‘MIICROFICHE

REFERENCE
LIBRARY
A project of Voiunteers in Asia

. . .
tomotive Opwd wtemncc,

by: E. Christopher Cone

Published by:
Volunteers in Technical Assistance
1815 North Lynn St. Suite 200
P.O. Box 12438
Arlington, VA 22209 USA
Paper copies are $ 6.50.
Available from:
Volunteers in Technical Assistance
1815 North Lynn St. Suite 200
P.O. Box 12438
Arlington, VA 22209 USA
Reproduced by permission of Volunteers in
Technical Assistance.

Reproduction of this microfiche document in any

form is subject to the same restrictions as those
of the original documefit.
 4

Volunteers In Technical Assistance

3706 Rhode Island Ave.

Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20622
USA

AUTOMOTIVE OPERATIOrlXtjOMAINTENANCE
AUTOMOTIVE OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE

A mnual for driversusing pioneerroads

and for novicemechanicswho must depend
upon their own resourcesin areas without
extensiveservicefacilities.

Preparedfor VITA
Volunteersin TechnicalAssistance
by E. ChristopherCone
 First printing,May 1973
secondprirrting,November1973
Third print-, April 1974
Revbdons and fourthprint-, April 1975

CopyrigM @ E. Cldstopher Cone 1975

,. ‘*

‘.I, “,. . . ,_ ;I
 DEDICATION

This book is dedi.cated

to the memory of Fr. Joseph Bessom,OHC, a
men-day Christiansaint whose love of Africa and its people sent me
to live in its junglesand resultedin the writing of this book for VITA.

It would be fruitlessto attemptto list all of the men and women

who have contr-ibutedto the,preparation of this book. They range from
unletteredAfricanswith an inborn feeling for the capacityof a log
bridge to engineerswith the largestcorporationsin the world. Special
thanks should be made to my African instructors,Jaati=_s
Tamba Kila,
StephenRoakai,Jaka Masarrbolahun, J-s Nyumada,Moses Si-;ili Gelego,
Andrew Kpehe Woiwor, and others. Appreciationis extendedto the Order
of the Holy Clloss,which providedthe "test track" for most of the mat rial
discussedin this book. Acknowledgementis also made of the assistance
of severalpeople at VITA, notablyTerry Ladd who supervisedthe instigation
of the project,and Mrs. Gerri Forlenza,who shepherdedit to completion.

The technicalassistanceof many vehiclemanufacturers and their sales

agents has contributedto the productionof this book. Their aid has been
invaluablein providingshop referencesconcerningspecificvehiclesin the
maintenanceportionofthismanual.

E.C.C.

VITA expres.,esits appreciationto Mr. Harold Loggins,instructorin

ArchitecturalDrawing and Design,NiskayunaHigh School, Schenectady,New
York, and his stude'lts,SandraAustin, Linda Horton,Robert E&so, Silvio
Mossa and F'redPolsinelli,who contributedsame of the illustrations.
 INTFKJXJCTION

This book is intendedto fill a need found by the author during

severalyears' experienceas a mechanic for a churchm;iwsionin Liberia,
West Africa. At that time the author could perhapscharitablybe termed
a mechanitcallyinclinednovice, Despitehis lack of experiencehe found
himself in charge of a substantialilumberof vehiclesand a fair sized
electricgeneratingstation. It was largelythroughexperimentand
occasionaldisasterthat rrmdhof the materialfor this book was assembled.
It is presentedhere in the hop that it may save the reader many of the
sameproblems.

The intent is to offer suggestionsto the driver or mechanicwho

operatesin an area where servicefacilitiesand technicalassistance
are.not readily available. In such areas he must be his own advisoron
every problemwhich Roy arise. In the event that the reader hapnensto
have some servicefacilitiesat hand he will find that he can skip over
some sectionsof the manual.

This manual is directedlargelyat four wheel drive vehicles,since

it can generallybe expectedthat an area where no servicefacilities
exist will be one with pioneerroads which requirethe added tractionof
four wheel drive.

Since FWD is the name of a manufactureriafheavy-dutyfour wheel

drive trucks, it is inappropriateto use this abbreviationto indicate
"four wheel drive". The abbreviationF'WDis also used to describethe
growingnumber of cars with front wheel drive and no power to the rear
wheels. To avoid confusion,the term 4WD will be used here. Also, as
a matter of convenience,the word %ar" is taken as it is used in West
AfriCd: to mean any sort of small or moderate size vehiclewhether it
be a sedan autombile, jeep-typevehicle,or pickup truck.

On anothermatter of nomenclature it shouldbe noted that petroleum

productsare identifiedhere by their United Statesnames. Readers in
other areas will have to translateaccordingto local custom. This is
a matter of some confusion: what the Britishcallparaffin,for example,
is known as kerosenein the U.S.,and paraffinto a U.S. readermans a
translucentwhite wax.

The reader will find the book organized into several sections. An
understandingof the organizationshouldmake it possibleto find needed
materialquickly. The first sectionconcernsoperationof a car in an
area served by pioneer roads. The section is intendedto assist the
driver with temporaryrepairs to his vehicle so that he can get home in
the event of mechanicaltrouble.

The secondmajor portionof the book is devotedto maintenance

suggestions. These are intendedfor use in a frontiershop or repair
center,no matter how ill-equippedthis may be. This book shouldbe
used as a supplementto the vehicle'sshop manual, and a source of
guidance. The shop manual will tell how to reline the brakes, for example,
but -H&s book is intended to indicatewhen reliningis needed.

In addition,materialhas been includedon making a choice of the many

four wheel drive cars availableon the market based upon individualneeds.

Since a book of this type is worthlessif materialcannot be located

when it Is needed, a specialefforthas been made to prepare as complete
an index as possible. Cross-references will alSo be found~thrloughout
the
text.

NOTE:regarding
metric and Englishmeasurements:
For convenienceboth systemsof measment are used
in this book, Where an equivalentis given as a
"rule of thumb,11however it is not intendedas an
exact equivalent. For example, 35 miles per hour is
shown as being equivalentto 55 kilometersper hour.
A more exact figurewould be 56.35 kilometersper hour,
but this is cumbersomeand not readilyremembered.

A cconplete
table of English and Metric equivalents!
is includedin section20.00.
 Major sections of this kook ame divided by section numbers. Section
6.0,0,for example covers the entire range of "Winching md Towa," Within
this large chapter will be found small secticns, For example, 6.01 concerns
wire rope, and the following sections cover methods of splicing wire rope,
storage of wire rope, etc.

In addition to arranging the book in this "outline" fashion, a complete

index will be found in section 21.00.

1.00 Mechanical RnergenciesWhile Driving

Lass of oil pressure; tire blmout; broken axle or drive shaft;

boiling radiator; broken steering linkage; steering bent and
ineffective;headlight failure at night; accelerator pedal stuck
dm;brakefailure.

2.00 &mat&w on Pioneer Roads

ExaminM the~vehiele;loading the vehicLe; intruductionto the

cab; mx&anical operation.

3.00 Avoiding Read Hazm?s

Four wheel drive; traveling in convoy; tire chains; loss of tnaction;

piled-up md or solid obstacles; log bridges; capsizing; fording
and wading; submerging.

4.00 FA&ricatingtheVehicle

Stuck in mud or sncw; hung up in md or snow; hung up on a solid

obstacle; log bridges; stuck while fording.

5.00 Pmcedu&when Stranded

Leaving the vehicle; water supply; seeking help; vehicle submerged.

6.00 Winches andTc&ng

L Wirempe; joining wirecable;storageofwirempe;types of rope;

synthetic fiber ropes; knots for fiber rope; chain; joining chain;
storage of chain; chain repairs; the winch; selecting a winch;
install.Lnga winch; winch drive systems; winch cable; use of the
winch;anchorCrgthewi.nch cable;winchi.ngsafety;winding inthe
win& cable; block and tackle; recovery with a winch; winching from
a bridge; removing a log under the car; lowering with the winch;
using the winch for salvage; salvaging a capSized vehicle; salvaging
a car from water; towing a derelict; attaching the tow cable;
overmming rm2hanica.l drag; towing a trailer; trailer hitches; towing
a tmiler; extricatinga stuck trailer.

i
 7.00 Field F%pedie.nts

Capsizing and submergingaccidents; drive -trainexpedients;

steerfing system expedients;brake system t-xpedients;fuel
system expedients;tire expedients;cooling system expedients;
electrical expedients;problems in the primary circuit; ignition
system expedients;engine expedients.

8.00 Check Lists

Cranking and starting trouble; engine will not crank; engine

cranks, will not start; engine starts, then quits; low charge,
dead battery; poor spark; low oil pressure; engine uses too mch
oil; steering problems; filonttires worn; uneven tire wear;
vibration in drive train; wheel bearings hot;steering trou~jles;
brake trouble; brake pedal sinks to floor; brakes do not ]mld;
brake pedal rises and brakes drag; brakes drag; car pulls to
one side when braking; brakes grabbing; brake pedal does not
return; clutch and gearshift problems; gearbox trouble; clutch
trouble; rough mming or conking out; engine short of power;
engine conks out and will not restart; engine overheats, radiator
boils; funny noises.

9.00 Tests and Testing Equipment

Cooling system tests; engine tests; clutch tests; drive train

and steering tests; fuel system checks; brake tests; primary
electrical tests; ignition tests; exhaust tests.

10.00 Shop Techniques

General shop hints; axles; differentials;wheel bearings;

universal joints; fuel system; brakes; adjusting the brakes;
bleeding the brakes; relining the brakes; the hand brake;
electrical repairs; battery; voltage regulator; genemtor
repairs; light system repairs; ignition repairs; steering
repairs; tire and wheels; rep&s to springs; repairs to
shock absorbers; cooling system repairs; exhaust system
repairs; engine repairs; valves; engine remval; miscellaneous
engine repairs.

11.00 BodyRepairs

Window glass; roof dents; chassis repairs.

12.00 AShop Building

13.00 Diesel mines

I Diesel check list; Diesel engine tests; Diesel repairs.

14.00 Tools and Equipnt

Tcols for the car; shop tools; luxury tools and equipment;
a generator; compressed air in the shop; welders; gas welders;
welders; tools to make; homemade test equipment.
electric ill?c

ii
 15.00 Veh$ele IYcd$ficati~ns

Storage facilities;b@y m@fications.

16.00 Pap-m and Supplies

Supplkes &I the vehicle; supplies in the shop.

17.00 Storage FaciLMes

Puel Storage.

18.00 Prevative maintenance

Greasing; lubrication;tune-up procedure; radiator flush;

miscellaneousmaintenance; cold weather operation; periodic
checks; deck points; daily checks.

19.00 Selecting a Vehicle

Vehicle types and sizes; vehicle mxkifications;vehicle

comparisons;Chevrolet; Dodge; Ford; GMC; International;Jeep;
Land-Rover;Plmuth; Toyota; unimog; Volkswagen.

20.00 MiscellaneousFormulas

Engine displacement;weight on rear axles; pulley ratios,

chartsandmeas wx9xnts; water measurements; metric equivalents;
torque values for nuts and bolts; battery electrolyte specific
gravi~;rnetric equivalents.
JJ
21.00 Definitions andIndex
 1.00 - 1.04

1.00 l$33ANICAL EPERGEZNCIES

WHILE DRIVING

While a discussion of the disasters that await the novice driver on

a pioneer mad may be a discmraging way-to start a manual of this type,
it is intended that tie reader me this section before he must face
any of mese problems, so that he can be fully prepared. This section is
not concerned with such roadside problems as flat tires, dead batteries or
running out of fuel. By %e&hanical emergencies"is meant the sort of
Mle with the car which places its riders in danger through lack of
control of the vehicle or the threat of major damage to the mchine:y.
Many of the mchanical problems related here can be avoided through
attention to the items summarized in section 18.00 on preventive main-
tenance. Repairs to correct the problems listed here are described in .%,
section 7.00: Field Expedients.

