the researchagenda is now
determined, if not dominated, by donors,
NGOs and by international themes and
issues, not all of which are relevant to
Pakistan. Not just economists, but politi-
cal scientists, sociologists and others, have
increasingly been working on themes
propagated by the International Financial
Institutionsand other donors, themes such
as governance, decentralisation, local
government reform, and the like. Foreign
NGOs and other donors fund projects
with a specific angle and projects which
are far more applied and problem-solving
oriented, than those which have academic
or intellectual ambitions. This means that
academics are drawn further away from
academic and intellectual pursuits, and
join bureaucrats and donors to 'solve
Pakistan's problems'. Another very im-
portantaspect of the role and presence of
donors in Pakistan is that they have the
money to pay for whatever research they
want done. Funds are short in the public
sector and with far greater opportunities
emergingoutsideacademia,manyresearch-
ers are able to stay on in the public sector
by supplementing their incomes through
consulting for donors and other NGOs,
although very often this does take them
away from 'academic' research.
We conclude this brief history of the
social sciences in Pakistan with a number
of points which relate to our paper. The
first relates to Pakistan's academic
diaspora. Amongst the points of unani-
mous agreement amongst social scientists
in Pakistan, one which must surely be
3648
rankednearthe top is the consensusthat KarachiandIslamabad,normanygovern-
of thePakistaniacademicswhohavemade mentor non-government centresor insti-
a nameforthemselves;all, withoutexcep- tutionswhichfeaturein almostanyof my
tion,havemadethatnamewhilelivingand lists. Clearly, both Baluchistanand the
workingabroad.In the last 30 yearscer- NWFP do not registeron the'Pakistani
tainly,no Pakistanisocial scientistbased social science map. Perhaps the only
in Pakistanhas mademuchof an intellec- exceptionis one centreat PeshawarUni-
tualcontribution to theirdiscipline.23
This versitywhich has students,some faculty
is not a recentrevelation,for Inayatullah and also publishespapersand a journal.
in the 1980s writes, that "the best work In termsof southAsianconnections,both
by Pakistanischolarshas been produced provincesare, literally,far removed,and
by those living in the west".24a view hence,have few connectionsif any at all,
shared by Qureishi: "those living and with south Asia.
workingabroad.havebeen moreprolific It is importantto statethatwhatconsti-
andmorearticulate becausetheyhavebetter tutessocial sciencein this study,is exclu-
facilitiesandcongenialenvironments".25 sively SocialSciencein English:Urduand
While the structuralreasons given here otherlanguageshavebeenexcluded.This
'betterfacilities and congenial environ- is likelyto be a contentiousissuefor some
ments' may be contested,what is not, is readers,but most social scientists inter-
the supremacy of the diaspora in the viewed for this studysupportthe general
Pakistanisocial science hierarchy. premisethat 'social science' in Pakistan
An issue which emerges continuously is only undertakenin English.Almostall
throughoutthis paper,concernsthe lop- university-leveleducation- professional
sidedregionalcoveragegivento thesocial or general- takes place in English. En-
sciences.Themaincentresfortheproduc- glish, hence,is requiredto teach,readand
tion of social science researchand teach- understand thesocialsciences,despitethe
ing are, Islamabad,Karachiand Lahore. fact thatveryfew Pakistanisactuallyread
WithIslamabadhousingtwo largeuniver- or writeEnglish.This also meansthatwe
sities- theQuaidAzamUniversityandthe havea verynarrowandpointedpyramidal
International IslamicUniversity-and with educationstructurewhichaccountsfor so
governmentanddonorslocatedhere,there few tertiary-levelstudents.
are a number of active NGOs which This does exclude much of the work
undertake 'research',andthereareresearch done in Urdu,Sindhi,Baluchior Brahevi,
institutionssupportedby governmentand butmanyacademicswouldexcludethese
donors.Islamabad, hence,notsurprisingly, worksfornumerousreasons,primarilyfor
is a 'natural'centre for social science it not being 'academic' or researched,
production/output. Karachi,also, has the enough.27 Punjabiand Baluchi do not
advantageof beingthe old capitalandthe have active and effective scriptsin use,
largestcity and has a largepopulationof whilethescriptforPushtois limitedlargely
students,institutionsandsocial scientists. to a public or newspaper-reading level.
Lahorehas a long traditionof social sci- Sindhi does have a vibrantand historic
ence andintellectualoutput,andhassome scriptwhich seems to have slowed in its
of the oldest educationalinstitutionsin developmentas a scriptover the last few
south Asia. Also, since it is the second decades. While there is a large Sindhi
largestcity in Pakistan,with an extensive literature,it seems to be limited to con-
hinterland, it has access to numerous temporarypolitics, literature,poetryand
students and scholars from aroundthe to information/news. Sindhidoes nothave
province.Thecase of Baluchistanandthe a dynamicsocial science literatureandat
NWFPis differentintermsof structure and best some translationsof articlesfromthe
institutionsandone cansee thatin thecase Englishlanguageare available.The case
of institutions,authorsor scholars,almost of Urduis similar,thoughnotas bad.Urdu
none from the NWFP or Baluchistan has also not developed a modernsocial
featurein the main argumentsregarding science lingua/discourse, although is
social science research/institutionsin widely used and readmainlyin the form
Pakistan.This is simply becausethey do of newspapers,magazinesand informa-
not have a presence. In the review of tion,as well as for primaryandsecondary
journalsor booksundertaken,26 veryfew level educationtexts. It does not have a
authorsfromthesetwoprovincesappears; social science cultureespeciallyat higher
the same can be said about the papers levels of abstraction.However,a number
presented at the Pakistan Society for of attemptsto translateEnglishlanguage
DevelopmentEconomistsdiscussedin a texts in History,PoliticsandInternational
section below. There are no journalsor Relations(and some in Economics)into
donor-fundedresearchintitti as in Urdu does take place frequently,and it
institutions,
Economic and Political Weekly August 31, 2002
seems, is effective.However,while there
is a very largereadingpublic in Urdu,a
largenumberof booksareaboutpolitics,
biographies,and histories.Perhapswhat
constitutes'socialscience'inUrduis rather
differentand very general,comparedto
even the not-so-goodoutputproducedin
English.Clearly, this is an unresolved,
debatableand even controversial,issue.
III
of Social
Institutions
ScienceResearch
This sectionbrieflymentionsa number
of organisationsand institutionswhich
havesomethingto do withdataandsocial
science outputand with researchin the
social sciences.
The governmenthas scores of depart-
mentswhichcollectanddisseminatelarge
amountsof data,information andstatistics
relatedto someaspectof whatonecanvery
broadly call 'the social sciences'. No
researcher,particularlyin the area of
developmentoreconomics,can ignorethe
outputof organisationsand departments
such as-the:AgricultureCensus Organi-
sation;the differentBureau(s)of Statis-
tics, at each of the fourprovinces,Sindh,
Punjab,NWFPandBaluchistan;the Cen-
tralBoardof Revenue;the large number
of publications of thefinancedivision,one
of the mainsourcesof informationfor all
economic related data with its annual
PakistanEconomicSurvey,which is the
biblefor anyonewantingto work on the
economyorondevelopmentissuesinterms
of data and informationprovided. The
FederalBureauof Statistics,also one of
themajorsourcesof dataandinformation
on almostall aspectsof the economyand
society. The State Bank of Pakistanlike
the ministryof finance and the finance
division,producesitsAnnualReportwhich
also has a largeamountof essentiald4ta
and increasingly,interestinganalysis on
the state of Pakistan'seconomy. While
very muchpartof government,the State
Bank likes to consideritself to be inde-
pendent,and does often commentupon,
if not directly critique,the ministryof
finance's position.
Apartfrom governmentorganisations
and departments,there are university
socialsciencedepartments andcentresthat
also do significantresearch.However,it
is importantat this pointto assertone of
ourbasicpremiseselaboratedin anearlier
section,thatperhaps,it is not the depart-
ment/institution whichdoes research,but
afewindividuals whohappentobeworking
there.This is the case with autonomous
Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002
institutionsas well. A professorwho was
interviewedfor this study said that the
threeseniormostprofessorsin thedepart-
mentwho wereall set to retiretogetherin
a few yearshad,betweenthem,140public-
ations;the restof the facultyof eight,had
sevenpapersbetweenthem,someof which
were co-authoredby these professors.
The main autonomousresearchinsti-
tutes, funded by governmentand non-
governmentsources,includethe follow-
ing: at KarachiUniversity,the Applied
Economics Research Centre which is
fundedby the UniversityGrantsCommis-
sion; the Institutefor EducationalDevel-
opment,of the Aga KhanUniversityalso
does researchon genderandon education
and the Social Policy and Development
Centre,Karachi,a donor-funded(Cana-
dianInternational DevelopmentAgency-
CIDA) organisationdoes researchin a
numberof areasrelatedto the social sec-
tors. In Islamabad,the PakistanInstitute
of DevelopmentEconomicsis fundedby
governmentanddoes researchin econom-
ics and demography.The Sustainable
DevelopmentPolicyInstituteis fundedby
CIDA as well, and the Mahbubul Haq
HumanDevelopmentCentre,is a private
not-for-profit organisation funded by
UNDP. The FriedrichEdbertStiftung is
aGermanorganisation whichcommissions
research on issues of Governanceand
Decentralisation. TheInstituteof Strategic
Studiesis a non-profitsupposedlyautono-
mousresearchcentreworkingon interna-
tional and regionalissues fundedby the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, while the
Instituteof RegionalStudiesproduceswork
on numerousissues relatedto a vast re-
gion,fromcentralandmiddleeasternAsia,
to south-eastAsia. In Peshawar,the Pa-
kistanAcademyfor RuralDevelopment,
andthe Instituteof DevelopmentStudies,
NWFP, are governmentfundedresearch
institutes,bothway pasttheirprime,very
much like the once formidablePunjab
EconomicResearchInstitute,at Lahore,
and the Sindh Development Centre,
JamshoroUniversity,Sindh.
While not research'institutes'as such,
given the overpowering presence and
dominance of donors in Pakistan,and
particularlyof the internationalfinancial
institutions,one cannotbutmentionsome
of theirIslamabadoffices.Theseregional/
nationaloffices of these donorsproduce
a largearrayof reportsandstudies,some
by their own staff and otherswhich are
commissioned out and undertakenby
consultants.No researchercan ignorethe
research/studies whichcome out of these
organisations.They include, the World
Bank,AsianDevelopmentBank,Interna-
tional LabourOrganisation,United Na-
tionsDevelopmentProgramme, andUnited
Nations Children'sFund.
Whiletherearemanythousandsof NGOs
operatingin Pakistan,perhapsveryfew do
whatone wouldcall 'research',andsocial
science researchwouldbe done by fewer
still. Some NGOs would probablyreport
their activities and perhapswrite some-
thing about their project area, but this
wouldprobablybe information/documen-
tationratherthanresearchedoutput.Also,
the scope of the informationor research
wouldbe highlyfocusedandverynarrow.