1.01 Less of Oil Pressure

Since oil, under pressure, is required to lubricate the many roving

parts of an engine, loss of this pressure is a major mechanical emergency.
The engine must be stopped irmediately,or it will in all likelihoodbe
pe?maWntlydaTIaged. Once the engine is safely stopped the driver can
look for the cause of the difficulty. Section 8.00 on check lists my be
of assistance in this search.

1.02 Tire Blowout

At the slow speeds which are con-mm on pioneer roads, tire failme
may not be a serious problem. Perhaps the driver will only hear a flopping
noise and notice that the steering seems unresponsive..Athigh speeds a
blowout can be a serious matter, since the wrong corrective action by the
driver can spin the car out of control. T~L correct response to a blowout
is to keep the foot off the brake pedal or accelerator and lxy to steer the
car to a safe stop. If a front tire blows, the car will swerve toward
the sam side. Using the brakes will often cause a spin. With the
transmission in gear the engine will slow the car gradually, mking it
more likely that the driver will be able to hold the wheel and steer to
a halt.

1.03
,- BmkenAxleorDrive Shaft

A two wheel drive cm, propelled by only one pair of wheels, will
stop if an axle or propeller shaft breaks; going up a hill it will roll
back. In such a vehicle it is necessary to make repairs before the car
can proceed.

A 4WD car can continue as long as either the front or rear wheels are
functioning. If an axle shaft is broken in the rear end, for example, shift
to 4WD and attempt to proceed using only front wheel drive. If a propeller
shaft is broken it should be removed before proceed.ing,or the stub end
will flop around and my damage the underframe of the car.

1.04 Boiling Radiator

A boiling radiator is indicative of an overheated engine, which my

be caused by any one of a number of things as listed in section 8.70 on
check lists.
1.04 - 1.09

Do not shut off the engine if the radiator is boiling, for then all
circulation of water, even though the water is Overheated, will be cut
off. Put the transmission in neutral and leave the engine idling. Very
carefully open the radiator cap; live steam is likely to be forced out
under pressure, so it is advisable to cover the cap with a thick rag for
protection. With the engine still idling, slowly add enough water to fill
the radiator. Allow the engine to continue idling until the tempemture
indicator retmns to normal,

Tf opening the radiator cap reveals that the radiator is already full
and additional water it not needed, the engine is probably be.ingoverworkd
and slower speeds and lower gears should be used. Alternatively,the
thermostat may be blocked, preventing the flow of doolantthrough the engine.

1.05 Broken Steering Linkage

I
In the event of breakage of any part of the steering system, it will
probably became impossible to steer the car. At low speed this my not be
a crisis, but at high speed it may not be possible to avoid a crash. The
driver must stop the car as quickly as possible under such circumstances.
NOTE: The critical nature of the steering system mskes frequent examination
aime safety consideration.

1.06 Steering Bent and Ineffective

If a car strikes a tree stump, rock, or other obstacle in such a way

as to bend part of the steering linkage under the front end, the steering
may become ineffective. The two front wheels may point tmard each other,
for example. The driver will usually maintain enough control to be able to
stop safely.

1.07 Headlight Failureat Ni*t

The obvious mve in the event of headlight failure is to stop ininediately.

The well prepared driver will have a flashlight with which to seek the diffi-
culty. i,'
1.08 Accelerator Pedal Stuck Down

Mechanical failure scmetims results in leaving the accelerator pedal down,

rather than returning it when the driver releases his foot. In this event
the car will continue to mve. If the pedalcannotbe lifted with the toe
of the foot, shut off the ignition and brake to a stop.

1.09 Brake Failure

Before giving brakes up for lost, try pumping the pedal vigorously
several times. This my provide enough pressure to stop the car. If it
does not, several courses are open:

If the parkhg brake works, it can be used to stop the car.

Tf not, the driver can shut off the *ition, leaving the transmission
in gear and use the parking brake to stop the vehicle.
 1.09

Mtematively, the driver can downshift to the carts lowest gear. ms

will bring the W gradually to a Sl.oy speed. k!kn the ignition is then
shyt off, the car Will stop.

There are ah0 Ockas~ons bfitente?zmin~~yaid in stopping t$e car. A

s~?~y sect&m of .md, for example, will serve this purpose, as will soft
sand OF an uphi grade.
2.00 - 2.01

2.00 OpERATING ON PIONEQ RO@s

Experience will indicate that a nuniberof factors contribute to suc-

cessful operation on pioneer roads. Arm-g these is a knowledge of the in-
dividual vehicle, ability to load the car properly, and familiaritywith
the mechanical operation of the car. These various factors will be con-
sidered before any discussion of driving techniques.

2.01 ming the Vehicle

Although it eventually becomes second nature, it is important to the

novice driver to become familiar with his vehicle and to examine it care-
fully before starting on a trip.

Know which side the differentialsare on, since they are usually not
centered. The differentialis thelowestpointofthe under-carriageon
nmst cars. The driver can gain a few extra inches of clearance over a
rock or stump by placing the car correctly over the obstacle, with the
differentialto the side. This allows the higher side of the axle to pass
over the obstacle.

See whether there is a protective plate under the front end to guard
the steering gear from obstacles. Such a plate is a good invesiment on a
new vehicle. It usually extends from the underside of the radiator housing
backtothecrankcase,and insoms cars covers the crankcase aswell.

Know hw wide the car is so that clearance between trees, rocks, or

other obstacles can be accurately judged.

Knowhwfarapart thetires are, especially in an area where log

bridges are comnon. At first it is advisable to get out of the car when
approachinga log bridge to be sure that you have estimated correctly
before proceeding. (See section 3.06)

Knpwhwhighthetopofthetruckortheloadis. This is important

in relation to overhangingbranches.

Beyond the dimensions of the vehicle, there are other mechanical details
which should be examined before departing:

In areas with poor bridges, remove the cab doors if this is at all
pmctical. The author and many of his friends have been saved frwn dxwning
bythis simpleexpedient. If the cab has no roof, of course, there is no
needtoremovethedoors. On some vehicles it is possible to remove the
top half of the door, leaving the lower half in place. Seat belts should be
used to prevent the occupants from falling out of the car.

Be sure that the fuel tank is full before starting, even on a short
journey. Even in familiar territory it is quite possible to get stuck and
work all day to get free.

If there are racks for additional fuel or water cans, be sure that they
arefullbeforestaPting.

check to see that oil, battery, radiator and brake fluid reservoir care
full.
 See that the brake pedal does not feel spongy or sink to the floor,
and that the hand brake will stop the car if necessary.

Be sure that there are enough spare tires to get where you are going,
or have the tools and patches to make repairs on the mad if necessary.

Examirrle
the toolbox to see that it contains appropriate tools and
spare parts. (See section 14.10)

2.02 loading the Vehicle

The two most important factors in loading are the total weight of
the load in relation to the capacity of the vehicle, and the distribution
of the load over the chassis.

The driver's manual for the vehicle will,indicatethe total load

allowable. For a small car, the weight of the driver and any passengers
may make up a large part of the total load. A full fuel tank may add 75
to 150 pounds (34 to 67 kilograms), and a spare five gallon (19 liter)
fuel can adds an additional 40 pounds (18 kilograms).

As a very rough rule of thumb for overloading,there should be som

free rmvement between the axle and the chassis. The chassis should never
restupontie axlewithno reserve in the springs.

In balancing the load, spread the weight as evenly as possible between

the front and rear axles. Concentratedweight on the front portion of the
load box in a pickup truck, for example, my break tie chassis even though
the load does not exceed the maximm allowed in the driver's manual.

Weight placed halfway between the front and rear wheels will be sup-
ported equally by each axle. If all the weight is over the rear wheels, the
mar springs and axle housing may be overloaded. If all the weight is 1
concentratedbehind the rear wheels, the front end will be lightened. It
may even leave the ground, making steering finpossible.

Fomulas are presented in section 20.00 for the mathematical calcula-

tion of the load on the rear wheels, although this is not necessary if
cormon sense is used in load distribution.

If there is a choice of vehicles for a given load, use the one that
will give the lowest center of gravity. That is, the one which will carry
the load nearest to the ground. Apickuptruckcarries its loadbetween
the rear wheels, for example, while a stake body truck carries the load
abare the rear wheels. The result is thatapickup tmckofthe same size
is rare stable and less likely to capsize than a stake body truck.

Stilarly: keep the heavy part of a load as lw as possible in the

truck6 If -LX+load is too high it will make the vehicle top-heavy. When
a truck must of necessity be loaded so that it is top-heavy (for example,
with a large machine>, the driver must be very careful on roads with
excessive crown or tilt to avoid capsizing the vehicle.
 2.02 - 2.04

The load should not be allwed to hang out of the sides of the
vehicle if this can possibly be avoided, since a hazard will be presented
by trees, branches, buildings and other vehicles.

Af$&r loading, be sure that the load is secure and cannot shift even
if the car lurches severely, Aloadthat shifts forwardn=ay injure the
driver; if it shifts back it nmy fall out of the vehicle; if it shifts to
the side the vehicle may be turned over. Tie theloadto the carwithropes
that will anchor it securely, or be sure that it is wedged in place so that
nothing can mDve. This is especiallyimportantinthe case of the small
vehicle carrying a relatively large single unit such as a drum of fuel. A
great deal of damage can be done by such a drum if it "gets loose" in the
backofapickuptruck.

2.03 Introductionto the Cab

Before starting the engine, take amomntto familiarizeyourself

with the cab.

Many drivers believe that on pioneer roads speeds are so low that
seat belts are not necessary. Experience will show, however, that th&y are
a great asset. While there may be no danger of a collision in an area with
very few cars, the seat belt can prevent the driver from hitting his head
onthe cabroofonaroughroad,orfromfalling outofthe carifthe doors
have been mved.

One of the best safety rules for driving on rough roads is to keep
the thumbs outside the rim of the steering wheel. Although unnatural at
first, it soon becomes second nature, and if the steering wheel is mnched
away by striking an obstacle, the spokes cannot injure or dislocate the
driver's thumbs.

Hold the steering wheel with the hands in a position corresponding

to the position of clock hands at ten minutes past ten. Wo-handed
steering is essential if roads are rough, and this position gives the best
leverage for a turn in either direction.

In a snowy or rainy climate where the driver's feet will often be wet,
mvetherubberpads fromthepedals. Therubberwillbecoms very slippery
when wet, msking it hard to keep the feet on the pedals. (See section 15.20)

Although most cars advertise that three people can be accomnodatedin

the front seat, it is much safer to carry only the driver and one passenger.
This all~nmre~mfor~~ope~tionofthe gearshiftandthe transfer
case, axI it is nuch easier for two people to get out or an endangered car
in a hurry than it is for the third sitting in the center.

2.04 Introductionto the Drive Train

Before starting off, a few words about the n-bschanics

of the car are
needed.

In an age where most sedans have automatic transmissions,many people

are not familiar with the gear shift and clutch, or with their function. The
gear shift is intended to allow the engine to operate at optirrwnspeed regard-
less of the speed of the vehicle, since a gasoline engine develops very low
 2.04

power at low speeds. Thus, in first gear the engine is turning rapidly but
the wheels turn slowly; in top gear the engine and wheels are generally
turningatthe same speed.

The clutch separates the engine from the wheels for a moment so that
the gears can be shifted. A clutch resembles two flat discs, one of which
is connected to the engine and the other through the gearbox to the wheels.
When the discs are separated, no pcwer is tMnsmitted to the wheels. When
they are pressed together, the engine mer is sent through the two discs
to the wheels.