Thereis also a problemof the dissemina-
tion of the research.Many non-govern-
mentalorganisationsguardtheirworkand
arenot veryopenaboutwhattheypublish
and about their activities and prefer to
workin a low-keymanner.Thedistinction
between informationand researchis re-
lated to the purposeof the outputwhich
will have an impacton the qualityof the
output/research. If reportsaremeanteither
for internalcirculationor for donorsand
for funding,the productwill be focused
towardsthe specific requirementsof the
client.If researchor outputis to be widely
disseminated,then it is probablethatthe
issues, theme and characteristicsof the
study/researchwill be broaderand could
be includedin the categoryof social sci-
ence 'research'.One agrees with Haque
and Khan who argue that, "the NGOs
workingin theeconomicandsocialsectors
havebeenableto attractmanyeconomists
to workforthem.Almostall thisworkhas
no serious academicor researchcontent
- infact,it is anti-intellectual
sinceit wants
immediateanswersto self servingpropo-
sitions or questions ...".28
Becausethereareno forumswheresuch
reportsare reviewed- whetherfor their
methodology,content,style,orscope- the
outputis likely to be very highly varied.
SomeNGOsdohirewell-educated,though
untrained,(usuallyyoung, foreignquali-
fied)socialscientistswho usuallyworkon
their own underlittle academic/research
supervision.Becauseof thesefactors,it is
very difficultto generaliseaboutthe out-
putof NGOs.Havingsaidthat,one cannot
also deny the fact that there are some
organisations whichareproducingresearch
of betterqualityand also have the desire
andconfidenceto widelydisseminatetheir
output.Notsurprisingly,however,mostof
the researchoutputof theseorganisations
is relatedto theirline of workand exper-
tise, and is often project-specific.Most
NGOs simply provideinformation/docu-
mentationrelatedto their own projects
3649
althoughsomeclaimthat'theydoresearch' strongly here. While there are say, well ever, given this dominance, one feels that
and have researched publications and qualified Masters-level political scientists this collaboration is far less than what can
monographswhichsupportthisclaim;yet or anthropologists working in NGOs, they be accomplished.
much of this output is out-sourcedand are not really working as 'social scientists'
undertakenby researchersworkingelse- and may be doing no research. Besides, Journals
where who are paid an honorariumto what goes by the name of 'research' in
contribute-something to the researchout- NGOs is highly questionable. The main theme of this paper has been
put of that particularNGO. that social science in general, and social
Duringthe courseof this study,all the IV science research in particular,in Pakistan,
academicsinterviewedwereaskedto name SocialScienceOutput: is dying a visible death. Perhaps much of
10 of the majoror mainresearchinstitu- BooksandJournals the evidence and information presented in
tions in the country.Not a single scholar various sections of this paper supports this
could come up-witheven 10 names. No Books claim which is unanimously agreed to by
one came up with morethanfive names, almost every single serious social scientist
and four instituteswere more or less on The main publishers of social science in Pakistan. This judgment is made even
everyone's list, with maybe one or two books in Pakistan in English, are Oxford stronger when we consider the state and
addedon by one or two of the scholars; University Press and Vanguard Books. frequency of academic journals in Paki-
somenamestheythemselvesrejectedsince There are a few other publishers, such as stan.
theydidnotinspireanyconfidence.There Sang-e-Meel and Ferozsons who publish This list of 22 'journals' is perhaps the
couldbe no bettertellingcommentaryon social science books in English, but this complete list of journals published in
the stateof social-sciences and on social forms a small percentage of their output Pakistan in the social sciences. It is clear,
science researchin Pakistan. as they publish far more books in Urdu on that of our seven disciplines chosen for
general themes as well. City Press is a analysis, there are no journals dedicated
Number of Social Scientists recently formed independent publishing to political science, anthropology, demog-
house which has published a few books raphy, history (other than Islamic/Muslim
If we estimatethe numberof 'active' in English. The standardof publication for history) or sociology. Most journals are
researchers,fromeach of the disciplines, books varies as much as it does forjournals multidisciplinary, rather than specialist
basedon our own knowledgeaboutpub- and it is difficult to draw any conclusions journals. Also, most importantly,only three
licationsand the state of social sciences, based on titles.29 of these 22 arerefereedjournals.The quality
and add to that commentsand opinions Vanguard Books have reprinteda num- (if that is the right word) of many of the
from those academics interviewed,the ber of books by British colonialists under papers published in Pakistani 'journals'
followingpictureemerges.Theeconomists the Exploring Central Asia and Great suggests, that these papers are not even
interviewedfelt thatthere were between Explorations series, which make up a large internally screened by the editorial com-
250-300economistsin Pakistanrelatedin share of all their books published since mittee of the publication.
some way to economics,either teaching 1995. Sang-e-Meel, have also published It is quite possible that the table above
or doing researchin universities,at some 33 District Gazetteers from the British gives the impression that there is a vibrant
kindof researchinstitute,or with donors times at the turn of the 19/20th centuries, exchange of ideas and the dissemination
andNGOs.Of these,they felt, thatat best 21 of which are published after 1995. In of knowledge and research through these
50, would be considered active social addition they have reprinted 35 books by journals, but the reality could not be farther
scientists/economists involvedinresearch, Britishers of the Raj, on history, explora- from the truth. The last two columns of
the standardsandqualityof whomwould tion and on their impressions and interpre- the table reveal that while some journals
be very variableand perhapsfor some, tations of British India. Seen from have been around for two or three decades
even 'suspect'.Forhistory,thereweresaid Vanguard's and Sang-e-Meel's publica- even, they are now running well behind
to be at most70 historiansof whichseven tion record, British India seems to be a schedule and many have even ceased
weresaidto be active,mostof whomwere favourite topic for publication, but one publication. As an example, if we take two
eitherretiredor workingoutside any in- wonders who the clientele for these books of the three main (only) economic journals
stitution.About80 politicalscientistsare is: it certainly isn't history departments in Pakistan Economic and Social Review,
said to exist of which perhapseight are Pakistan. and the Pakistan Journal of Applied Eco-
active.In international relationstoo, there OxfordUniversityPress hasconcentrated nomics, botharetwo andthreeyears behind
aresaid to be 70 to 80 social scientistsof increasingly on biographies and similar schedule, respectively. Clearly, in a coun-
whom perhaps 15 are doing active re- reminisces and on non-academic books by trywhereeconomics dominates in the social
search.Inall otherdisciplinesin thesocial retired bureaucrats, generals and politi- sciences, this pattern suggests a growing
sciences,the ratiois not morethan10 per cians. City Press has concentrated on and sharp crisis in the field of economics
cent of the total mass of'availablesocial the urban environment, and on books specifically, and in the social sciences,
scientists. largely by one author. Not surprisingly, more generally.
It-isnot easy to estimatethe numberof being a multinational publishing house Journals are less an avenue to deliberate
social scientists working with NGOs in and given very little competition, OUP upon academic issues related to enhancing
Pakistan.If one was to makea guesstimate dominates the publishing business in knowledge related to a particular disci-
about the size of this community,then Pakistan in every sense of the word. This pline, but have become sources for aca-
perhapsthenumberwouldbe no morethan also allows it to attract far more serious demics and scholars located at the host
one hundred,althoughmanyof the quali- scholars from Pakistan and abroad, and institution (of the Journal) to further their
ficationsmentionedabove aboutthe 're- allows far greater collaboration between careers. This we observe in the case of the
search'of NGOs,wouldapplyeven more scholars from different countries. How- PSDE and the Pakistan Development

3650 Economicand Political Weekly August 31, 2002

Review, but is not uncommon elsewhere. Table 1: Pakistani Books in the Social Sciences 1995-2001
Two examples emphasise this trend ad- Area No Details
equately. The Journal of Research: Hu-
manities, from the Bahauddin Zakariya (A) Vanguard Publishers
Pak History 10 3 by a single PakistaniHistorian,3 retiredjudges, 1 UKHistorian
University in Multan, produced one vol- CentralAsia/British 38 A seriesofbooksinVanguard's Exploring CentralandAsiaandGreatExplorations
ume each in 1999 and 2000, comprising India categories, writtenby Britishersin the late 19th-early20th Century
of a single issue both times, each with S A Politicsmainly 7 1 US academic/policyanalyst, 1 US academic, 1 Indianacademic, 1 US
nuclear Pak academic, 2 SA seminars
about 140 pages in all. Of the 20 papers Economics/ 14 .4ConferenceProceedingsbySDPI,2 conferencesbySPDC,6 Pakacademics
in these two issues/volumes, 17 were from Development (1 edited, 4 collections, 1 jointPak academics), 1 WorldBank Pak
the humanities and other social sciences Misc 11 2 on Afghanistan(1 edited Pak, US academics, jrnlsts,1 USacademic),
3 Criminology(retiredjudges, police)3 Sociology/Linguisticsby same author
departmentsof the same university. Karachi
University, one of the two largest univer- (B) Oxford University Press
sities in Pakistan, earlier this year pro- Pak politics 10 6 retdmly/bureaucrats, 1 journalist,1 Pakacademic,1 US developmentworker
duced its Journal of Social Sciences and C Asia, Afghan,Iran 8 2 Pakdiplomats,2 Europeanjrnlsts,1 UKacademic,1 US academic, 1 Iranian
academic, 1 Turkishdiplomat
Humanities. What is important to note, is ForeignPolicy 3 2 Pak diplomats,1 US diplomat
that it took five years for it to do so and Econ/Dev 19 4 Pakacademics,2 Pakacademicsabroad,4 dev workers,3 PakWorldBank/
the inauguralissues is the single 150 page donor,4 edited (2 Pak numerousacademics, 1 Pak on education, 1 S Asian
collaboration,1 Bangladesh/UK/USpapers)
joint Volume I and 2 1996-2000! More- Pak Army 3 2 retdmly, 1 US academic
omer, of the 20 contributions (many of SA History 9 Pak diplomat,Indiandiplomat,Indianjournalist,Pak academic abroad,UK
themjoint papers) as many as 19 are from -Historian,1 jointPak/UKacademics,
Karachi University itself. These are just Pak History 24 9 Pakiacademics in Pak (five PhD dissertations),5 foreignnon-SAsian
two of numerous examples which abound academics, 1 Indianacademic, 3 Pak academics abroad, I Pak politician,2
Pak bureaucrats,1 edited by Pak academic withPak/UScontributions.