In order to shift from one gear to another, then, it is necessary to

first depress the clutch pedal. This will disconnect the engine from the
wheels so that the car is coasting freely. The shift can then be made, and
the clutch released to apply pawer again. This process of clutching, shift-
ing, and unclutching should not be hurried; the result would be rapid clutch
wear or even broken axles.

DOUBLE CACHING is needed to shift from a high gear to a lower one.

While synchromeshtransmissionshave made double clutching less critical
and even unnecessary in some circumsttices,the technique is still a great
wearsaver for any gearbox. Double clutching allows the engine and the
gearbox to be matched in speed before the gears are engaged. If this were
not done, the gears would "crash,I1or gr!nd against each other until they
are meshed by force.

Double clutc.hingis not at all difficult, but it does require some

practice. It cannot be taught from a book, although scme suggestionswill
be presented here for the use of the driver in his own practice sessions.

Suppose it is necessary to shift fram second gear down to first gear

in order to slow the car going down a hill. Withthe carm~~ingacross the
top of the hill in second gear, press the clutch down. Put the gearshift
in neutral and let the clutch up. The en&ine is now connected to the gear-
box, although-the gearboxis inneutralandnottransmitting anypowerto the
wheels. Accelerate the engine until its speed approximatesthe speed at
whichitwouldbe runningifthe carwere infirstgear. Thenquickly
press the clutch dawn, shift gently into first gear, and let the clutch up.
If the estimate of engine speed was accurate, the spinning gears in the
gearbox will have been going at the sa~nespeed as the wheels, and will
I' have~shedwi~utcrsshing.

lkuble clutching should beccynethe natural way to get into a low gear
whendescendingahill. Use of the brakes will cause overheating and failure,
possiblyatacrucialtime. In addition, braking on a slope can start the car
sliding out of control.

!lXETRANSFERCASEis actuallyanothergearshiftaddedtothemaingearbox
toobtainevenlowergearratios. At these lower ratios the engine turns at
high speed, thus developing peak power, while the wheels turn very slwly.
Inmst4WDcars thetransfercaseapproxima tely doubles the overall gear
ratio, & that the car travels only half as fast in low range as in
high range.

The regular gearshift is used in the JloTmalway in lw range. If the

vehicle can be accelerated to top gear in lw range and it is desired to go
2.04 - 2.05

faster, it becomes necessary to shift both levers. First shift the transfer
case to high range, then put the gearshift into the appropriate gear. It
may also be necessary to engage the front wheel drive after shifting the
transfer case. The whole shift may take so long that aromentumwill be lost,
and the regular gearshift will probably have to be put into the first gear
even though it is a lower ratio than top gear in lw range.

2.05 Introductiontothel%gine

For those who are not familiar with the basic principles of automotive
engines, the following basic introductionmay be useful.

Energy to move the car is derived from the fuel, usually gasoline,
which must be mixed with air to make it burn, andthenmstbe burned in
a controlledway so that the energy can be used.

Gasoline, stored in the fuel tank, goes thmughtubingt~ a small pump,

which forces it into the carburetor. At the sametime,airis sucked in
through the air cleaner where dust and solid particles are removed, and into
the carburetor. In the carburetorthe fuel and air are mixed to a c~@.m?tible
vapor. This vapor is then suckedthroughthe intakemanifoldtothe engine
itself. At the engine, the fuel vapor passes through a valve at the top,cf
each cylinder, being sucked into the Cylinder when the piston within it moves
down, creating a vacuum inside the engine.

The engine operates on what is termed a four-strokecycle. The four

strokes are intake, campl?ession,ignition (or power) and exhaust. On the
intake stroke of a piston, the cylinder is filled with fuel vapor through
tie intake valve. As the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder the
intake valve closes, and the piston starts up again. The fuel vapor is thus
compressed, cramning mre energy into a smaller space. As the piston passes
the top of its stzoke, when the space within the cylinder is smallest, the
fuel mixture is ignited by a spark from the spark plug. The fuel explodes
violently, but since both valves are closed there is nowhere for the energy
to go unless the piston is forced downward. This is the power stroke, and
it is the energy of the explosion forcing the piston dawrrwardwhich turns
the engine and makes the a3r go. The fourth stroke, exhaust, serves to
force the used gases out the exhaust valve to clear the cylinder for the
next cycle.

In order to keep this cycle moving, several extra parts are essential.
The generator is turned by the engine, and provides electric power to keep
tie battery charged for the operation of electric accessories such as head-
lights, windshield wipers and horn. The battery also provides power to the
ignition system of the car: 12 WLt PckJerfrom the battery travels through
thebreakerpointstothe sparkcoil. There it is built up to a very high
voltage, tiich is sent through the distributor to each spark plug at pre-
cisely the right time to ignite the fuel mixture at the top of the compres-
yion stoke.

The cooling system keeps the heat of the explosions inside the cylin-
ders from damaging the engine. It consists of a radiator, fan, water pump,
and a supply of cooling water which runs through little channels inside the
engineblock. The fan blows air through the radiator to keep it cool, and
water flowing thx~ugh the radiator is therefore also cooled as it circulates
---
-

2.05

around its path thrwgh the engine, water pi and radiator.

There are several other accessorieswhich are not strictly essential to

the operattin of the &gjne, but‘@&zh are useful oreven vital parts of the
T- The l$&ts, wi&Ishieldwipers, dashboard gauges and speedometerfall into
thw c#Xgoxy The dri,vetrain has been discussed i,nsection 2.04, together
witi the princ&les of its operation-

Also essential, although not closely related to the work of the engine, are
are suchf~parts as the chassis~itself,uponwhichthe carparts are
mounted. On the chassis are the springs which support the weight of the
VehiCleonthe&eS,the shockabsorberswhich smxthout someof the road
lrnmps,and the brake system which stops the car. The steering system, also
nxmnted on the chassis, is another separate entity which is essential to
the operation of the car.

Each of these parts and systems is discussed in some detail in other

partsofthisbook. Refertothe indexatthebackofthebook for a con+
plete list of the various parts, their function, and hw to test and repair
than when necessary.

Intake valve

f FExhaust valve

POWER CYCLE OF TBE GASOLINE ENGINE

A: Descending piston draws fuel vapor in through intake valve.
B: Rising piston compresses the fuel vapor into a smaller space.
C: At top of stroke spark plug ignites the mixture.
D: Piston is forced down by exploding fuel vapor in cylinder.
E: Exhaust valve opens and piston rises to eject used fumes.
 -

3.00

3.00 AVOIDING ROAD HAZARDS

Having devoted same time to checking the vehicle, the driver can safely
start on h.i.s
journey. The difficult process of pulling a car out of a swamp
or broken bridge, or removing it from a projecting rock or stump, can be
eliminated by avoiding road hazards of this Qpe. Knowing what to do in
advance can save a great deal of time and effort. This section will be
devoted to operating the car in such a way as to avoid hazards which may
threaten the driver and his vehicle.

STMDDLING OBSTACLES such as potholes, rocks and logs is a simple

technique, and yet few drivers who are accustomed only to wide paved roads
adapt readily to driving over an obstacle. All that is needed is a quick
judgment' of hw.large the obstacle is and whether the car will pass over
it without falling in or getting hung up. If the car will pass, go over
the obstacle rather than trying to pass around it. Going amund an obstacle
on a narrow pioneer road generallymeans going off the road, which is not
usuallyagoodpractice.

RUTS AND GULUYS can also be straddled in the same way. Often rain
will wash a deep gulley down the middle of the road or a hill, since that
is the lwest part of the track. It is frequently safer to straddle this
gulley than to go to one side of it and be forced off the road. Careful
evaluation of a long gulley is necessary before starting over it, since it
maywidenfztheralong it course,tra@ngthe car.

GR!WELROADSposetheirom special problems. Althoughtheyareusually

morepassable inpoorweatherthandirt roads,theloose gravel is ahazard.
Speed should be kept to 35 miles (55 kilometers) per hour or less because of
the damage that can be done by flying gravel. When passing another car speed
should be further reduced. In many areas it is common practice to cover
the glass lenses ofheadlightswith cardboardorheavy screening for7day-
light driving.

TAKING A HELPER is always good practice on a pioneer road. Even in

avehicleequippedwithawinch,havinganotherpersonwiththedrivermakes
it mxh easier to g&t the car out of trouble. A helper can made sure the car
is lined up on a log bridge, can check to see that a suspicious rock will not
hit the oil pan or steering gear, and perform similar duties. In many parts
of the world it is possible to get such assistance for a ride.

DRIYING AT NIGH should be avoided, especially in an unfamiliar area.

When it 15 absolutely necessary, take a good flashlight in addition to
any other necessary tools and supplies. If thd car's lights semnverydim,
check for rmd or dust on the lenses. If allowed by law, it is often useful
to add extra driving lights; they should be protected fmn branches and other
obstacles.

AWORDONBRAKES: Stopping the car with all four wheels locked up and
not turning, although spectacular,is not the quickest way to stop. The
driver also loses steering ability, since the front wheels can only be
steered if they are turning. The best method, although it requires practice,
iS to use as much pressure on the brake pedal as the wheels can take without
locking up. If they do skid, too much pmasure is being applied.

!,;‘.-.

.,’ _
 3.00 - 3.Oi

When driving on mud or snow where traction is poor, continuous applica-

tion of the brakes will send the car out of control. Under such conditions
the driver can either steer or brake, and is therefore forced to alternate
between the two. l%rq$ng the brakes is a good compmmise: when the brakes
are applied the car slows but is unsteerable;when the brakes are released
the car can be steered, but is not being slowed. \

3.01 Four Wheel I&ive

Themostcommnmethodofavoiding or overcoming roadhazards is through

the use of four wheel drive. As the name indicates, this system provides
power for all four wheels of the car, not only for the rear wheels as is
, generally the case with sedan type automobiles.Any vehicle used for rugged
driving is generally equipped with four wheel drive.

When traction is a problem, such as driving on snow or mud, tire chains

are comnly used. Tire chains, on the rear wheels or on all of the wheels,
add significantlyto tractive power on slippery roads. They are considered
in section 3.03.

Improved traction can also be obtained with a limited-slipdifferential.

This device is available on mst cars as a factory option. It sup$ies
power to tie wheel with the best traction. While it does add to reliability,
alimited-slipdifferentialoffers scme specialmintenanceproblems, and
is therefore not a universally accepted device.

At least one vehicle, the German Unimg, provides differentiallop&s

whichelimi.natetheslipping ability ofthedifferential. As aresultall
power is trsmnitted to the tire with traction.

Four wheel drive cars almxt always include additional gear ratios
for slw travel, as indicated in Section 2.04. Since the greatly in-
creased power would tear apart the drive train if it were all applied
to the rear wheels alone, four wheel drive cars are interlocked so that
when the lower gears am in use the four wheel drive is automtically
engaged- The greater peer is then spread over all four wheels, which
serves both to increase traction and reduce the chance of damage to an
axle or propeller shaft.

Four wheel drive should be engaged only when it is needed. The

practice of leaving a car in 4WD just because it might be necessary so=-
wheredownthemadgreatly increasestirewearandmay alsodamagethe
drive train. This is because all four tires are being moved under power
but the tires are not exactly the same size, due to tire wear and differ-
ences ,intread thickness and inflation pressure. The larger tire will go
farther with a single revolution than the small one, and one of the two
willhavetobe scuffed alongtomkeupthe differencebetween front and
rear axle speeds. This scuffingwears awaythetread,andifthemadis
hardanddry sothatthetires cannotscuffthedrive trainmaybe ovep
worked and fail.