in Pakistan which confirm the view-that Law/Constitut 4 AllPak lawyers
what is produced in the name of social Media 2 1 by two UKBBCreporters,1 Pak diplomat
science in Pakistan, is rathersuspect. Next PakCompendiums 5 Allhave dozens of Pakand foreignacademics, jrnlst,diplomats,bureaucrats,
we present some details about the contents contributing.4 edited by Pak (onlyone academic), 1UKjrnlst
Islam 6 2 US/UKacademics, 1 Pak academic abroad, 1 Pak academic, 1 B'gladesh
of five of Pakistan's main journals. academic
Misc 7 2 bysan , Pakacademicson Linguistic,1 on Pakcinemabya Pakfilmmaker,
What Are the Journals 1 anthropologyUKacademic, 1 UK/US/Pak'scholars'on anthropology
Publishing? (C) City Press
UrbanDev/ Housing 15 AllPakistaniwriters;8 by one author,2 by two others, 2 collaboratedbooks
The Pakistan Development Review withPak and UKacademics as conference proceedings,
His of Tech in Pak 1 Retiredbureaucrat/devworker
(PDR) is without much doubt, considered South Asian hist/cul 1 Retiredbureauqrat/dev Muslimmindset
worker(as above);on the pre-partition
to be Pakistan's leading journal in any
discipline. It has an international board of (D) Sang-e-Meel
'History"1
referees which includes Nobel Laureates Gazetteers
35 Reprintsof writingsfromthe BritishRaj,by BritishColonialists
21 DistrictGazetteersfromthe BritishRajat the turnof the 19/20thcenturyof
in Economics, as well as well known regions thatbecame Pakistanand some of whichare in present day Indian
economists. While one does not know for Punjab
sure what role these big names play on the History,Pak 23 7 booksbyone Pakacademichistorian/anthropologist on C AsiaAfghanistan,
and othersubj;5 books by one authoron architecturalhistoryof sites and
Board and whether they are at all active, cities in Pak;others on Pak, SA, Britishhistory,all single authored,many
articles submitted to the PDR are, never- authorshave two books
theless, reviewed by leading social scien- PoliticsPak 7 2 bythreeauthorseach, includingtwoof a Pakhistorianreprinted fromthe west
tists in their fields. This is unlike the case Defence/Mlyst 3 2 by a Pak based academic, the otheralso Pak based academic
of most other journals in Pakistan. More- (E) Ten OUP Edited Volumes Analysed Furtherfor Contributors
over, PDR is not simply restricted to Contributors
Subject
economists, as demographers and other
social scientists also occasionally contrib- ForeignPolicy 29 articles,allsingle-authored.11 Pakacademics, 6 researchers,5 jrnlsts/writers,1
each US, Russian, academic
ute, althougheconomists do heavily domi- Pak Nuclear
nate. The focus of the journal is, almost S Asia and the Policy 5 articles,2 byeditors(PakacademicinUS, USacademic),2 Pakphysicists,1 Pakjrnlst
16 articles,conference proceedings,all butone single-authored;8 academics
exclusively on Pakistan, where more gen- -west Asia fromMEast,2 Pak,1 India;1 Pakresearcher,1 Bangladeshlesearcher, 1 Indianand
eral or theoretical articles seldom appear. Pak jrnlsts
For any social scientist, particularly an Contemporary Fourthvolumeof Pak BriefingSeries preparedwithAmericanInstof Pak Studies;
Pak politics 9 articles,6 US academics, 1 jointPak academics, 1 Pak academic in US, 1 US
economist, they can only ignore the jour- diplomat,1 Pak bureaucrat
nal at their own peril. Partition 13 conferencepapers,6 Pakacademicabroad,4 Indianacademic, 2 UKacademic,
Forour purposes,examining the last five Pak at 50 many 14 single-authoredpapers, 3 Pak lawyers, 1 retdGeneral, 1 retdbureaucrat,3 US
years of the journal, we can see that since Pak disciplines academics, 3 Pak academics abroad, 1 US 1 Pak diplomats
at 50 many 34 newspaperarticles;mainlyIndianand Pakistanijournalists,some othersouthAsian,
its Spring 1995 issue, the Pakistan Deve- a handfulof Pak, Indianacademics.
disciplines
lopment Review has published regularly Pak Education 11 articles,3 WorldBank/UN,2 Pak consultants,5 Pak academics (inc physics,
till its latest issue of Summer 2001, and chemistry)
is on schedule. The PDR is a quarterly Development 7 papers, 5 co-authored(allfive Pak),4 Pak academics, 1 Pakactivist,1 European
one the most academic
journal, although issue, Pak Economyat 50 13 papers, 4 co-authored;all 14 Pak contributors;5 IMF/World Bank/UN,1 Pak
voluminous of the four, is dedicated to the academic abroad,3 Pak business schools, 5 research institutes.
Conference Proceedings of the Pakistan

Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002 3651

Societyof DevelopmentEconomistseach Relationsand/orPolitical Science, with 14 articles are by faculty at the Karachi
year- dueto the natureof theConference particularreferenceto south Asia. How- University in the departments of interna-
Proceedings, these issues of PDR are ever, one must emphasisethat most are tional relations, political science and
discussedseparately. mid-levelteachers,andthereareveryfew business studies. Given the severe dearth
Since Spring1995(excludingthe Con- well knownscholarsin theirvariousdis- of journals in Pakistan and particularlyat
ferenceProceedings),72 papershavebeen ciplinescontributingto theJournal.There KarachiUniversity, PakistanPerspectives,
publishedof which22 (30 percent)were are four paperseach by Saudi Arabian in many ways, acts as the in-house journal
published by staff and faculty at the scholars,four by otherscholarsworking for the University. It also has contributions
PakistanInstituteof Development Eco- in and on the west Asia, as well as by from judges, civil servants, human'rights
nomics(PIDE).Mostjournalsin Pakistan scholarsbasedin the US andthe UK, and activists, ambassadors, journalists (13
have this 'in-house' aspect to them and fromNigeria.Also, thereare four papers papers), four papers by Pakistani social
providespaceto theirown faculty.Some from India,and four more from the rest scientists working abroad, as well as by
institutionshavemadethisintoanartform of south Asia. three natural scientists writing on larger
wherealmostall articlesareby facultyof Pakistan Perspectives which startedout social and political issues. There are also
thesamedepartment or institution.Never- only in 1995 from the PakistanStudy five papers by researchers in other private
theless,PDRdoes also have a trulyinter: Centre,Universityof Karachi,is also a and autonomous research organisations.
nationalflavour,unlikeany otherjournal non-refereedbi-annualpublicationwhich One factor which cannot be ignored from
in the social sciences in Pakistanand this differsfromotherjournals.Firstly,it is a the contribution in the Journal, is the fact
helpsmaintainits reputationas Pakistan's trulymultidimensional socialsciencejour- that there are at least four individuals who
best social science journal. Of the 72 nalcoveringtopicsonPakistanwhichrange have contributedthreeor four articleseach,
articles,as manyas 17 werefromscholars from Art to Economics to Literature. in the nine issues so far published.
and professors from abroad, from the Secondly,a majorproportionof the con- The Pakistan Economic and Social
developedworld. The third highest cat- tributionsare from what in Pakistanare Review, housed in the economics depart-
egory was from technocrats,or public called 'independent'researchers,a grow- ment of the University of the Punjab, is
servantsinterestedin doing research,pri- ing and increasinglyinfluentialcategory two years behind schedule and has pub-
marilyin economics- six papersin all. of social scientistsnot directlyassociated lished 54 articles since 1995. Unlike most
Therewerefourpaperseachfromautono- withanyorganisation, yetactivelyinvolved other journals mentioned above, the jour-
mous governmentand independentre- in social science research.Of the 79 ar- nal has almost no contributors from its
search organisations;from international ticles publishedsince 1995,21 areby this own department - only two papers out of
organisationslike the WorldBank, IMF category,and 12 by facultyatthePakistan 54. This is due not to the wide appeal of
and ILO:and four from the International StudyCentreitself. However,as manyas the journal, but rather, reflects upon the
IrrigationManagementInstitute.In terms
of teachinginstitutions,therewere3 papers Table 2: Academic Journals in Pakistan
each from the economics departmentof Title Publisher Freq Year Latest
the Quaide Azam University,and from Started Issue
the International Instituteof IslamicEco- EconomicReview EIPPublications,Karachi M 1976 Jun 2001
nomicsof the InternationalIslamic Uni- IndustrialRelationsJournal EmployersFed of Pak, Karachi Q 1984
versity, both organisations,interestingly IslamicStudies IslamicResearch Institute,Islamabad Q
2001(4)
arelocatedin Islamabad,wherePIDEand 1961
2001 (1)
the journalare also located.There were J of DevelopmentStudies Instituteof DevelopmentStudies, Q
two articleseach from the Agricultural U of Peshawar 1964 1992-93(1)
J of EuropeanStudies AreaStudyCentre, U of Karachi Q 1985 Jul 2000-
Universityof Faisalabadand from the Jan 2001
BahauddinZakariyaUniversity,Multan. J of the Instituteof Bankers Instituteof Bankers,Karachi Q
Inthe72 papers,therewereonly two from 2001 (1)
south Asia, both from India. KashmirEconomicReview Dept of Econ, U of Azad Jammu Q
and Kashmir 1984 1998 (1/2)
Pakistan Horizon is published by the LahoreJ of Economics LahoreSchool of Economics B 1996 2001 (1)
PakistanInstituteof InternationalAffairs MonthlyEconomicLetters NationalBankof Pakistan,Karachi M
(PIIA)fromKarachi.It is a non-refereed 1974 2001
PakistanAdministration PakistanAdministrative StaffCollege, B
publicationandcontainsresearcharticles Lahore 1963. 1996 (2)
aswell asspeechesaudpresentations made PakistanDevelopmentReview PakistanInstitutetf Development Q
at PIIA and elsewhere. Since 1995, 91 Economics,Islamabad 1961 2001 (1/2)
PakistanEconomicand Departmentof Economics,U of Q
articleshave been publishedin Pakistan Social Review the Punjab 1963 1999(1/2)
Horizon,of which in fact, the huge ma- PakistanJ of AgriEcon AgriculturePriceCommission, A
jority - 30 - are addresses and speeches Islamabad 1997 2000
Pak J of AppliedEcon AppliedEconomicsresearch Centre, B
by ambassadorsand mostly foreigndig- U of Karachi 1982 1998 (1/2)
nitariesat the PIIA,andincludefourtexts PakistanPerspectives PakistanStudyCentre,U of Karachi B
of lecturesfromPakistanipoliticians.The 1996 2001 (1)
next categoryis that of researchstaff at South Asian Studies CentreforSA Studies, U of Punjab B 1984 1997 (2)
PakistanHorizon PakistanInstituteof International Q
PIIAitself with 18 papers,buta good sign Affairs,Karachi 2001 (1)
is thattherearealso 18papersby Pakistani RegionalStudies Ins of RegionalStudies Q 2000-01
social scientists at universitiesand col- J of PakistanHistoricalSociety
Journalof Research
leges. The largemajorityof this category (Humanities) BahauddinZakariyaUniversity A 1999
are teachers dealing with International

3652 Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002

dismal researchcompetence of the faculty
at the department. Of the 54 papers pub-
lished, the highest number (10) are by
faculty at the economics departmentof the
Quaid e Azam University, Islamabad, and
it seems that this journal acts as an in-
house journal for research coming out of
here rather than from the Economics
Departmentof the University of the Punjab.
There are nine papers from the smaller,
less prominent teaching and research
departments at four local colleges and
universities; eight papers by Pakistani
researchersabroad, nine from researchers
atPakistaniresearchinstitutions,threefrom
the International Islamic University,
Islamabad, four from technocrats in the
public sector, and three from the Punjab
Economic Research Institute in Lahore.