An experienceddriver will m in two wheel drive until he sees an

obstacle ahead, then he will shift to 4WD without stopping. Because the
 3.01; 3.03

car is still rr&ing at a good speed, the return may carry the car through
the obstacle, with the help of the doubled traction which results from
eng3ging the front wheel drive. Once past the obstacle, two wheel drive
canberesuwd.

Sam% 4wD vehicles are equippd with constant four-wheel power sup-
plied through a gearbox similar to a differential. This system &lows for
variations in tire size, eliminatingdragging or scuffing and resulting tire
damage. It also eliminates the need for a control lever to engage the front
wheels drive. The system was introduced in most cases on the 1974 models.
Until the idea has been tried for a few years it will be impossibleto pre-
diet what advantagesor defects may be present.

3.02 Traveling .inConvoy

An excellentway to avoid getting stuck, or to simplify the process of

extricating a stuck car, is to travel with two or more vehicles in a con-
WY- Each car can help the other, either pushing or pulling a stalled
vehicle through difficult areas. If a car must travel on a poor road
without a winch, having another car along with a winch is almost as good
ashavinghisawn.

It is usually advisable to send the more experienced driver first when

going on convoy. He can then shw the best way over or around obstacles.
His chances of getting through a difficult area are improved by his ex-
perience, and if he passes and the following car does not, he can tow it
-wzh-

When different sizes of cars are traveling in the same group, the
drivers should consider which one to send first. In deep snow, mud or
swamps, for example, the larger car should be sent through first. Its
greater road clearance gives it a better chance of getting through, and
it can then tw the smaller car if it gets stuck. If the smaller car went
first and got stuck, it would be necessary to pull it out backward (unless
it hadawinch) andthensendthebiggercarthrough.

On a bridge of questionablestrength, send the small car first. A

weak bridge may carry the sndller car where it would collapse under the
larger one. Thedriverofthe small car canevaluate thelargercar's
chances as he crosses.

3.03 Tire Chains

A great aid to getting through slippery areas is the use of tire

chains. Chains are excellent in mud or snow, but provide a very rough
ride on a snwxrthor hard road. They are a nuisance when they must be
put on and taken off frequently to allow for alternating sections of good
and poor mad.

On very poor roads, or where no roads exist, chains on all four wheels,
and the use of 4w0, will provide a mndous increase in tractive power.
In this type each link of the chain is reinforced with a V-shaped bar
welded across it. This bar gives both'added strength and TMD~~important,
added traction.

I
 3.03 - 3.04

The mst important considerationfor long.life of tire chains is a

good fit on the tire. The chain should be so tight that it cannot slip when
the wheel turns. The springs or rubber circles used to pull the chains
tight are not n)eantto hold loose chains in place. If necessary these
spreaders can be supplmented with loops of inner tube rubber. To pull
the chains tight, many drivers deflate the tire scmewhat, fasten the
chains as tight as they will go, and then inflate the tire to proper
pressure. Another somewhat easier method is to put the chains on as
tight as possible, then drive aromd a bit until they have "settled in 17
This should not take mre than a few hundred feet (100 meters). Then i&e
chains can be pulled up again; it is surprisingto see how much slack is
left in the chains even though they were tight when applied. Similarly, it
is good practice to stop periodically and check that the chains are tight
while driving. They should never slap the fenders, exhaust pipe, or any
otherpartofthe car.

Driving with tire chains where they me not needed causes severe wear.
Used on a hard-surfacedroad, for example, the chains will soon be mined
by the friction and beating action.

The most common road hazards involve loss of traction, being hung up
on the chassis, log bridge failures, capsizing, fording, and to a lesser
extent, subiruzrging.The following sections will illustrate in some de-
tail how to avoid each type of problem.

3.04 bss of Tmction

Perhaps the most comnly faced hazard on pioneer roads is loss of

traction. Slipping can be caused by md, snow, ice, wet leaves, or
similar surface materials, or it can be related to another problem. For
exa~~@e, acarmightbehungupon a rock andhave thedoubleproblemof
being anchored to the rock and having insufficienttraction to pull off.

Driving on mud is very similar to driving on snow, except that md

offers much higher resistance to the passage of a wheel than snow does.
In computing the rolling resistance, a measure of the retarding effect
of a road surface to forward mvemnt of a vehicle, the following formula
is used:

(~SS weight or"vehicle, pounds or kgs.) x (road factor)

= rolling resistance
1000 (in lbs. or kgs.)

In this form.& the following figures my be used for the "read factor":

good concrete mad, 15

2" (or 5 cm.) of snow, 25
4" (or 10 an.> of snow, 37
snwoth dirt road, 25
sandy dirt road, 37
mud, 35 to 150, depending on type and depth
soft sand, 60 to 150
3.04

Obviously in a practical situation a driver will not stop near a swamp

and get out his slide rule to find what the rolling resistance will be. On
a theoreticalbasis, however, from these figures it is evident that the resis-
tance of mud i.sas much as six times as great as that of two inches (5cm.1 of snow.
To overcome this resistance,the driver will need to use lower gears or
other tractive aids.

A little experiencewill indicate that different types of md have

different effects on the car. Sorrremud may be recognized by a distinctive
color or appearsnce. The driver will learn to be prepared for deep, thick
mud, a slippery hill, or scme other difficulty solely by the appearance
of the surface mud.

To avoid getting stuck, a good basic rule is never to do anything

suddenly while driving on a slippery surface. Brakes, accelerator or
steering, if suddenly applied, will usually result in a spin or slip. As
a mental guide, it is often useful to pretend that there is a drinking
cup sitting on the front of the car, full to the top with water. The goal
is to drive the car without spilling a drop.

If the car does skidin mud or snow, keep off the brake pedal. It
willonlymakethe skidworse. Instead, gently press the accelerator and
steer in the direction in which the car is sliding. This may not be tie
desired direction of travel, but as soon as the car is under control it
can be slowed and turned.

In an area where loss of traction is a frequent problem, it is useful

to carry a piece of burlap, canvas, or expanded metal to lay in front of
aspinningtire. Planks are often used in the same way, but are less
convenient to carry.

To avoid getting stuck in a swam or md hole it may be worth the

effort required to cutleafybranches or sticks to throw inbeforeattempting
to cross. Branches, rocks, planks, sticks, sand, thick grass or any other
material that will increase traction may take less time to gather than would
be required to pull the car out if it got stuck.

Inertia can be a great help in getting through a slippery area. If

hills andswamps alternate,asisoftenthe case,adr$vercanbuildup
speedgoingdownhillanddrive intothe swamp as fastxas p&&He. Thecar
will rapidly loose speed in the mud, but the inertia may&Wry it through.
In any event it will get farther than if the car had entered at slow speed.
This method is KU&I on the car, and should never be used if a solid obstacle
such as a r&k or stump may be hidden in the mud, since it could rip the
frontendofthe carapart. There is no way to get up any speed in an area
where the hills are also slick, so under such circumstancesthis method is
of no value.

STOPPING THE CAR can also be a problem where traction is low. Rather
than use the brakes, which wiil generally cause the car to spin or slide,
shift the transmissionto a lower gear to slow down, If the car must be
stopped, pq the brakes up and down.
 3.04

L = 12 inches (30 cm.1

an.1
H= CYll.1
6 inches (15 an.1

TWO TYPICAL WHEEL BLOCKS

ON A STEEP HILL with poor traction a car may slip downward with all
four wheels locked. This may be forward, sideyays, or backward, or the car
my spin slyly around as it'goes dw. The sa& aids that are useful for
moving will help to stop: tire Chains, leayes and branches on the road
surface, etc. Another great help in such.a situation is the Block, which
increases the area exposed to the slippery surface. The Block is nothing
mm? than a large piece of timber, perhaps with a handle cut into one end,
Which seems to be a universal piece of equipment for driving on a poor road.
It my be called a chock or wedge, or any of a hundred names in other
languages, but it is found in any part of the world where pavemnt has not
yet reached--*'some where it has.
,’
/”
!< .,.

3.05 - 3.06

3.05 Piled-Up Mud or Solid Obstacles

Another obstacle caused by rmd is the retarding effect when the

chassis of the car sinks deep enough to get hung up on the road surface.
This is a special hazard for cars with small tires and, consequently,a
lowframe.

If there are no rocks or stumps in the mud, the inertia principle

I-.
described in section 3.04 can be used to carry the car through the deep
mud, or at least well into it.

Asking the passengers to get out before a deep swamp will lighten
the load, and may help to avoid getting stuck. There is much to be said for
the universal driver's slogan, "Everybody get out and push!" Getting out
decreases the load and raises the frame of the car; pushing increases the
tractive effort.

If the other vehicles using the road are of similar size to your own,
it is usually best to stay in the ruts on a very eddy road. The mud in
the ruts is likely to be packed somewhat by earlier passages.

To avoid getting hung up, especially in a small cam, it may be better

to'get off the mad altogetherunder soma c' 3rcumstances.

Avoiding getting stuck in deep snow may be somewhat different. Often

the snow is piled higher than the hood of the cm, so that the problem is
not mrely one of getting hung up on the clmssis. It becomes necessary to
push the car into the snm, and traction may not be adequate. The snow must
be removed in such a case. This is usually done with a plow or blower
mounted on the front of the vehicle.

In snow less than two feet (l/2 mzter) deep, the principles used for
driving in md apply.

Avoiding getting hung up on mcks, stumps, and other solid obstacles

is more ama-tter of juagmerrt.thanpawer. Usually such obstacles are large
enough to prevent passage, and one cannot simply push through without
damaging the car. Keepingthecarmving,then,mans going around such
obstacles if the car cannot pass freely over them. If there is any doubt,
it is always best to get out and check.

3.Q6 Log Bridges

R&ably the most commn type of bridge on a frontier road consists

of parallel logs laid across the stream. Generally there me three logs.
One i.son one side of the bridge, and two are on the other. The cokina-
tion of the single log on one side and the inner of the double logs is
arranged to fit the smallest vehicle likely to use the mad, and the outer
log will then accomdate larger vehicles.

Avoiding getting stuck on such a bridge is largely a matter of

getting lined up stmight before starting across. Wle experienceRoy
dh? SOme &iyerS to charge across without slowing dm, the novice will
do better.to stop and check,first. By sighting along the line of the logs
it till bepossible to determine whether the tires are properly lined up.
%JW drivers'carry'apiece of string for lining up bridges. The string is
 3.06
--1
held at T far md of the bridgeand the back timz of the car and should
line up With the entke lengthof the log and the fmnt ti- oi the car as
well.

STRING TOUCHES PIECE OF STRING

BOTH ENDS OF MUST BE STRAIGHT
LOG WHERE TIRE
IS TO PASS t STRING TOUCHES
AGES 0F TIRES

i/ CHECK ING A LOG BR IDGE

 3.06 - 3.07

When sure that the car is liled up , shift the mr into 4WD, but not low
range- Move across the bridge as quickly as possible so that inertia may
carry the front wheels across even if the rear ones slip off or the bridge
collapses. In such an event, the front wheels will often be able to pull the
car across if they have reached the other side.

Once practiced, the crossing of a bridge of this type becomes quite

routine, and-the dl5ver will learn to judge from some distance a rotten log
or one that may slip sideways. If the capacity of the bridge is in doubt,
it is usually advisable to ask passengers to walk across, thus lightening
theloadonthebridge and perhaps sparing themadunking.

When crossing a bridge while towing a trailer, bear in mind the added
length of the combined vehicles and do not stop before the trailer is fully
across the bridge. (See also section 6.80 on driving with a trailer.)

One of the most common problems with log bridges, other than collapse
due to rot or overloading, is the separation of the logs. This allows the
tires to slip off the logs, trapping the car. This can be prevented by
proper bridge design, anchoring the logs with stakes or large rocks at
the ends. A driver approaching a bridge which looks like its logs may
separate can usually save time by fixing the bridge before trying to cross.
If the logs do trap the car, he will have to repair the bridge anyhow.

3.07 Capsizinf:

A driving trauma to which many drivers may be unaccustoti is tipping

over. This may occur due to'the road surface or the way in which the vehicle
is loaded.,or both.

A vehicle body style,in which the load is carried high, such as a stake
or platform body, is inherently less stable than one where the load is low,
such as a pickup body. (See section 2.02) Luggage racks on the roof will
add to the tendency to roll over.

capsizing can also result from the angle of the road. on a slick
hill with a drop at the edge, for example, try to keep the car away from the
ditch. If two wheels on one side slip into the ditch, even though it may not
be very deep, the car is likely to roll over. The inertia built up in sliding
into the ditch will help to carry the car over onto its side.

Being unaccustomedto pioneer roads, some drivers feel insecure on

them. If a car feels as though it is about to tip over, it is often helpful
to get out and.look at it from in front or behind. Generally it feels worse
than it looks, and a quick check will reassure the driver.
 3.07 - 3.08

Some drivers tie a length of string with a small weight on the end--
a stone or washer, for example--to some convenientpart of the dashboard
where it can hang down freely. As the car starts to tip the driver becomes
familiar withhcw great an angle between the string and the floor represents
adangerpoint.

For tie novice, it my even be worth tipping the car intentionally

just to see hm far it can go before capsizing. The learning experience
may save a lot of grief and anxiety later. Fortunately speeds on pioneer
roads are low, so that there is no great danger to life from capsizing,
The most notable exception would be a mtain road, where a great drop may
lx involved.

Although this section has emphasized techniques to be used in avoiding

capsizing, there is an important point to rem&r if capsizing is inevitable:
shut off the engine. As the car rolls over, oil will be drained away from
the oil pump intake, the engine will get no lubrication,and it will risk
freezing up. After capsizing,of course, the first concern is the physical
safetyoftheoccupants. After that, reference may be made to section 7.00
in the Field Expedients for advice on restoring the car.

3.08 Fording and Wading

Because of constructionproblems, many frontier roads may not have

bridges over minor streams. Cars are expected to ford the water, which is
not c-n practice in areas where paved r?oadsare the norm. Getting stuck
while fording presents extra problems, and extra care in warranted to avoid
stalling.

If unfamiliar with a ford area, stop and get out for a check before
drivingthrough. Walk through the water if possible on the same route the
car will follow. The bottom should be relatively firm and free of large
rocks. There should be acceptable entrance and exit paths. The current
must not be strong enough to carry the car off, ard the water should not
be too deep. The allowable depth will be governed by the size of the car.
Knee deep or slightly 111~l?e
is usually the greatest depth that a small car
such as a Jeep or Land Rover will cross safely. A larger truck will be
able to go proportionatelydeeper.

If the water will be deep enough to w&the fan blades, loosen the
fanbelttemporarilywhilecrossing, sothatthe fandoes not turn. This
will keep the ignition system from getting sprayed and drowned. Of course,
the fan belt must be tightened i!!diately after crossing the ford.

If the carhas aclutchhousingplug, as the LandRoverdoes,be sure

it is in place before.enteringthe water. This plug drains misture from
the clutch housing when it is mved, but the clutch would be "lubricated"
by the water and -thebearings would be corroded if the housing were full of
water.

While fording, keep the left foot lightly on the brake pedal. This
will keep water from getting between the brake shoes and the drums, which
would lubricate the brakes and make i&em useless. Disc brakes, available
on,scme 4WD GUS, greatly reduce the problem of water lubrication.

,
3.08 - 3.09

Drive the car slowly thmugh Wet=, since high speed will result in
water being thrown up by the wheels and drowning the ignition system,
stalling the car.

A Diesel-poweredvehicle such as the U-g or a Diesel band Rover

offers the advantage of haying no ignition system. It is consequently
much n-me reliable for fording than a gasoline engine.

If current in the stream threatens to wash the car downstream,attach

the winch cable to a tree on the other side before starting across. If there
is nowinchonthe car,putawire cable across the streamalongthe down-
stream side of the ford area to act as a guide for the car. This cable should
be securely anchored to trees or rocks on each side.

After completingthe ford, check to see that the brakes are working.
If they got wet and are ineffective,hold the brake pedal down lightly while
driving; the heat will dry the brake linings and restore stopping power.

If the fan belt got wet while crossing it rrayslip and fail to cool
the radiator or turn the generator. For a quick check, look at the
amneter. If it shows a discharge rather than a charge, the belt is probably
slipping. Stop and dry the belt with a rag.

Fording with a trailer can be simplified by unhitching one trailer

and sending the car across first, thentowing the traileracrosswith a
lengthof wirerope. c

If the water is deep enough to cover the exhaust pipe, the pressure in
theexhaustsystemmayre,ticeenginepoweror stalltheengine. Once the
engine has stopped the water pressure will make it virtually impossible to
restart, and the car will have to be towed out.

Ifacar is driven into water that is too deep, or where the

bottom is unsatisfactory,it may stall or capsize or both. Stalling on
land is of little consequence,but in water may be a serious matter. Extra
attention to fording is thereforeworthwhile.

3.09 submerning

Submergingaccidents may result from a broken bridge, a ford that is

too deep, or from slipping off an adjacent road into deep water. In all of
these cases the accident can be avoided by the exercise of sufficient care.

As outlined in section 2.01, it is well worth the trouble to mve

the doors if a submerging accident is even a remote possibility. This
simple expedient can be a real life-saver.

If submerging is inevitable,it is important to shut off the engine

before it goes under water. This will prevent the pistons from drawing
water into the cylinders and trying to compress it as they do the gas-air
vapor. Water cannot be compressed,and the engine will be ruined in the
attempt.
 If there i.stime, it is advisable to shut off all electrical acces-
series that may be running: lights, radig, &dshield wipers, radio, elec-
I&G fuel punlp,etc.

See instrqctionsin section 5.01 and 7.1Q regarding recoverv and x-e-
storation of a submqed vehicle.

Although mst drivers would be reluctant to experiment, it is interesting

to note that mst Volkswagens,if lightly loaded, will float in water for a
short time. Opening the door, however, lets the water in and sinks the car,
so it is necessary to escape through a window.
4'.00 EXTPICATINGTHE VEKICLE

No matter how carefully he may try to avoid hazards, even the best
driver will find that on SW roads there are obstacles which he cannot pass
byordinarymeans andthe barbeccxnes stuck. In +his section a number of
suggestionswill be p,resentedfor getting out of such difficultiesas mud,
reeks, log bridges, and old-~ hazards.

The first step when the vehicle is stuck is to consider what resources
are available. The greatest asset is probably a winch. There are a few prob-
lems that cannot be remedied with this all-purposetool, since it can move
the car without any need for traction. The uses of the winch are so varied
that an entire section, section 6.00, has been devoted to its operation.

Even lacking a winch, however, there are many things that can be done
to extricate a c&r before it is necessary to give up and send for help--
if any help is available.

A SHOVEL is a very basic tool, and should be a part of the equipanent

carried in the car if md, sand, or snow must be crossed.

EXTRA JACKS provide trwnendous pcwer, although their travel is limited

to a few inches in most cases.

PLANKS can be used to great advantage as levers, hole fillers, mats

to provide traction, etc. They make good platforms for jacks, which other
wisemay slip anddrop the car.

A BLQCK AND TACKLE can multiply a person's pulling power several t%s,
and there are many types of ratchet hoists and similar devices.whichcan be
used to move a stuck vehicle in rrmchthe same way as a winch except that
they are hand mered and do not have the speed of a winch.

ANIMALS are often overlooked as a source of rescue power. What kind of

an&~&s may be available will vary widely from one area to another, but
any arkal that can pull a plow should be capable of pulling a car if neces-
==Y- In areas where human labor is inexpensiveand plentiful it is often
possible to gather a group of people to haul on a tow rope for a srrbsll
fee,
or even for no charge at all if motor vehicles are enough of a novelty.
 WELQ HOOK

EMERGENCY TRACTION HOOK

WELD A HOOK onto a wheel for use irian emergency as a replacement for
na-hmal trmtion. Weld the hook in such a way that it would be inside the
tire if a tire were fitted to the wheel. Whenstuck, jackupandmmve
the slipping wheel and replace it with the prepared wheel. Attach a rope
to the hook on the wheel and attach the other end to a solid anchor such
as atreeorrock, infmntofthe car. Drive the car forward, letting the
hook hold the rope and wind it onto the wheel like a winch.
 END .I

‘MOVE ALONG ROPE

I: ’ BY HAND TO
OBTAIN
AGAINST
FRICTION
TIRE
I

ROPE USED TO IMPROVE TRACTION

FIBERRPPEcanoftenbewrappedamundatinz i.nnuchthesammanner.
me*ickistodrive the.caralongthelengthtifthe~peuntil it is 0~:
0fthedifficuZtarea. With..
wide tiresthis ;Is~not
difficult,and is a
~Satisfactorywayofextricatingthe car.
 4.00 - 4.01

APOQkPR,ACTICEis that of attaching‘aropeto the propeller shaft to

get pulling power. The shaft was not meant to handle a pulling load from the
side; it is intended only to.transfer a twisting motion frsm'the gearbox to
the'differential. The use of a propeller shaft in this way may bend the shaft
or damage the universal joints.

STURDY VINES can often be used as ropes if not enough ordinary rope
is available. Generally the vines should be twisted to separate the fibers
at the point where a knot is to be made, or else the vine will break. In
many tropical areas there are vines which will serve very well as towing
cables, taking a surprisingamount of strain without breaking. Residents
of the area will probably lu~owwhich vines are useful for this work.

TWO WAY PAD10 is not a resource in the same way as the other items
listed here, but it is a great aid in many cases. With it advice can be
sought, and if the car cannot be extricated the radio can be used to send
for assistance. Where radio is in common use in this manner, everyone
seemstomake checkcalls onthe hour,.withresulting confusion and jamned
frequencies. A much more satisfactoryarrangementis to make check calls
at some less camrrron
time, perhaps 20 minutes after the hour.

4.01 StuckinMudor Snow

There aretwobasicways inwhich cars getstuckinmudor snow: they

either lose traction on a slick surface or become bogged down when the frame
is hung up. A combinationof the two is also very c-n. This section will
consider the loss of traction.

Since 4WD increases traction and eliminates "dead" wheels, the problem
of loss of traction is roostcomnunnlyfaced on a hill. In flat areas the 4WD
will usually overcome lack of traction, especially if used with tire chains
on all,four wheels. A hill requires greater traction than flat ground.
/
If a car slips while trying to climb a hill, it may be useful to remove
scuneof the load from the vehicle and make another attempt. As outlined in
section 3.05, there is a reason why mst foreign drivers soon learn to say
"Everybody get out and pusht" in the local language. This method, though
admittedly primitive, lightens the load and increases the tractive method.

Spinning the wheels in an effort to get out of a muddy or snowy spot

will rarely do any good at all. The temptation is to use a heavy foot on
the accelerator; it often seems that sheer power should get the car out.
This is not the case. The spinning will soon overheat the tires, bonding
the inner tubes to the tires, mzlting the inner tubes, or even setting fire
to the tires. A little experimentationwill reveal that the greatest traction
is obtained by creeping the car out of such a spot as slowly as possible so
that the wheels stick to the surface r&her than spinning.

Another technique of little value in an extended swamp, muddy hill or

SnowY area is rocking the car back and forth. This ~~aybe .donewith the
engine or by pushing it. while it may get the car off the slippery spot if
it is small, a 4WD car is not likely to get stuck in a small slippery spot.
In a swamp, for example, it will take a great deal of rocking to get to the
other side.
 -, . *

4.01

There are a number of useful methods which can be applied when stuck in
snow or mud for lack of traction. They are presented here in no particular
order, and should be selected in relation to the problem at hand.