Given its rather poor scholarly standard,
unlike the Pakistan Development Review,
there are only three papers by foreign
scholars, one each from Nigeria, the US
and Turkey; there are no south Asian
contributions.
The Pakistan Journal of Applied Eco-
nomics startedout as a rival to the Pakistan
Development Review, and is located at the
Applied Economics Research Centre
(AERC), Universityof Karachi,which sees
itself as a sort of rival to the Pakistan
Institute of Development Economics,
where the more illustrious PDR is housed.
However, the Pakistan Journal ofApplied
Economics is a pale shadow of its earlier
self as is also, the Applied Economics
Research Centre. The Journal is running
three years behind schedule and the 1998
issue was published in 2001. Moreover,
in thefourvolumes since 1995, thereshould
have been eight issues, but only five have
been produced,clubbing as many as three
volumes due to a paucity of contributions,
two of which are based on conference
papers held at the AERC. Of the two
volumes which constitute two different
sets of Conference Proceedings, of the 18
papers presented, six are by university
professors from Britain and Europe, there
are three papers from other international
scholarsfromthe developed countries, five
papers by AERC faculty, two from PIDE,
and one each from a business institute and
from a former public servant; In the three
regular issues since 1995, there are 13
papers, two of which are contributed by
professors at the Quaid e Azam University
Economics Department, four by foreign
contributors,two of whom are in Malay-
sia, three in-house from the AERC, and
one each from an autonomous nongovern-
mental research institute, the State Bank
of Pakistan, a private university, and the
Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002
International Islamic University in
Islamabad.
V leadingeconomics researchinstitute,PIDE.
Change Transition
and
In order to understand what has been
going on in institutions of research in the
social sciences over the last 20 years, we
compare two institutions, the Applied
Economics Research Centre (AERC) at
the University of Karachi, a government-
funded institution, and the Sustainable
Development and Policy Institute (SDPI)
in Islamabad, funded by the Canadian
International Development Agency, be-
fore we look at more general trends.
In the mid- and late-1980s, when AERC
was as its peak, it had at one time 11
foreign qualified PhDs working there
contributingcritically to AERC's teaching
and research programme. According to
recent informationprovided by the AERC,
there were five PhDs working till recently.
However, as partof this study, visits to the
AERC revealed that there was only one
PhD who was the director and a research
professor, while three others had, within
the last four months left the APRC and
joined other institutions. These PhDs were
still 'technically' on the AERC staff roster
as they had taken 'foreign service leave',
but for all practicalpurposes, were on their
way out. This demise of the AERC and
the exodus of all competent and senior
economists is indeed symptomatic of the
?general trend in the social sciences in
Pakistan. Another factor not related solely
to the AERC was that from the AERC (and
other public sector institutions like PIDE)
some mid-level academics (five or six)
went abroad for their PhDs, often on
scholarships, but did not return and be-
came permanent residents of the host
country, almost always the US.
Of the 11 PhDs who were at the AERC
in the late 1980s and early 1990s, three
joined .the World Bank, one the Asian
Development Bank, and one the United
Nations; six of the 11 went abroad, only
one to a university (in the US) while one
went to teach at a college in the Middle
East. Of the five who stayed in Pakistan,
one joined the World Bank in Islamabad,
one joined a private sector teaching
organisation', one an NGO, another be-
came a consultant, and the one who stayed
on at the AERC, became its Director. From
11 PhDs actively involved in research at
the AERC, and hence, in Pakistan, in the
1980s and early 1990s, there are now only
two left who are active researchers - the
one left at the AERC and the one at a local
NGO. This loss is not restricted to the
AERC which may show an exaggerated
form of it, but is also evident at the other
Many of the faculty at PIDE too, have
followed the same path as their colleagues
at AERC, with many leaving the country,
joining international organisations (in
Pakistan and abroad), and with only a
couple staying on in Pakistan working for
other non-governmental research organi-
sations.30 It is also interesting to point out,
that the Social Policy and Development
Centre (SPDC) in Karachi (not be con-
fused with the similar-sounding SDPI in
Islamabad),generously funded ly donors,
was set-up by three senior faculty mem-
bers at the AERC including the then
Director while they were working at the
AERC. Subsequently, three more middle-
level faculty members left to join SPDC,
while others ended up moonlighting there.
SDPI, on the other hand,has been around
for less than a decade and has gradually
built its reputation as a model for other
research organisations in the country. It
has not had the problem of the attrition off
staff as the public sector has and has
attracted many scholars some of whom
worked in the public sector previously.
Perhaps, the greatest asset of SDPI is its
flexibility, in terms of management, atti-
tude, disciplines and 'space' created and
allowed to researchscholars. Anothergreat
asset of SDPI as well as of SPDC, both
funded by the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA), is that they
can pay handsomely. The pay scales at
both places are four to five times what
.the public sector pays and clearly, a
huge reason for the exodus from the public
sector to these new breed of institutions.
The limited salary in the public sector is
also a cause for the exodus of Pakistani
academics to foreign organisations and
other countries. Also, if we look at some
of our encompassing premises delineated
above, one can get a better understanding
for the reasons of this exodus. Of the 11
PhDs at the AERC in the 1980s and early
1990s,twobecameministers invariousgovem-
ments in Pakistan, the two senior-most
economists at PIDE joined government,
one as its Chief Economist, andthe other as
the main Advisor to the ministryof finance.
One issue which we can try and address,
is that of institutional continuity and sus-
tenance. Questions such as the following
can be raised: to what extent have the
institutions successfully adaptedto chang-
ing conditions of support and demand for
research? How have they negotiated the
transition from the first generation of
3653
foundersto the succeedinggenerations?
What is the institutionalculture like?
Clearly,SDPIcomparedto AERC,seems
to be doinga betterjob at doing far more
multidisciplinary researchandinitsability
to continueto attractexceptionaltalent.
AERCis, instead,moribundanddoes not
seem to havemanagedchangewell at all,
althoughit is partiallya victim of self-
neglect as well as due to the changing
macroenvironment,particularlyas a con-
sequenceof thedeclineof thepublicsector
and its universities.
If one looks at the change in research
projectsover time,ourbroadtrendsin an
earliersection would be very suggestive
of thenatureof researchin economicsand
therestof the social sciences.In econom-
ics, researchhas shifted in line with the
government'sprioritiesandanalysingthe
impactof its policies. Forexample,there
was a greatdeal of researchon plansand
on planning, in general, in the 1960s,
followedby anemphasison agriculturein
the 1970s and especially on the conse-
quences of the green revolution.Many
thesesandpaperswerealso writtenon the
industrialsector and on inequality.The
Islamiceconomicsschoolof thoughtflour-
ished in the 1980s, while in line with
Pakistan'ssubservienceto agendaset by
donors, the 1990s onwards have seen
researchlargely,on global issues, such as
the environment,and other governance
relatedthemes. Public finance, poverty
and public debt have also been popular
themes,as has the structuraladjustment
programme.These changes are reflected
in the publicationsrecordof scholarsat
variousinstitutions.Moreover,as donor
moneybeganto determineresearch,indi-
vidualinitiativegave way to expediency
and to the need to supplementone's in-
come. Researchnow, does not takeplace
unless someone funds a 'project'.
A huge percentageof academicsin the
pastin almostall disciplines,weremainly
foreigntrained,as grantsandscholarships
from USAID, the Ford Foundationand
othersourcesallowedmanyacademicsto
go abroadto study.Now, withgrantsfewer
thanin the past and with more potential
recipientschasing them, it is becoming
difficultto go abroadfor a few years to
study.Manystudentsgo for a year or so,
to do anotherMastersdegreeafterhaving
donetheirMasterslocally, but whenthey
return,they are also liable to dropout of
academics/research and do other things
altogether.Comparedto the past,it seems
thatthereare far more Pakistanitrained
social scientists working in the country
thaneverbefore.Thisis notsurprisingjust
3654
given the arithmetic, with more institu-
tions producing more students and with
more opportunities opening up. However,
this is mainly the case in subjects such as
international relations, political science,
history and Pakistan Studies, but not so in
Economics. Surprisingly, KarachiUniver-
sity which has been around for 50 years
and has 8.000 students enrolled, has pro-
duced only one PhD in Economics in all
these years. Despite the high ambitions
which are mentioned in the brochure of
the AERC, since 1986 it has awarded
degrees at the MPhil level to only a handful
of students. The International Islamic
University has produced some PhDs in
Economics as have the Punjab and Quaid
e Azam universities. Even the Lahore
University of Management Studies which
has mainly been a Business School, has
only just recently startedan undergraduate
programme in economics, and is now
thinking abouta Masterslevel programme.
Karachi University reveals an interest-
ing situation which differs significantly
from the Pakistanistereotype, thatas much
as 70 per cent of the student population
is female. In fact, there are a number of
departments in the social sciences and in
humanities, where there are no male stu-
dents. Interestingly, a similar position
emerges at the Government College,
Lahore, where 90 per cent of students in
Economics are girls.31 While this huge
proportion may not be reflected in other
universities, particularly Baluchistan and
Peshawar, there is no denying the fact that
compared to say two decades ago, girls and
women have begun to be highly visible at
all levels of society. The NGO sector is
probably dominated by professional
women from all backgrounds, including
the social sciences, and there are at least
30 per cent, if not more, women faculty
members in all subjects. There has been
a remarkable transformation in Pakistani
society as a consequence of the revolution
which has takenplace in the lives of women
and girls.
Unlike perhaps other south Asian coun-
tries, there does not seem to be a large class
divide between faculty and students, par-
ticularly in the social science disciplines.
This would have been the case, if the
members of the elite in Pakistan studied
social science at public sector institutions
especially at the tertiary level, as it is in
such institutionswhere the faculty is largely
'middle class'. Yet, because the elite, as
has been argued in the paper, strive to go
abroadto study (and may not end up doing
any social science as such), this apparent
gap does not exist between them and the
Economicand Political Weekly August 31, 2002
faculty. Some members of the elite, (the
few that exist in the profession in the first
place) do, however, increasingly teach in
private universities and work in the NGO
and donor sector. Yet, because the stu-
dents/younger peers at these institutions
also belong to the elite or more westerised/
anglicised social groups, the social, class
and cultural divide is, perhaps, limited
between the two. In public sector institu-
tions, both the faculty and students would
tend to belong to what could be best
described as broadly, the middle or lower-
middle class.
VI
Profileof SocialScientists
Although there is little doubt that here
has been a huge quantitative expansion in
the number of teaching departments and
students in the social sciences in Pakistan
in the last few decades, there is also little
doubt that the quality of education across
the board, has deteriorated very sharply.
A couple of decades ago, the quality at the
graduate and masters level from a Paki-
stani university was thought to be of a
decent standard, but no longer. All aca-
demics interviewed for this study were
agreed on this, but more surprisingly,every
single one felt that in the public sector at
least, the quality of postgraduate training
is going to fall furtherin the years to come.