A LQ$lTF,DSLIP DIE'BENTIAL may be aided $n its work by lightly pressing

the brake pedal @th the left foot while operating the acceleratorwith the
right foot. Ihis will simulate traction for one of the wheels if both wheels
on an axle are spinning. Then -thespecial differentialwill be able to do its
job of providing power to the wheel with better traction.

A SPINNING WHEEL on a car without a limited slip differentialcan often

be slowed by lightly pressing the brake pedal, as outlined above.

NXENTUM may help get a car through a slick spot. If stuck, back up
as far as possible, then charge into the obstacle with as much speed as
possible. Mcunentummay get the car through; it should at least get it a
few feet mxe than it had been. The process can then be repeated.

BRANCHES, brush, sand, boards, grass, rags or anything else that might
increase tr&tion can be put in front of 3he wheels if the car will back up
a bit. This improvementmaybe conibinedwiththe momentummethodmentioned
above to get the carmxing again.

THE JACK can be used to lift the wheels if the car cannot mve back-
wardorforward. Raise a wheel and put in rocks, sticks, burlap, grass,
branches, a truck tarpaulin or anything else that may increase traction.
Let the wheel down with the jack and repeat the process on the other wheels.

PATIENCE canbe avirtue if the sunis shiningona car stuckin~~~~d.

Using a shovel, rmd can be removed from around the vehicle, and the sun
allowedto dry the area sufficientlyto allow the car to move. Often this
may take some time, but the time would otherwise be spent inhard physical
labor trying to get the car out, and it is-much easier to wait for the sun
to do the work.

MOVING WKCER in a SW- area can also be used to carry mud away. It
will be necessary to channel -thewater, using a shovel, so that it will
mvethemud fromthe areawhere the car is stuck. If themud rests on a
hardbase ifwillprobably soakupthewaterandmakemoremud,worsening
tie problem.
 401
,

rHAND BRAKE CABLE

//
. I I 1 1
FASTEN TO
BRAKE CABLE BOTTOM
NEAR WMEEL 0
VIEW OF
CAR
9f

hLIPPING /
WHEEL bOPE TO DRIVER’S
POSITION
7

EMERGENCY SPIN PREVENTER

THE PARKINGBRAKEcan oftenbe used to hold a spinningwheel so that
theotherwheelonthataxlecanbeusedtomvethecar. Ifthecarhas
~bmkes oneachrear~~eel,ratherthana singlebrakecmtietmns-
mlssbn, fastenampetothewiz oablewhichopemtes thebrakeonthe
SpinningWheel,usinga C-clampor lockziqpliers. Pass thi5rqe underthe
ChasSis,underthefmntofthecar,andintothecab. Pullhardontie
rope,p0SSiblyusinga shortleversuch as a stickof&d or hannnerhandle,
~dthiswillpullthewire qable,settingthebmkeononewheel. Holding
the kake on, gentlyapplypower. As thecar'~&f3 tonrove,release-the
parkingbmke extensionrope and driveout of the difficultarea.
4,Ol - 4.02

If this method cannot be used, aln-ostany maans can be tried to stop

a wheel from spinning. Same wggestions include w@dging the space between
the spinning wheel and the body with a big plank, &Axing the wheel to the
chassis so it cannot turn, or jamming it with rocks under the fender. The
other wheel on that axle will then get the pcwer that was wasted on spinning,
possibly moving the car. Of course, such wedging or other fasteningmust be
removed as soon as the car is free or the wheel will be dragged and may halt
thecar.

All of these expedients are made unnecessaryon the Mercedes-Benz

Unimog, whidh has locks for both differentials. These lock both wheels on
the axle together so that if either one gets tiaction it will mxe the U-g,
and the other will not spin.

4.02 hung Up in Mud or Snow

The second major threat from mud or snow is sinking peep enough in it
to allow tne chassis to become hung up. This creates so nnxh drag on the
car that the tires lose traction, and the car cannot proceed.

This difficulty is often mxe easily dealt with than that of pure loss
of traction, since the driver can see the obstacle and either remove it or go
around it. Perhaps the most comrkx method of extricatinga car fram deep
snow or mud is to dig it out, thus removing the obstacle.

As outlined in section 3.05, there are sm conditions in which it is

unreasonableto expect a car to operate without a plow. If snow is two feet
(112 meter) or less in depth,a 4WD car with chains should be able to get mu&~.

Ifthefrantendishungupinthesnowormud,trybackingout. It
may help to add some traction under the wheels with sand, gMve1, sticks,
leaves, grass, planks, or whatever else is at hand. Once off the obstacle,
cut it down wi-ihshovels and try again.

Rmvingpart of theloadis anotherusefulexpedient. I-tallows the

to rise on the springs, since the springs are not so heavily loaded.
frarruz
This increase in ground clearance may make it possible to get the car out.
It should at least make it easier to free the car. The axles may rise
slightly as a result of reduced load on tie tires, but will not rise as
much as the chassis.

If the car cannot be backed up, it will be necessary to lift it over

the obstacle. With a small car and a large number of people it may be
possible to lift the car enough by hand to get off the obstacle. Otherwise
jack up the wheels one by one and pack the space under them with logs, sticks
orplanks. This will provide a raised roadway, albeit rather crude, on
which the car can be driven over the trouble spot.

Once the car is ming again, use every nmns to keep it going.
Momentum is a great aid to getting a car through deep snow or mud, and
keeping a car moving slmly is much easier than getting it started from a
dead stop. If the hazard is an extensive one, it may be advisable to drive
with one side of the car off the road, up on the ridge of snow or mud, if
the ridge is packedhardenough. Once mvi.ng, sections 3.04 and 3.05 will
provide some assistance on hew to keep the car going.
 4.03 IIungUp on a Solid Obstacle

Although similar to being hung up in mud or snow, the problem of

getting stuck on a yoclc,stump or other solid obstacle presents its own
difficulties. The prime cLncern is to avoid ae to the car, since a
rock can rip a hole in the crankcase or gas tank or cause danage to the
steering or drive train.

It is not usually practical to pull a solid obstacle out from under

the car, since theweightof the car is restingonit. If the carhas a
winch, it may be possible using the technique described in section 6.52.
lhe only alternative is to lift the car off the obstacle. The most common
way of doing this is with a jack, lifting the car and placing logs or
planks under the tiheelsto raise the chassis off the obstacle. It may
only be necessary to raise one side of the car, particularlyif the obstacle
is off center.

4.04 I.agBridges

Getting stuck in a log bridge can maan either the in~nvenience of

having to e:ctricatethe car from between the logs or the major calamity of
losing the car into the water. Difficulties involving submergingare dis-
cussed in section 5.01.

If the tires are stuck between the logs of a bridge, spinning will
rarely get them out. As explained in section 4.01, the heat which results '
*r* from the friction will only damage the tires. Much greater tractive power
results if the wheel does not spin.

Often it nay be possible for several people to lift a car upward

and forward while it is &iven off the bridge.

A jack can be used to lift the wheel from the space between the logs,
and the car can then be intentiallypushed sideways off the jack, dropping
the wheel onto a log. (See illustration.)

A plank can be used to fill the space between logs. The tire should
be jackedup fromtiehole andtheplank inserted underitto provide a
Wnporary roadway. Thetireis thenlaweredonto theplankandthe car
driven off the bridge.

Asn&ltreetrunkorbranchcanbeusedas arampfrombelowthe
bridge in some cases. Insert one end of the log, perhaps four inches (10 cm.>
in diameter, inbetween the separat 1 logs in front of the stuck tire from
the underside of the bridge. Push it forward as far as it will go, and then
raise the free end from the river until it meets -thetire. A rope can be used
to haul the lower end of the log upward and to secure it temporarilywhile the
car isfdriven off. (See illustration.)

4.05 Fording

Eking stuck while fording a stream is no different km being stuck

elsewhere, with one principal exception: if the car is stuckwiththe engine
or tailpipe under water, do not try to restart the engine once it has stopped.
Pull tie car out of the water with other pawer: people,anothercar, animals,
etc.
@herWise, all tne expedients listed elsewhere in this section apply
to a car stuck in water.
 ,( -

c
4.04

RAISEwin JACK

)I==
FILL GAP WITH LOG
NEXT CROSSING

CAR PUSHED OiF JACK

DROPS ON L13’6

/
PULL ROPE
TO RAISE RAMP BETWEEN LOGS

-- -- , . . ‘/-
\ 0-
\ -P 0
\ / DIRE CAN RlDE I

EMERGENCY BRIDGE REPAIR

5.00 PRNUNRZS WhEN STRANDED

In the event that none of the advice given in section 4.00 tiuugh
4.05 or other atter@s will extricate -thevehicle, then it may be considered
stranded: additional assistancewill be necessary. In this event one must
either await the arrival of help or go and look for assistance.

There are my parts of the world where being stranded is a serious b

matter, due to intemperateweather, wild anirr&ls,lack of food or water, or
simply the remteness of the area. This bookis notintendedas asurvival
mm-se, but there are several items which should be reviewed in advance,
before a driver finds himself stranded.

Because of the variety of supplies which may be needed in a vehicle

used in a remote area, a complete section (section 14.10) has been devoted
to this subject.

LENINGTHE CAR is generally mtagoodideaunless ammberof the

party is absolutely sure of where he is and where the nearest source of help
is, and how to get there. In hot areas such as deserts the car provides
shelter and shade which are not available elsewlsere.The best shelter in a
desert will be found by digging a hole under the car.

In any climate the car will provide shelter from animals. Even if the
car has turned over, it is generally safer and mre cmfortable to sleep in
itthanonthe ground. A check should be made to see that no gas is leaking
tocauseafirehazard.

AWATERSUPPLY shouldbe carried in the car inany areawhere drinking

water is not readily found. If no water is available, dig a hole about a
footdeepandthreefeetindiamterandplaceacuporothercontainer in
the middle of it. Iay a sheet of clear plastic over the hole and weight
the edges with a ring of dirt to hold it in place. Into the center of the
plastic drop asmall stone sothatthe plastic points dmnwardinto the cup.
Waterwillcondense fmnthe soilduetotheheatofthe sun,andwilldrop
frwnthe centeroftheplastic sheet into the cup.

WALKFDRHEU only along the road, ifany,unless arwnberofthe

partyisveryfamiliarwith-thearea. Ingeneral,eventhoughthe~distance
is greater, it is better to follow the road in searching for assistance.
This is especially true if there areany other vehicles in-the areawhich
~tusethesarrreroadoraconnectingroad.

SIGNALS can be made to &tract attention, either by day or night. If

people aze ti to be nearby, it II-BY
be possible to attract their attention
by sounding the carhorn.

Inthedaytime,asmkyfirewillusuallybe seen froanadistanceof

many miles on a calm day. Gasoline from-the carcanbeusedto start the
fire. For fuel, either sticks or a tire can be used. Once a good fire has
beenmade with&y sticks, greenbranches canbe addedtomake smoke. If
 HOLD EDGES WITH DIRT

WEIGHT EDGE

IT DOWN SO WATER DRIPS itiT CUP

SOLAR STILL
5.00 - 5.01

&ng a tire, pick the worst one on the car, take it off the rim, and arrange
a good pile of kindling to get it started. A tire is hard to ignite, and
some rags so&ed in ga-
3 or some other source of heat will be needed to start
itburning. Once started, the fire will produce a great deal of thick bla&
stroke.

At night, rrakea fire on high ground so that it can be seen.