The reasons for the previous and future
fall in quality are easy to understand.Cuts
in resources to state sector institutions of
learning, particularly to those subjects
which are in the Arts and Humanities
faculties, have been markedin recentyears
as the state has had to cut its budget deficit
and spending. Since the 1980s, there has
also been a explosion in the growth of
private sector universities and colleges
which have poached off the public sector.
The case of the Social Policy and Deve-
lopment Centre was cited above, where
senior faculty of the Applied Economics
Research Centre of the University of
Karachi built a donor-funded institute
paying lucrative salaries, and eventually
attractedmany of the faculty as well as the
administrative staff, from this public cen-
tre institution to work at the SPDC. An-
otherfactorwhich has resultedin thequality
falling, has been the fact that'so many of
the academics, particularly in the field of
economics, left for abroad. There is a
consensus amongst academics that there
is visible decay in the quality of teaching
and faculty at Pakistani public sector in-
stitutions. Many social scientists feel that
the present mid-career generation of
Pakistani social scientists, those in their in the economics department, does not graduatedegreein thesocial sciences,has
mid-40s to mid-50s, is the last of a dying have a teacher with a degree higher than 30 foreign PhDs alreadyteachingthere.
generation. a foreign Masters'. Perhaps this partially
Some interestingtrendsfrom Table 3 are explains the fact that the Karachi Univer- VII
indicative of the dismal state of the social sity has been able to produce only one PhD ProfessionalAssociations
sciences in Pakistan.For example, Karachi in economics in 50 years. Equally inter-
University which with the University of esting is that fact that the Lahore Univer- There are at best, only two or three
the Punjab is the biggest university in sity of Management Sciences, a private professionalorganisationswhich are ac-
Pakistan,andhas over 300 studentsenrolled university, which has yet to start a post- tive in Pakistan.In thissectionwe analyse
Table 3: Faculty Foreign (F)/Local (L) Degrees, MPhil and PhD
Economics Sociology History Anthropology PoliticalScience IR Pak Studies DifferentArea
Studies
1 AJK n/a
2 Bahauddin 6 F PhD, 4 F PhD 2 F PhD
Zakaria 2 L Mphil, 2 L PhD 1 F MPhil
3L MA 1 F, L, MPhil 5 L MA
1 LMA
3 Baluchistan 1 F PhD 1 F PhD 1 F PhD 1LPhD 1F PhD 1L PhD
3FMS 1LPhD 2LMPhil 1 FMA 6LMA 4 L MA
6L MS 1 L MPhil 3 L MA 4 L MA
5L MA
4 Karachi 5 FMA 1 L PhD 4 FPhD 6 L PhD 2 L PhD 3F PhD
10LMA 10LMA 1FMA 2FMA 2FMA 1 LPhD
15LMA 8LMA 5LMA 3L MA
5 LUMS 30 F PhD
2LMA
6 Peshawar 2 F PhD 1F MA 1 L PhD 6 LMA 1 F MPhil
1 L PhD 4 LMA 1FMA IL MPhil
1FMA 2LMA 4LMA
3LMA
7 Punjab 3 F PhD 1 F PhD 3F PhD 1 F PhD
1LPhD 6LMA 2LPhD 2LMA
2 F MA 4 L MA
4LMA
8 QAU 4 F PhD 3 F PhD 1 F PhD 4F PhD 2 F PhD
2F MA 1 L PhD 1 F MS 1 L PhD 3 L PhD
4 L MA 1F Phil 5 L MA 1 F MPhil 7 MA
4 L MPhil 1L MPhil
3L MA 1F MA
5FMA
9 Sindh 17LMA 1FMA 3LPhD 1 FPhD 3 FPhD
1 LMPhil 7LMA 1 LMPhil 12LMA 7 LMA
2FMA 6LMA
SDSC 3 F PhD
2 F MSc
5 L MSc
10 11of Econ 8FPhD
1 L PhD
2 L MPhil
12L MA
11 IslamiaUniv 1 F PhD 1 F PhD 2 F PhD
Bhpur 1 F MA 2 L PhD 2 L PhD
1L MPhil 5 L MA 4LMA
4 L MA
12 SAL 2 F PhD 1 F PhD
3 L MPhil 10 L MA
10L MA
13 GCLahore 3 L PhD 8 L MA 1 PhD
5 MA 11 MA
14 AreaSC Africa, 6 F PhD
NSAm 1 L PhD
3 L MPhil
1 FMS
15 CAsia 3 F PhD
2 L PhD
16 USind 8
17 SA Pun 2 F PhD
1 LPhD
4L MA
18 PIDE* 10F PhD Demog: 1 F PhD
32 others 2 F PhD 6 others 2'others
19 AERC 4F PhD
4 FMS
7L MS
Source: These figuresare takenfromthe UniversityGrantsCommission,HandbookonUniversitiesinPakistan2001, UGC,Islamabad,2001, andthe University
GrantsCommission,Handbookon UniversitiesinPakistan1998,UGC,Islamabad,1999, except (*)whichis fromPIDE'sweb site. See text-ina different
sections belowformore recent statistics fromsome institutionsrelatedto changes over time.

Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002 3655

the role of that of the most prominentone.
The Pakistan Society of Development
Economists(PSDE) is anautonomousbody
based at the Pakistan Institute of Deve-
lopment Economics (PIDE), Islamabad.
The Society is supposed to "provide a
forum and a platform to academics and
policy-makersfor an exchange of ideas on
the pressing economic and social prob-
lems facing Pakistan".Since its inception
in 1982,theSociety has arranged16 Annual
GeneralMeetings and Conferences which
have been attended by researchers and
policy-makers from Pakistan and abroad.
When the Society was formed in 1983, it
had 252 members which increased to 571
in 1994 (the last year for which figures are
available) of which 403 were paying
members and the rest ex-officio.
PSDE has a number of Distinguished
Lectures at each of its Annual Confer-
ences. It is worth examining the selection
of speakers at these conferences over the
five conferences from 1995-99. The most
prestigious,Quaide Azam Lecture,has been
given by either World Bank serving or
retiredofficialsand/orAmerican academics.
In these five years, only one Pakistani has
given the Quaid e Azam Lecture and he
worked for the World Bank in Washing-
ton. In 1999 and 1998, the same American
Professorgave the Iqbal Lecture, while in
1996 and 1995, this was given by an
American and British academic, respec-
tively. The Mahbub ul Haq Memorial
Lecturehasbeengiven bothtimes by retired
or serving Pakistaniofficials at the World
Bank.The WorldBank Pakistani who gave
the Mahbub ul Haq Memorial Lecture in
1998, also gave one of the Distinguished
Lectures in 1999 and in 1997.
Of the 31 lectures given as part of
DistinguishedLectureseries, 11 were given
by academics from the US and the UK
(many of whom gave these lectures more
thanonce), 9.5 were eitherretiredor serving
Pakistanisat the World Bank and the IMF,
2 each were World Bank retired or serving
employees from the US,' Egypt and
Bangladesh.There was one academic each
from Franceand Australia, and one paper
each was presented by a member of the
International Food Policy Research
Institutein the US, a German from OECD,
and a US Consultant. Of the 32 papers
presented at the five PSDE conferences
between 1995-99, only two papers have
beenpresentedby Pakistaniacademics both
of whom live-and teach abroad. In the 16
conferences held by PSDE, in the Distin-
guished Lecture series, only three Paki-
stani academics all of whom live abroad,
have been invited to lecture, two of whom
3656
have done so more than twice. There has
not been a single paper presented in the
Distinguished Lecture series by a Paki-
stani academic who lives and works in
Pakistan. Perhaps there is no stronger
comment on the state of the entire range
of Pakistan's social sciences, and not just
economics, than this observation.
Table 5 only reiteratesthe criticism that
the PSDE is simply a mouthpiece for PIDE
(and now increasingly, it seems for expa-
triate Pakistanis at the World Bank and
IMF), ratherthan a broad-based forum for
intellectual discourse. Moreover, many
economists feel that the quality of the
papers at the PSDE Conferences not only
varies widely, but is not very good. The
PSDE is seen as an opportunity for PIDE
faculty to add to their publications list.32
The absence of academics and research-
ers from universities and other institutes
is noticeable at these conferences, which
despite all reservations, is the only forum
for economists to presenttheir work. There
has not been a single presentation at these
conferences in recent years (perhapsever)
from teachers at Karachi University, one
of the two largest in Pakistan. At the other
end of the spectrum, it is worth pointing
out that not a single professor (none of the
30 foreign PhDs) at the Lahore University
of Management Sciences, has presented a
paper at the PSDE conferences. Perhaps
for these reasons, PSDE is considered to
be "a poor substitute as a forum for free
and open debates on economic issues and
for organising activities which would
invigorate the profession".34 Haque and
Khan also add their strong criticism at the
PSDE and say, that these "meetings are
perhaps more distinguished by the promi-
nent Pakistani economists that were often
excluded from participation".35
VIII
ScholarlyCollaboration
One of the symptoms of the crisis of
Pakistani social science is that there is too
little collaboration between scholars at the
same institution, and between institutions,
although interestingly, there are some
exceptions to both these norms, coming
Table 4: PSDE Distinguished
1999 1998
Quaide Azam WB/US Prof/US
Iqbal Prof/ US Prof/US
Mul Haq WB/Pak WB/Pak
DL 1 WB/Pak IMF/Pak
DL2 IMF/Pak Prof/French
DL3 Prof/US WB/US
DL4 WB/Pak
DL5 WB/BD
Economic and Political Weekly
primarily from the non-public sector and
donors.
Collaboration between senior andjunior
scholars/academics at the same institution
is very infrequentas reflected by published
output. However, this is not always the
case, and in many instances, senior faculty
make use of junior faculty mainly as data
collectors or its more glorified version, as
research assistant. This is particularly so
in the field of economics a fact which is
well reflected at the Pakistan Society for
Development Economists' conferences and
in its proceedings. Also, given the fact that
the donor-funded projects which are given
to institutions of economics research are
usually very large and require a number
of members of that institution to collabo-
rate, there is substantial division of labour
(perhaps a better term than 'collabora-
tion') in those projects, which may or may
not find an outlet as a publication. In some
research institutes, SDPI in Islamabad, in
particular, a conscious effort is actually
made by senior faculty to work with junior
staff and this is amply reflected in their
published output. Another importantcase
where one sees substantial collaboration,
is in the department of international rela-
tions at KarachiUniversity, where the large
number of books edited and published by
the department, usually as conference
proceedings, clearly show the large con-
tribution made by junior faculty.