5.01 Vehicle Submerged

If a car has become subrrergedin water it may be considered stranded,

since the engine cannot be used to extricate it. The principal consideration
at first will be getting all the occupants out and marking the location of
the car. Then recovery operations can be arranged.

GETTING OUT of a submerged car is no trouble if the doors have been

removed. If they have rrot,the water pressure will prevent them from being
opened until the car has nearly filled with water. For this reason it will
be necessary to escape through a window or wait until the car has nearly
filledbefore openingadoor. Inatightlybuilt car this may take as much
as several hours, although generally ten or fifteen minutes is a n-oreaverage
tiJ-iE.

LIFE PRESERVFRS may be arranged for those who cannot swim if the car
is scsnedistancefromland. In many 4wD cars the seat cushions are of foam
rubber, andwill float. Bnpty or partially empty fuel cans are excellent
floats, and a spare tire will float even while carrying the weight of the
steel rim.

MiCUING THE LJXATION may be important if the car is likely to be n-oved

by currant or to be hard to find for any other reason. Tie a rope or string
to the carandattachthe otherendto afloat for amarker.

ANCHOR THE CAR if it is in fast-nrsving

water where it may be carried
off by current. It can be tied with rope or cable to any secure anchor on
thelandsuchas atree.

SALVAGE OPERUIONS become quite routine in soms areas where bridges

are not reliable, or where roads often follow waterways. In the Netherlands,
for example, emergency crews have been formed whose sole job is the recovery
of vehicles fram canals.

A winch on a recovery vehicle can usually provide enough power to haul

out a submerged car. Winching teohniques for salvage are described in section
6.40. If no win& is available, two or IIDKEvehicles may be needed to pull
out the submzrged'car. The towing cable shouldbe attached to front towing
hooks on the submrged car, or toits front axle. If the car is not upright
under the water, it will be much easier to right it while most of the weight
is supported by the water than after it is on land. This can be done with
cables to the salvage vehicles.

Whenthemrhas beenbroughtnearl.andandstartstorise from-the

surface of the water, it will be necessary to let any water drain out of it
tolightentheloadonthe1~covery vehicles, Openany doors or other
water-retainingbarriers to drain the car as completely as possible as it
cams out of the water.
 5.01

FLQATATION can be used where the submerged car cannot be draed over
a rocky bottom for fear of damaging it. To float tie car, it is necessary to
put containers of air inside the car, or attach them to the outside. The con-
tainers may be old inner tubes, oil drums, gas cans, or even plastic bags
filledwiti air. The air displaces the heavier water, and raises the car to
the surface.

An ordinary 55 gallon (200 liter> fuel drum will lift about 300 pounds
(135 Kg.) if the water is pumped out of it. Touse adrum,orany similarcon-
tainer, first fill it with water so that it just barely floats, and arrange it
in the submerged vehicle so that the filling hole is at the bottcnn. An EQinair
pump,tirepump, the exhaustfromthe salvage vehicle (if the submrgedcaris
not too deep), or any other source of air can be used to pump air into the drum.
The bubbles will rise inside the drum, gradually moving the water out through
the filling hole.When air bubbles have filled the drum they will start to pour
out the filling hole, rising to the surface and indicating that the process is
completed.

When enough containershave been put in or attached to the car and

filled with air in this manner, the car will rise to the surface and can then
be pulled to shore with a cable and recovered.

Section 7.10 on field expedients after submrging describes how to

rehabilitatethe car.
6.00 - 6.01

6.00 WINCHES AND TOWING

So many recovery processes use a winch, or towing by another vehicle,

that the two have been grouped in this section. In addition, suggestions
for towing a trailer are also included.

The basic tool for all of these operations is the tcw rope, which
may be a fiber rope, wire cable or chain, or any conibinationof these three.

6.01 W&Rope

The rrostconnmn formoftow cable orwinch cable is the wire rope.

The basic advantage of this material over fiber rope such as manila is its
greatstrength. In comparison to chain, wire rope offers lighter weight
forthe same strength. The following table illustratesthe breaking strength
of several common sizes of uncoated fiber core plow steel rope. (Galvanized
cable is about 90 per cent of this strength.)
1Iominall&meter ib?eakingSeeil~l

lJ4 inch ( 6.25 mm.) 5,660 pounds ( 2,570 Kg.1

S/16 inch 8,780 pounds ( 3,980 Kg.>
3/8 inch : .:.5 iit-: 12,300 pounds ( 5,580 Kg.1
7A.6 inch (11 n-m-l:> 16,400 pcunds (,7,440 Kg.1
l/2 inch (12.5 mm.) 21,100 pounds ( 9,570 Kg.)
9/16 inch (14.25 mm.> 26,300 pounds CL,930 Kg.)
5/8 inch (16 nun.> 32,400 pounds (14,700 Kg.)
3/4 inch (19 mn.1 46,200 pounds (20,950 Kg.)
7/8 inch (22.25 mm.) 62,800 pounds (28,490 Kg.)
1 inch (25.5 mm.> 81,900 pounds (37,150 Kg.)

It is evident from examination of this chart that even with relatively

small cable the weight which can be supported will be in excess of the wei@
of the car. There is, therefore, no advantage to using very heavy wire ,tiAe
in most cases. It is very difficult to work with, since it is hard to bend
and join, and it is very heavy.

6.02 Joining Wire Cable

The grxatest disadvantageof wire cable is the difficulty of joining

one section to another. With fiber rage, this is easily done with a knot,
but if a wire rope is knotted the strands will be kinked and weakened. Often
alu?otcannotberxovedfromwire rope if ithasbeen strained. Also,a
knot will jam in a winch mechanism and will keep the cable from lying flat. -

The inability to use ordinary knots inwire rope neednotbe ahandicap

if the cables are prepared in advance. Every piece of cable should have
either a hook or a loop on each end, never just a straight end.

HOOKS can be placed in wire rope for the greatest ease of attaching to
another length of cable or to a car or trze. Thehooks areavailablewith
holes through which the cable is passed. The cable is then joined as described
in succeeding paragraphs.
USE OF U-BOLTS
 TWO SECTIONS.

2. FORM LOOP,

3. LAY STRAND IN
PLACE.

yU-BOLT

4. SECURE END
WITH U-BOLT.

MAKING AN EYE
 6.01

I. PASS ONE LOOP

THROUGH OTHER

2. SECURE WITH
8AR OR ROD

JOINING TWO EYES

 6.02 - 6.03

EYES can be made in the end of wire rope by splicing, but this is a
very difficult and time consuming task. A much easier way is to use several
U-bolts to secure the eye.

An excellent compromise between the tremendous strength of a spliced

eye and the speed of making an eye with U-bolts is a folded eye. It is made
by unlaying the end of the wire rope into two strands approximatelyequal in
size. As the cable is unlayed it retains its form, leaving a channel where
theotierhalfhadbeen. Unlay the cable for about three feet, then fold the
ends around in opposite directions to form an eye. Carefully lay the strands
back together again to complete the eye, then clamp the rfm&ing pigtail of
flmblewith a U-bolt. (See illustration,)

A hook can be placed in this Qpe of eye by threading the two strands
through the hole in the hook from opposite directionsbefore rejoining the
two halves.
Short sections of wire cable, perhaps 8 feet (2.5 meters) to 15 feet
(4.5 meters) in length, are much more valuable when traveling in convoy tnan
asinglegreatlength. They save handling unneeded cable and can be readily
stored.
TO JOIN LOOPS in the ends of cables which have no hooks, put one loop
tl-mugh theother andthen secure itwithaheavyrcd suchas atireiron,
jack handle, wrench or some other convenient item. As long as a strain is
maintained on the cable this joint will hold well. @ee illus+tration,)

KINKED WIRE CAB~whichl~asbeenpulledti~twillbe~~weaker

than the rest of the cable. Cut out the kinked section and make two shorter
cables; there is no practical way of salvaging a kinked section of cable.,b

6.03 Storage of Wire Rope

Since wire rope is not very flexible, storage often becomes a problem.
On soms cars the front bumper can be used for storage. On a band-Rover,for
example,agreatlen@hofwirercpe canbewoundinafigure 8 around-the
ends of the front bumper.

If cable is stored on the front bumper, be sure that it cannot hang

dawn and get snagged on a rock or scme other obstacle. The cable is very
slxong, andcoulddo considerabledamageto the carbeforethe vehicle stopped
or the obstacle was torn away.

Wire rope can also be carried convenientlyby wrapping around a wheel

rim. On cars where space is provided for more than one spare tire, this may
be a useful way to carry cable. On a truck with flat sides, two wheels can
beattached so that wire rope canbewrapped aroundthemin afiw 8.

On a Land-,tiver,
where the spare tire is carried on the hood, it
is often canvenienttowinda short cable xroundthe sparetire.

If the cable is not often needed in a Land-Rover station wagon, it

can be wrapped around the backs of the rear seats, between the seats and the
W&l..
LACE WIRE CABLE
AROUND WHEELS

\M.~UNT WHEELS
ON SIDE OF BODY

STORAGE OF WIRE ROPE

6.03 - 6.10

It is often convenient to carry cable on the cab roof. A I&$-&

basket can be made from reinforcing rod to carry the cable, or a conventional
cartop carrier-mayserve the purpose.

6.10 IypesofFiberRope

Thetwobasictypes of rope are fiberrope andwire rope. The fiber

ropes maybe subdividedinto natural and synthetic fibers, Each offers
distinct advantagesfor certain jobs.

M?MLARoPEis thebestofthenatural fiberropes. The individual

strands offiberarelongandstrong,makingaropewhich has greater strength
and durability M hemp, jute, sisal, or other materials somzttis used for
mPem The following chart illustratesthe maximum breakingstrengthofmsnila
rope as supplied by one manufacturer.

Rope Diameter BreakingWren@

l/2 inch (12.5 mm.) 2,600 pounds (1,180 Kg.>

5/8 inch (16 mm.) 4,400 pounds (2,000 Kg.)
3/4 inch (19 nnn.) 5,400 ponds (2,450 Kg.)
1 inch (25.5 mm.) 9,000 punds (4,080 Kg.)
1 l/4 inch (31 ml.) 13,500 pounds (6,120 Kg.>

In actual service, a rope should not be stressed to bare than half of

thebreakingslxength. Ifanemergencydictates that the ropemustbe stressed
tonearthebreakingstren@h, it shouldberetiredfromstrenuous service ,
becauseofthedangerthatitmaybreakwiththenextheavypull. Similarly,
any rope that has been:Icnottedand pulled severely, so that the imprint of the
knot remins intherope,shouldberetired.

WHIPPINGTHEENDS ofarope is the process ofbindingthe fibers so

that they donotfr3yattheend.s. If the fibers do start to fray, therope
will soon unlay, or come unwound. This makes it very difficult to tie the
endoftherope,andweakens it substantiallysincethepullisnotequalon
eachstrand.

Aneasywaytowhip the ends offiberropeistowrapthemwithblack

plastic electrical tape. A better way is to use a piece of light string as
described in the following steps: (See illustration.)

1. Leave a few inches (cm.) of string hanging over the end of the rope and lay
the string along tie rope from the end back about two inches (5 cm.). Hold
it with the thumb of the left hand while supporting the rope in the palm of
the hand.

2. Pull the min part of the string back beside the first strand, leaving a
loop which is held by the thumb of tie left hand.

3. Starting about aninch (2.5 can.)from-the endofthe rope,beginwinding the

St??ingarOUndtherOpe, Sp.ir&ngtcrward Lr?eleft thumb.