In this regard, Nadeem ul Haque and
Mahmood Hasan Khan having spoken to
a number of young economists found that
there was 'no professional contact' be-
tween the' younger economists and their
senior colleagues. These young profes-
sionals said that they hardly met these
older economists, and if they did. they
were patronisedandderidedfor being more
interested in theory (ivory tower econom-
ics) than in doing 'real work'. The senior
economists, according to the young pro-
fessionals, 'claimed hierarchical privilege
and felt very uncomfortable with an equal
debate of issues'.36 According to Haque
and Khan, "theculture of Pakistantoo does
not help here, for age can often interpret
a genuine difference of opinion as rude-
ness. This claim has preventeddialogue".37
Lecture Presentations
1997 1996 1995
Prof/US WB/Pak Prof/US
Prof/Pak Prof/US Prof/UK
WB/Pak Prof/Aus OECD/German
Prof/US IFPRI/US IMF+ ProfbothPak
Prof/Pak IMF/Pak Egypt/WB
Prof/US Prof/US
Consultant/US
August 31, 2002
They argue that 'younger economists joint academic publications. Many inter- registered any significant comment or
deniedthatthey hadreceived any mentoring national organisations, based in Pakistan analysis because of their paucity in the
from their more senior professionals. In and abroad, also locate their projects in contribution to the social sciences, and
fact, many of them found the first crop to Pakistani centres (the 'local' partner)and hence have little to offer in terms of south
be unapproachable'.38 hence one can call this 'international' Asian connections and collaboration. In
Collaborations between institutions is collaboration, but this too depends on the the case of international relations and
also limited, especially between public project and the funds. Some such projects political science, however, there has been
sector institutions. For example, the eco- have given rise to academic publications research in Pakistan on south Asia, in
nomics department at Quaid e Azam which have had Pakistani and foreign particularon India. Collaboration has also
University in Islamabad, is housed next to scholars collaborating. Another form of taken place with political scientists, re-
the Pakistan Institute of Development 'collaboration'althoughthat is a misnomer gional study experts, and experts in inter-
Economics, just as the economics depart- in this context, is to hold international national relations visiting each others'
ment at Karachi University is housed a conferences where foreign scholars read countries. However, it is important to
short walk from the Applied Economics papers which are then published in the reemphasise the view that these connec-
Research Centre. Yet, there is no interac- conference proceedings. tions are highly personal and individual
tion or collaboration in any meaningful rather than having any structural and in-
sense between the two sets of institutions. IX stitutional links. As one of our academic
Instead, the research centres see them- SouthAsianConnections respondents pointed out, that it is always
selves as far superior and more able than the same handful of Pakistani academics
the lowly teaching departments, from If we understandthe political economy and researchers who go to India; there is
where, incidentally, both the research and history of Pakistan, we will perhaps, no variety in this list and most are repeat
centres draw their student/research body. better understand Pakistan's south Asian visitors. One reason for this is that gov-
Moreover, it is not just at the same uni- connections. There are far too few 'con- ernment in Pakistan is not open to links
versity, but between PIDE and AERC too, nections' in academia between Pakistan with India, and in fact discourages them
there is no collaboration. This attempt to and the other nations in south Asia. This by imposing severe restrictions on any
control the turf,. limits the interaction is most marked in the case of economics independent endeavour and exchange.41
between institutions, as do personal rival- the leading discipline in Pakistan in the One factor which has caused a boom in
ries and 'personalityclashes'.39 As Haque social sciences, where there is virtually no south Asian connections and collaboration,
and Khan argue, "all of the research cen- exchange of ideas, collaboration of any is due to the NGO movement, particularly
tres and institutes, including PIDE and sort, and perhaps even awareness and that related to the peace movement and the
AERC, have largely excluded from their interest, of each other's economy. At least nuclear issue. There have been literally
programmesand studies the involvement in Pakistan, there has been no paper in hundreds of such meetings where activ-
of faculty from departmentsof economics recent memory published in any academic ists, many of whom are well known social
in universities in Karachi, Islamabad, journal which examines the economy or scientists in India and Pakistan, have vis-
Lahore, Peshawar and Hyderabad. There the reforms under way in any of the south ited each others' countries. While there
is almost no formal joint study and re- Asian countries. A huge majority of the has been some researched output related
search programmeat any of these places. work by Pakistani economists is on to these meetings and this activism, it has
On the contrary, there is unhealthy com- Pakistan's economy, and not on theory, or been severely limited. Another area' of
petition for scarce resources and skills and on applying theory to other countries as collaboration between India and Pakistan
even mutual resentment and hostility".40 a comparison. has been on account of the women's
In other disciplines, if we return to one of Most otherdisciplines in oursurvey have movement in Pakistan particularly, but
our Encompassing Parameters,that of the been highly conspicuous by their absence, across south Asia, more generally. This
individual being the institution or greater disciplines like anthropology, sociology, activism has, however, produced some
than the institution, then we do have demography and even history, have hardly published researched output.
numerous examples of individuals col-
Table 5: Papers Presented at the PSDE Conferences by Author Affiliation
laboratingwith other institutions, but this
is rather top-heavy and very individual- 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
specific. Institutions do not collaborate. Total 45 38 23 43 39
With the advent of NGOs and donors,
PIDE 16 11 8 13 15
however, there is some change in this InlIslamicU 6 1
attitudewhich often calls for collaboration US/UK/EUacademics 2 3 3 2
between institutions. Many organisations Pak academics abroad 3 4 4 2 1
South Asian 1
are specialised, and hence, unable to carry AERC 4 1
out much multidisciplinary work and, NationalIns of Pop Stds 3 1 2 1
therefore, turn to others to prepare joint Governmentand state sector 2 6 1 8 6
PrivateUnv 2 1 2
proposals and work together on projects. Independent/Private sector 3 2
One does not see intra-institutionally OtherForeigner 1
WorldBank/IMF/Donors
published papers though, and much of this Autonomous 3 5 8 5
Research Inst 3 1 2
collaborationis limited to funded projects. QAU 1 2 2 2
Anothernew development is organisations OtherPublicsector univs 2 4 3 4
out-sourcing studies or hiring time from Note: This table only shows the numberof papers eventuallypublishedin the Pakistan Development
academics and researchers to collaborate Review, whichtend to be fewer than the numberof papers actuallypresented at the Conference
on projects. This too is not reflected in itself. Itis worthnotingthatthese papers are 'noteven internallyscreened muchless refereed.'33

Economic and Political Weekly August 31, 2002 3657

 Althoughit is impossibleto give any
idea of the numberof academicvisitors
fromothersouthAsiancountries,one can
certainlysay that there is currentlyfar
greaterexchangebetween India and Pa-
kistan,thanperhapseverbeforeinthepast.
NGOs leadthis exchangemovement,but
area/regionalstudy centres are probably
next in line. This is despite the fact that
travelrestrictionsbetweenthe two coun-
triesareof insurmountable proportions.It
mustbe emphasisedthatthereis an offi-
ciallysanctionedsuspicionandresentment
of IndiansocialscientistsinPakistan,hence
it is not surprising that (government)
universitydepartmentsand centres are
unable to attractIndian, or even .other
southAsian,scholars.The mainformsof
collaboration,almostexclusively,arework-
shops and conferences.
x and we have numerous dilettantes and country. In fact, most of the so-called
Relevance
Thissectiontriesto addressthequestion
of the 'relevance'of social science re-
searchin Pakistan.Is it possible to get a
sense of how the relevanceof social sci-
ence researchwas defined two or three
decadesago andhow it is beingredefined
now? If we look at one or two of our
encompassing parameterslistedearlier,this
questionwouldbe well answered.Insome
ways,as we havetriedto argueina number
of placesinthispaper,relevanceis actually
the problem.In tryingto be relevantin a
problem-solving'useful' way, Pakistani
social scientists,particularlyeconomists,
havebecomeclerksorat bestbureaucrats,
trying to find ways of how to improve
things. Knowledgeis defined as some-
thingconcrete,somethingwhichmusthave
a practicaluse. Abstractthinkingis dis-
couragedand academicsare told to 'get
out of theirivory towers'.In a sense, for
all the reasonsdescribedearlier in this
paper,'relevance'has limitedthe growth
of the social sciencedisciplineandsocial
scienceresearch,asa mediumforthesearch
for knowledge.It is merely a searchfor
solutions,often withouteven understand-
ing the problemsand/ortheir links with
the wider whole.
Ontheotherhand,someacademicshave
complainedthat their disciplines are not
considered'relevant'by the authorities/
government,andno one 'listensto them',
and hence, political science and history,
forexample,arenotconsidered'relevant'
enoughto attractstudentsto these disci-
plines.Unless these subjectsare madeas
'relevant'as economics,in an advise-giv-
ingmanner, fewstudentswillbeattractedto
3658
these disciplines.Clearly,academicsare not was also funded by donors prior to their
supposed to do policy-irrelevant research. launching a huge social sector develop-
Given this need to find acceptance by ment programme. The current buzzword
authorityas we argue in our Encompassing is the World Bank and otherdonors' notion
Principles, much research is limited by its of governance and all it entails.
'relevance'. For example, in History, al- Writing mainly about economists since
most all the historians and students pur- they are in the greatest demand by donors,
suing higher degrees, do so on the Pakistan Haque and Khan identify a bigger problem
Movement and there is great emphasis to which affects social science in general.
justify the two-nation theory. As a conse- Addressing the consulting scourge, they
quence, there is no historian in Pakistan write thatcareers in the consultancy indus-
who works on the theory of history, for try have 'affected the economics profes-
example, or on social and cultural history, sion in a disastrous way in Pakistan' a
and neither on the British period, or on the phenomenon associated with the rise of
Mughals. All the work is related to Jinnah, foreign aid and donor funding. They write
the Muslim League and perhaps some to that, "given the largely unfavourable en-
Muslims in India prior to partition. The vironment for academic research in eco-
colonial period has been ignored, andthere nomics and the lucrative monetary gain
is no regional/provincial history, either.42 and social status from consulting services,
Some historians feel that history has al- the industryhas drawn the energy and time
ways been subordinateto political science of almost every academic economist in the
untrained non-historians trying to do the research agenda and output in almost all
work of the historian.43 of the academia and institutes is driven by
When Islamic ideology dominated in the demands for studies and reports by
terms of state ideology, many social sci- donor agencies and government depart-
entists rediscovered Islam and its relation- ments or organisations."46
ship and relevance to Pakistani society, The relevance of the social sciences can
and starteddoing research with an Islamic be gauged by the government's recent
angle, primarily because this was consid- attitude as reported in a national news-
ered a useful means to be accepted by paper. On August 23, 2001, Dawn quoting
Authority and was a means to legitimise informed sources reportedthat"theNWFP
one's self. This was particularly so in the government has decided to abolish the
period during Zia ul Haq's reign, and has Humanitiessubjects from the college curri-
now acquired its own historical and insti- culum" as "the students could not benefit
tutional dynamics. Even anthropology was from these 'worthless' subjects in their
recast in a central Asian context in order practical life". The Report added that "the
to draw links with Pakistan's Muslim governmentparticularlyits financeministry,
heritage in that region negating or thinks that economics, political science,
minimising the south Asian links. For these philosophy, literature, sociology, history,
reasons, some scholars have found that the Islamiyat and other several disciplines
"relevance and use of social sciences pro- dealing with human thoughts are useless".
duced in Pakistan is low. The social sci- A follow-up article quoted the director
ence knowledge produced is primarily for of colleges, NWFP, thatfive newly opened
the use of state agencies and only margin- girls colleges will not have Humanities
ally for creatin social awareness of social and Social Sciences. It also quoted the
problems ..."44 Oddly enough, despite director planning and development, direc-
this anti-knowledge relevance, Pakistan's torate of colleges, that the reason for the
best known sociologist has argued that-in move is the opposition of the NWFP fi-
order to promote 'socio-economic devel- nance department to the launching of
opment', "likesenioreconomists, why can't humanities subjects in these newly-estab-
we have senior sociologists in the Planning lished institutions due to a shortage of
Commission to begin with?".45 resources. This article also quotes an
In some cases, research is relevant, NWFP minister who said that "the gov-
because donors fund it and they have far ernment wants to introduce subjects in
more pressing, applied, and related needs colleges according to the market
to address specific problems. For example, demands...Education should have some
the huge bandwagon on poverty research purpose and one of it should be to help
in Pakistan is led by the World Bank in people in getting employment... Our edu-
association with local institutes, and the cation should be responsive to the needs
interest on poverty is due to its very of the society so that our graduates do not
noticeable growth. Much of the research sit idle after completing their schooling
in the social sectors five to 10 years ago, and get employed" (The News on Sunday,
Economic and Political Weekly August 31, 2002
Karachi,September 2, 2001). Clearly, the nomics Research Centre, not a single one and large non-participatory, based on
social sciences are being forced to respond wrote a book, when they were there, or hierarchy by seniority. The rewardsystem
to the market making them less oriented later (other than a couple of edited books follows the nationalmodel of patronage".48
to knowledge and hence, more 'relevant'. based on Conference Proceedings). At the Naseem adds that"therehas also been little
Pakistan Institute of Development Eco- tradition to encourage freedom of expres-
XI nomics, considered to be the 'premier' sion and debate in a genuine fashion, either
Accountability institution for economics research, the in-house or outside. In the absence of peer
situation is no better. In the other social interactionand review, regardless of one's
Based on our interviews and other sciences, there are again, a small handful position in the hierarchy, it is no wonder
sources, one can try and assess some of of academics who are conspicuous for what the quality of research output is.
the following issues: the mechanisms of their books and published work, because Individual consultation with and supervi-
self-regulation, such as peer reviews, re- they are far too few and tend to write far sion by senior staff members is hardly a
view committees, accreditationprocedures, more frequently. substitute for open interaction with peers.
etc; to what extent are they seen as effec- Since academics in the social sciences The highly centralised and bureaucratised
tive?;mechanismsof regulation by others, publish so infrequently, they rise the pro- (some would say feudal) work culture ..
such as government bodies or funding fessional ladder through the number of stifles initiative and participation among
agencies; the autonomy of institutions and years served in government. Although, research staff."49 Inayatullah adds a
the autonomy of scholars; working con- technically, all are required to publish, broaderperspective to this condition when
ditions including security of tenure, fixed they manage to get by by publishing in he argues that, "working within the frame-
scales of pay, contract employment, shar- lesser known journals or with another work of government-controlled and gov-
ing of consultancy remunerationbetween collaborator.Peer reviews areusually done ernment-funded academic institutions,
the scholar and the institution; how do locally and it is not uncommon to receive some of the Pakistani social scientists opt
these affect the productivity and the au- requests to 'clear' a candidate. In a society for the convenient and possibly twisted
tonomy of scholars? whose rules are determined by patronage, meaning of value neutrality and adopt the
In most academic and research institu- agreeing to or denying such requests has perspective and preferences of those
tions worldwide, publications play an serious consequences. Moreover, many whoever happen to be in power regardless
importantrole in the accountability of the academics interviewed are disgusted by of the nature of the rule they impose on
professional,anddeterminecredibility and what goes by in the name of 'research', the society and degree of their political
tenure/promotion.Given the state ofjour- and feel that there are major flaws in legitimacy."50 Drawing from our encom-
nals in Pakistan, this is not likely to have refereeing with no laid down procedures passing parameters again, it seems that
a significant impact on the quality of or rules, and hence standards are very state patronage gives rise to a thriving
research.If non-refereedin-housejournals varied and arbitrary. culture of sycophancy and toadyism, and
are going to be used for promotion/tenure, Some scholars feel that research (in that Pakistanis, given the nature of the
then clearly this will give rise to a closed economics in their example, but this is state, are probably better at this than most.
club, where those who control/manage the generalisable) suffers on the account of the Some academics have argued that
'journal' will determine who publishes. following constraints: "the major factors Pakistan'sauthoritarianhistoryhasaffected
Also, in manyof the non-refereedjournals, affecting the volume and quality of aca- the nature and quality of research and
articlesaresolicited from friends or 'noted' demic research in economics include: the accountability in our academies. Inaya-
scholars who have prettymuch a free hand internal management structure, work en- tullah, for example argues, that Pakistan's
in what they want to say. In some cases, vironment, and the reward system in bureaucraticand military 'highly authori-
especially having been invited to write, academia and research institutes. Reflect- tarian' state, placed 'narrow limits on
qualityis severely compromised. There are ing the pathology of the larger feudal- freedom of enquiry, expression and dis-
these double standards at work here: bureaucratic social order in Pakistan, the sent', and that with reference to the 1960s,
everyone knows that a particularjournal senior management generally follows the he quotes Ralph Briabanti approvingly;
is of poor quality, yet in order to be pro- national model of centralised power with- "the conduct of scholarship and the limits
moted, one needs a numberof publications out consultation and participation. A high on scholarship are determined by govern-
and we find dozens of cases where sup- proportionof thejunior researchand teach- ment, not by the scholar".51 Such factors
posedly respectedandestablished research- ing staff finds itself in a patron-client did compromise the nature of social sci-
ers publish in poor quality un-refereed relationship, in which the patron has ence at public universities and institutes
journals, mainly trying to add to their list considerable power to punish and reward. for many years and may have laid the
of publications. This personalised nature of power breeds foundations for the rot to set in. However,
This phenomenon is even more evident mediocrity since salary, scholarship, and such constraints do not exist in Pakistan
when we consider book publishing. While promotion are rarely based on merit and today and there is far greater freedom of
most publishers do not have their manu- personal achievement. Some of the senior expression than in the past.
scriptsreviewed,nevertheless,because they research staff and faculty have achieved While one can generalise greatly from
have to sell/market the book, they must their positions through this system and these comments, there are only a very few
meet certain standards.This is not the case suffer from a sense of insecurity."47 One institutes in the donor/privatesector, which
with in-house journals. Perhaps this ex- cannot but agree with this impression, and are free from these petty biases and struc-
plains the fact, that given the few hundred indeed, it reflects the very sad state of tures for, after all, many of the new insti-
social scientists that we have in Pakistan, accountability in public sector institutions tutes have been set up by individuals with
a mere handful have written academic in Pakistan. many years of having worked in the public
books. As a passing example, of the 11 Haque and Khan continue and say that, sector themselves having known no other
PhDs in Economics at the Applied Eco- "the internalmanagementstructuresare by model. Clearly, how an institution is run

Economicand PoliticalWeekly August 31, 2002 3659

and the norms and signals given and the industry in the economics profession and found their way to public sector institu-
institute's culture, are very much deter- upset both research priorities and incen- tions and universities and institutes.These,
mined by who leads that institution, and tive structures to undertake serious eco- as we have demonstrated, have their own
how it is managed and governed by that nomic research in Pakistan."54 connotations, butseem to be theonly source
one individual. Some academics feel that The biggest threat to social science of funds available to the public sector. In
the culture in universities is to prevent funding in Pakistan today seems to come Pakistan, while the NGO sector presence
others from doing work, and with so many from the lobby which is obsessed with is very prominent in social science re-
political appointees and retired bureau- information technology and which wants search, specific information is very diffi-
crats and military personnel serving as to take Pakistan 'into the 21st century'. cult to obtain, for NGOs do not disclose
vice- chancellors and heads of centres and Given severely limited resources on ac- how much they spend on such research.
institutes,'accountability'tends to be based count of Pakistan's structuraladjustment Anecdotes and personal experiences sug-
on non-academic criteria and largely re- programmeand the state's fiscal crisis, this. gest that the amount of money channelled
lated to patronage. The imprint of one's obsession becomes a serious issue. The through the NGOs for 'research' is sub-
personal style has made and destroyed government, for example, has launched a stantial and many NGOs and donors pay
numerousinstitutionsin Pakistan.A simple Teachers' and Researchers' Overseas high consultancy ratesforquality research-
change in leadership can transform an Scholarship Scheme at a cost of Rs 826 ers. Yet, the scale is unknown.
institution, for far better or for far worse,million to train 100 outstanding teachers
quite dramatically. and researchers who will do their doctor- XIII
ates at the world's top universities. Unfor- Conclusions
XII tunately, all these scholarships will be in
Finances 'selected areas of science and technology' It is surprisingly easy to find agreement
only (Dawn, Karachi, March 11. 2001). amongst social scientists in Pakistan re-
It has not been possible to get hard data In response to this, some professors in garding the state of their collective disci-
and facts about macro-level funding of the social sciences raised this issue and plines. Almost all agree that the state of
social science researchfrom nationalbodies stated that the "neglect of the social sci- the social sciences in Pakistan is in a
such as the University GrantsCommission ences"in public sector universities...is a depressingly decrepit state. They all agree
and other sources.52 Except for limited matter of great concern. Funds, facilities, that not much researchof any quality takes
evidence a breakdown of institutional stipends, honorarium, etc, provided to place in Pakistan, and the little that is
funding by source has been minimal, as science students and teachers are not undertaken by Pakistani social scientists,
has a breakdown of funding by categories extended to PhD students and their super- is by those who live and work in the west.
of expenditure such as faculty salaries, visors in the faculty of Arts...It is a matter Moreover, they may cite the cases of a few
administrative overheads, actual research of common knowledge that professors of of their colleagues who have produced
expenses, infrastructure, etc. We would faculty of Arts are rarely considered for good quality research in Pakistan while
have liked to know how much funding national awards despite their academic being based here, but will add that this is
goes to social science research compared excellence. These awards indiscriminately largely individual endeavour, and that the
to the natural sciences and technological go to the Science faculty" (Letters to the contribution by the institution where they
research. Unfortunately, we have only the Editor, Dawn, Karachi, May 2, 2001). are located is incidental.
concerns and sentiments and opinions of As far as incentives go, the Ministry of While there is wide agreement for the
many academics, some in written form, Science and Technology had increased the way things are, there is also considerable
others conveyed to us during the inter- allowance for in-service Ph D degree consensus on the reasons. Many would
views for this study. Nevertheless, these holders from Rs 1,500 to Rs 5,000. But, argue that patronage at the private and at
leads are useful for understanding the unfortunately, it has restricted this to the the state level has.distorted the environ-
magnitude of the problem and to under- disciplines of natural sciences only. In ment under which research in the social
stand its seriousness. addition, recently the University Grants sciences takes place, developing a con-
Writing about economic research, but Commission on behalf of the ministry, has formist, if not sycophantic, toadyist,
also addressing a larger problem in the also announceda PhD scholarship scheme. mindset. Others feel that there is a bias
social sciences, Haque and Khan write But again, the scheme is restricted to against a culture of dissent, debate and
that, "there is little funding for economic Engineering, Agriculture, and Animal discovery, brought upon, perhaps due to
research in the country, reflecting the Husbandry. In fact the advertisement state authoritarianismand due to the over-
general lack of investment in education declares that "Arts, Humanities and Social developed nature of the bureaucratic arm
and researchin Pakistan. An academic has Sciences are not included in the scheme". of the state. Other, more simpler reasons
no way of finding funds for what he/she During the course of interviews for this include the fact that the incentive and
or his/her peer group might consider in- study, all of the academics interviewed salary structure in public sector institu-
teresting or necessary for research. The without exception said that the biggest tions is dwarfed by the visible freedom and
only funding available is that which do- problem that they and their departments/ economic incentives in the vibrant private
nors consider necessary for their opera- centres face is due to financial cuts. Some donor andNGO supportedsectors. Clearly,
tions."53 However, this is not a situation said that while their department or centre all these reasons are relevant.
which finds favour with most academics was receiving limited funds, others which There are still other more interesting
and such research is considered 'spuri- were someone's favourite were receiving factors which are all inter-relatedand have
ous'. Naseem write that "while regular far more funds thanrequiredand even then had a bearing on the noticeable deterio-
funding of academic and research institu- were not producing any quality research. ration of the social sciences in Pakistan.
tions are stagnating or declining, consul- While government funds have been For some of the reasons mentioned above,
tancy has emerged as a major growth reduced, donor funded 'projects' have many of the best Pakistani social scientists

3660 Economic and Political Weekly August 31, 2002

have left for other countries causing a
haemorrhagingbraindrain.There is hence,
no community of academics or scholars
left to interact with, to share ideas with,
few journals and almost no professional
associations. Moreover, many Pakistani
social scientists feel that those western
social scientists who work on Pakistan are
second rate scholars at third rate univer-
sities, a fact which does not help the
Pakistani social science cause either.
Identifying a number of broad encom-
passing parameters, this paper has pre-
sented a large amount of data and evidence
which only underscores the dismal truth
about the dismal state of the social sci-
ences in Pakistan. Sadly, all indications
suggest that things are likely to get far, far,
worse. 1F2
Notes
[This paperis a shorterversion of a much longer
piece undertakenfor the Social Science Research
Council(SSRC)in New York.Excellentcomments
of Itty Abraham have helped in improving an
earlier draft.]
1 Fourteenof Pakistan'sbetterknown and most
prolific social scientists (of those based in
Pakistan)wereinterviewedfortheSSRCstudy.
2 Inayatullah,(writingin the mid-1980s) argues.
that of the total number of social scientists
working in the country, 30 per cent were
economists, 19 per cent political scientists,
and 11 per cent historians. Since he includes
farmoredisciplines in the social sciences than
we do, this proportionis likely to be much
higher,and also, as we show in this paper,far
higher in 2001 than 1983. See. Inayatullah,
'Social Sciences in Pakistan:An Evaluation',
in Hashmi, S H (ed), The State of Social
Sciences in Pakistan, Council of Social
Sciences, Pakistan,Islamabad,2001. [This is
a reprint of Conference Proceedings first
published in 1989].
3 See for example. Naseem, SM, 'Economists
andPakistan'sEconomicDevelopment:Isthere
a Connection?', Pakistan Development
Review, 37.4, 1998; S M Naseem, et al,
'Conditions of Teaching and Research in
Economics: Some Preliminary Findings',
Pakistan Development Review, 37.4, 1998;
N Haque and M H Khan, 'The Economics
Professionin Pakistan:A HistoricalAnalysis',
Pakistan Development Review, 37.4, 1998;
E A G Robinson, 'The Problemsof Teaching
Economicsin Pakistan',Pakistan Instituteof
Development Economics, monograph, May
1967, Karachi.
4 Forsome preliminaryideas on this theme, see
S A Zaidi, 'The IntellectualCrisis', Economic
and Political Weekly, September 26, 1998.
5 Naseem, op cit, 1998, p 405.
6 Ibid, p 424.
7 Zaidi, S A, op cit, 1998.
8 Naseem, op cit, 1998, p 426.
9 The papers by Naseem, op cit, 1998, and
Haque and Khan, op cit, 1998, give ample
emphasis to this theme.
10 Although very well meaning, even Naseem
suffers from this problem. See for example
Naseem, op cit, 1998. However, he is not the
only one: most of the authorsin S H Hashmi,
op cit, 2001 have exactly the same sentiments.
I I Zaidi, S A, 'The Business of Giving Advice:
Economic and Political Weekly August 31, 2002
Pakistan Economy and Society', Economic
and Political Weekly,Vol 35. No 19, 2000.
12 This does not seem to be a uniquelyPakistani
disease: see M Weiner, 'Social Science
Research and Public Policy in India',
Economics and Political Weekly, Vol 14,
Nos 37 and 38, 1979.
13 See for example the numerouspapers in S H
Hashmi, op cit, 2001.
14 This point was emphasisedin exactly so many
words, withoutany prodding,by every single
academic interviewed for this study.
15 This point is based on personal experience
aftermanyyearsof doing 'independent'(non-
institutionally located) research, which was
broughthome time andagainduringthecourse
of this study. 1 visited one universitydepart-
ment, one autonomous institute, and various
departmentsof the University Grants Com-
mission, amongst many other departments/
centres.At these threeplaces, I was not given
any materialregardingtheiractivities(material
whichwas availablein publishedformpublicly,
such as flyers, Annual Reports,etc.) because
I did not representan institution.I was told,
in so many words, that no one does or.can do
research 'on their own', as I said I did, and
hence they were highly suspicious of me and
my activitiesandfelt thatI could not be trusted
with publiclyavailablepublishedmaterial.As
my legitimacy was questioned, I was told to
apply through an institution if I wanted the
material,although I was told some of it was
confidential. See footnote 52 below.
16 For a social and economic historyof Pakistan
see. S Akbar Zaidi, Issles in Pakistan's
Economy, OUP, 1999.
17 Naseem, op cit, 1998, p 408.
18 Ibid, p 414.
19 For a very interestingcontrastwith India, see
T V Sathyamurthy,'Development Research
and the Social Sciences in India Since
Independence'.DERAPPutblicationsNo 171
Norway, January 1984. Sathyamurthywrites
that 'there are indeed very few instances of
research institutes in the social sciences in
Indiathatwere startedwith foreignresources'
(p 52), which is in complete contrastwith the
Pakistani situation.
20 Naseem, op cit, 1998, p 413.
21 lnayatullah, op cit, 2001, p 32.
22 It is importantto point out that not everyone
agrees with this position and there are many
academics who think that this was a period
of severe civilian authoritarianism.
23 See Zaidi, op cit, 1998, on this.
24 Inayatullah,op cit, 2001, p 44.
25 Qureshi, M N, 'Whither History? The State
of the Discipline in Pakistan' in Hashmi, op
cit, 2001, p 119.
26 Inthe largerSSRC Report,not in thisshortened
version.
27 However, as this paper argues, this criticism
applies to much of what goes underthe guise
of academic social science in English in
Pakistan, as well.
28 Haque and Khan, op cit, 1998, p 447.
29 In book reviews and review articles, much
criticismis madeof the largepublishinghouses
for not giving enough attentionto the quality
of texts, both in terms of content/subjectand
in termsof style/presentation.See forexample,
Zaidi, op cit, 1998, for one of many such
critiques.
30 See for example, Naseem et al, op cit, 1998.
for more on the exodus from PIDE.
31 Naseem et al, op cit, 1998, p 459.
32 Both Naseem op cit, 1998, and Haque and
Khan, op cit, 1998, feel very strongly about
thisandhavecriticisedPSDE fornotbecoming
a far more representative and effective
organisation.
33
Haque and Khan, op cit, 1998, p 444.
34 Naseem, op cit, 1998, p 423.
35 Haque and Khan, op cit, 1998, p 443.
36 Haque and Khan, op cit. 1998, p 448.
37 Ibid, p 448.
38 Ibid, p 448.
39 Naseem, et al, op cit, 1998, p 469.
40 Haque and Khan, op cit, 1998, p 442.
41 It is worth our while to reproducein full, a
SecretUniversityGrantsCommissionCircular,
No D 1783/2001-IC.V. Government of
Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Islamabad,
dated October 12, 2001. The subject of the
circular is, 'Pakistani Students in
Correspondencewith Indians for Academic
Assistance': "(1) I am directedto say thatone
of thesecurityagencies hasobserveda growing
tendency among the staff members/students
of various professional institutions of India
andPakistanto communicatein differentfields
of mutual interest; (2) For instance, Imtiaz
Ahmed Pannu, a student of Departmentof
Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabadhas established illegal links with
Indianexperts/organisations;(3) It is requested
that all the public/privatesector universities/
educational institutions affiliated, registered
or recognised by the University Grants
Commission/government may kindly be
advisedto instructtheirstaff members/students
to follow the government directions and
immediately dispense with all illegal links
with foreign experts/educationalinstitutions;
(4) It may also be ensured that materialto be
exchangedbe firstgotclearedfromtheministry
and no links with any foreign experts/
educationalinstitutionsshould be established
withoutpriorapprovalof UGC/governmentof
Pakistan."
42 ChrisBayly makean excellent pointregarding
the profession of History in Pakistan,which
is worth quoting at length. He says, 'The
creation of a separate history for Muslims
resultedinthevirtualabandonmentof historical
writing in the futurePakistan.If Islam, rather
thanthehistoricalexperienceof Muslimpeople
living amongst their Hindu neighbours, was
to be the touchstoneof nationalmemory,then
history was itself a valueless category. In
Pakistan, modern history has largely been
dropped in favour of the vacuous 'Pakistan
Studies." C A Bayly, 'Modern Indian
Historiography' in Michael' Bentley,
Companion to Historiography, Routledge,
London, 1997, p 683.
43 A Pakistanihistoriantriedto organise a south
Asian forum of historians in which five
Pakistanis were invited. Two of these five
happen to be political scientists and one is a
sociologist.
44 Inayatullah,op cit, 1998, p 52.
45 Hafeez, S, 'Development of Sociology as a
Discipline in Pakistan'in S H Hashmi,op cit,
2001, p 145.
46 Haque and Khan, op cit, 1998, p 447.
47 Haque and Khan, op cit, 198, p 445.
48 Ibid, p 446.
49 Naseem, op cit, 1998, p 425.
50 Inayatullah,op cit, 2001, p 19.
51 Ibid, p 42.
52 Threevisits weremadeto the UniversityGrants
Commission in Karachiand Islamabad,but I
was toldall such informationwas 'confidential'
although it is not, and could not be given to
anyone,especially me, since 1did not represent
an institution. See footnote 14, above.
53 Haque and Khan, op cit, 1998, pp 446-47.
54 Naseem, op cit, 1998, p 428.
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