4. Whenthewrappinghas nearlyreachedthe loop, cut the string andpass

the end of the spiral -UUCU& the loop.
 WRAP WITH PLASTIC TAPE
/

W RAPPII’JG METHOD

ROPE

\ STRING
WINDl.NG
METHOD

04

0
5 LL+

CUT OFF ENDS

.I
 -

6.10 - 6.11

5. Pull on the free end of the string which was left hanging in step 1.
This will draw the other endunderthewrapping. When the end is about
halfway into the wrapping, cut off both ends of the string and trim the
rope to comple.tethe job.

Braided rope, such as clothesline,can be prevented from fraying by

dipping the end in varnish or lacquer.

SPLICING an eye into the endofthe rope is not difficult, andmakes a

permanent loop at the end for attaching the rcpe to a car, tree, or whatever
is needed. While splicing is not a hard job, it requires practice and is
beyond the scope of this book. One of the best ways to learn splicing is
from a sailor or fisherman.

STORAGE of natural fiber ropes should be in a place where they can get
ventilationto prevent rot frcanmoisture. Natural fiber rope should be dried
before storing if it is damp or wet.

6.l.l Synthetic Fiber Ropes

Asarepla canent for natural fiber ropes to be used for the same purposes,
synthetic fiber ropes have become very popular. They are sting and light, and
resist rot. They can be used with a capstan win&, for towing, and similar
purposes.

NYLON ROPE was one of the first successful synthetic fiber ropes.
Nylon makes a very strong rope with some stretch which can take up the shock
of towing a disabled vehicle. The cost of nylon rope is higher than manila,
but it lasts longer and is less subject to abuse. It will float, and does
not rot.

POLWROPYIENE ROPE has recently become available in large sizes. It

is stronger than nylon or m&a, and so light that it will float, but it
does not have as much stretch as nylon. The initial cost is about the same
as manila. It is an excellent all-purpose rope for towing, anchoring,
win-, andotherheavyuse. It is also available in small diamaters for
securing a load in a tru& and similar purposes. Eventhe very smalldiarreters
will hold 500 to 1,000 pounds (225 to 450 KG).

WHIPPING THE ENDS of synthetic rope is easily done .withheat. Si@Y

put the endofthercpe inafla~,orpress it againstahotemberfroma
woodorcoalfire. The heat will fuse the fibers together.

SPLICINGANEYE in synthetic fiberropeis just as useful as with

natw?alfibers. The only difference is that a longer splice is needed
because the fibers are more slippery than manila. Small diamsters of
synthetic rope are usually braided and cannot be spliced by ordinary methods;
an eye must be tied in the end.
ONCE THERE WAS A SNAKE ONE DAY THE SNAKE
WHO LIVED IN A HOLE RY A PU’r HIS HCAD NT
TREE . . , OF THE t-LXE...

AND LOOKED ALL AROUND

So HE SLID BACK
THE TREE 6UT HE SAW
DOWN INTO H1.S IdOLE
NOTHING INTERESTING...

THE BOWLINE
6.12 - 6.20

6.12 Knots for Fiber Rope

One of the great advantages of fiber rope over wir?erope is that it

can be easily tied in knots. Probably the nxxt useful la?otfor towing and
winching is -thebowline. This is for several reasons: it cannot jam, and
no matter how hard it may be stressed it can be easily opened; it will not
slip, and cannot slide up to make a smaller eye under strain; it can be used
to join a rope to another rope or to an object such as a car or tree.

As withanylu~ot, the onlywaytobeccxne familiarwith it is through

practice. Take a small piece of rope and tie this knot over and over again
until it beccmss second nature, and it loses its mystery.

To tie abowline, follmthe accompanyingdiagrams andrememberthe

little story that has helped novices learn -thismost useful knot for cen-
turies: Wnce upon a time there was a snake who lived in ahole near a tree.
One day the snake awoke inhis hole anddecidedto seewhatwas going on
outside. He stuck his head out of the hole, went around the tree, and,
seeing nothing that interestedhim, went back dcwn into his hole." The
standing endofthe rope is the tree; the free end is the snake.

SQUARE KNOTS should never be used to join two ropes for towing, since
pu~~wil.1 jam them so tightly that they cannot be untied without damaging
.

TO JOIN TWO ROPES for towing, tie a bowline in the end of one rope,
then tie an interlockingbawline in the other. In similar fashion, abowline
can be used to join fiber rope to wire rope, chain, or soxz other object.

If a fiber rope is tied to a sharp-edgedobject such as a spring

shackle or car bumper, it should be protected with a layer of rags, a piece
of old tire, a piece of hose or some other padding. If a rope is to be used
for this type of service as a regular thing, such as the end of a winch cable,
it is preferable to attachashortlengthof chain-to-theendoftherope, and
ahookontheendofthe chain. The chain will make it possible to connect to
any sharp-edged object without cutting.

IWING with a fiber rope is more satisfactorythan with wire ro$ or

chinbecauseofthe stretch. This same advantage,hawever, means that the
loadmustbe applied gradually if the rope is nottobebroken. This is not
a serious problemwith a winch, where drum speed is very low, but it should
be remembered when towing a derelict or extricatinga stuck vehicle.

6.20
- CHAIN
-
Chain offers greater ease of handling than wire rope, and greater
strengththanfiberrope. It is easy to handle and does not get kinked or
jarrnnedeasily.It can be wrapped around an axle or bumper without damage,
since the n&al links will not be cut by sharp edges.

The principal disadvantagesof chainare its heavyweightandthe

difficulty of joining one piece to another. It is also subject to rust.
WIDE MOUTH HOOK SNATCH HOOK

HOOKS FOR CHAIN

6.21 - 6-23

6.21 ~ToiningChain

Since it is difficult or impossible to tie knots in chain, other methods

must be used to join pieces together, The mst convenient is to have a hook
at each end of the chaia. Hooks can be either the wide-xmuth type which will
slipover links or the narrow-muth type, somtirres called snatch hooks, which
are only wide enough to hold one link and will not slip over the next link.
The snatch hook is often easier to get unfastened after towing or winching,
sincethehookdoes notslipunderthecarto -theaxleorotherpointof
attachmnt.

Chain can be joined to a piece of wire rope to provide a tm cable of

greater value than either element used alone. The ends should be made of
short pieces of chain, perhaps three feet long, with a hook at the end. The
rain body of the tow cable should be made of wire rope. It is not possible
to use chain on a capstan winch, Sime friction with the turning capstan would
be insufficienttopullthe chain. While it would theoreticallybe possible
to use chainonadrmwinch, thebulkwouldbemuchtoogreat. The combination
of chain and wire rope overcomes these disadvantages.

6.22 Storage of Chain

Chain, since it is very flexible, is easier to store than wixe mpe.

Since it cannot rot, it avoids me of the big problems of natur& fiber rope.

Chain can be mied in a cloth bag under the seat of a car, or in a

toolbox of the type that many 4KO cars have under the front seat.

If a spare tire is carried on the hood, such as is often done with the
Land-Rover,chain cdn be carried in the depression at the center of the wheel.
This should not be done in areas where the car is likeiy to capsize, since the -
chain will be needed after capsizing and my be under the car.

6.23 Repairs

lhe mst satisfactoryway to repair chain is by welding. A link is cut

openandspreadenoughtoadmittheotherendoftie broken portion, then
closed and welded.

Split links are also available at very little cost for chain repairs.
These are similar in appearance to regular links, except that they have been
split lengthwise so that they wn be opened.

Aboltcanbe used to connecttheends ofabmkenchain,butlhe end

pmductwillnotbe as stmngas a sectionof unbroken chain.

Probably then-ost cxmmn way of repairing chain is with a piece of wire

passed through the ends of i;letwo parts as many tin-esas pmctical. While
this my serve as a field expedient, it should not be regarded as a permanent
repair.
 6.23

LARGE WASHER

OVERLAP TWO

BOLT AND LARGE WASHER

BOLT CHAIN REPAIR

 SPLIT LINK
I
LNSERT BROKEN SECTIQN
OF CHAIN AND CLOSE
SPLIT LINK

SPLIT LINK CHAIN REPAIR

 6.31
SelectingA Winch

CAPSTAN WINCH
Fibermpeis wrapped around the drum3or4
tUTIS. Rope is stored elsewhere when not in use
on the winch.

DRUM TYPE WINCH

Wire cable is attached to the drum at one end.
Cable is carried on the drum when not in use.

BASIC TYPES OF WINCHES

 - -- - -.

6.30 - 6.32

6.30 THE WINa

The winch is probably the most useful single accessory item on a car
useclin difficult terrain. Where a car must normally depend on the traction
of its wheels, the winch makes it possible to move the car without any
traction whatever frxn the wheels.

Virtually any 4Wb vehicle can be fitted with a winch on the front end.
Many can also be provided with a winch at the rear for special purposes.

s While awinchdoes representamajor invesinxent, it shouldbc membered

that it can be transferred to another car at some later date when the present
vehicle is no longer useful.

6.31 Selecting a Winch

Many manufacturer.,:,fferonly one model of winch for a given vehicle.

This -ves the necessity for making a choice. In cases where several types
are offered, the following points should be considered:

A WORM GEAR in the drive train of the winch will keep it from slipping
backward when power is mved. The worm gear is usually used to drive the
endofthe cbumonwhich tie cable is wound. It consists of a threaded shaft
similar to a very large bolt, which is turned by the power source. The threads
engageteethinacirculargeararoundthe endofthe cable drum. When-the
threaded shaft turns, the gear teeth are slcx+~ly
"screwed" around to turn the
drum.

TWOBASICTYPES ofwinchare incomrnonuse. The drymwinchhas a

rotating drumtowhichone endofthe cable is attached. As the drumturns
itwinds up the cablelikeaspoolof thread. The capstan winch also has a
rotating drum, but the rope is not attached. A few turns of fiber rope are
made aroundthe slowly turningdrum,or capstan, and the free endheldby
the operator. Pulling on the free end increases the friction on the drum,
and the rope begins to move toward the operator. In -use,the other end of
the rope is attached to a tree or other fixed object. As the operator pulls
the f-end, the rope is woundalongby the drumandpulls the car ahead.

The drumwinchis themxepopulararrangement, since it needs no

attendant to hold the free end as a capstan winch does, and tie cable is
stored on the drum, eliminating the problem of where to keep it. A drum
win&genemU.y useswirerope,whichis stronger and smallerthanthe fiber
rope used on capstan winches.

6.32 Ins- a Winch

While it is possible to install a winch on a car in the field, it

generallyrequires drilling the chassis andwelding. For this reasonitis
better to get the winch installed at the factory onsa new vehicle. A major
exception is the electric winch, which has no mechanical link to the engine
and can be bolted or welded to the franxz.
of the car with little difficulty.

In any event, the manufacturer of a winch will provide written

instructions for installation if this is not done at the factory.
 6.33 - 6.34

6.33 Winch Drive Systems

There are several different systems by which the power of the vehicle's
engine is supplied to the rotating drum of the winch. In many cases a single
manufacturerwill offer several different drive options.

SHAFT DRIVE consists of a drive shaft from the front of the engine,
usually off the same connection that drives the V-belt to the fan and generator.
This shaft runs under the radiator to the front of tie car where the winch is
mounted, andtheper continues through asmallgearboxand shiftingmech-
an&n inthewin&housing, andthento the dmun. This type ofwinchis generally
controlled from-the front of the car.

~nmany cases the drive shaft comes fromthe front of tie car's gearbox,
with a control handle in the cab rather than on the winch itself. Inthis case
the shaft extends under or beside the engine to the winch location. This
arrangement-hasthe advantage of being controlled from the driver's seat.

The winch need not necessarilybe munted on the front of the car,
and when it is located at the rear the power generally c-s from the gearbox.
Ashaftextends under-the rear of the car to tie winch. Any winch drive system
which takes its pawer from the vehicle's transmission,and tis would include
most large trucks, has tie advantage of being controlledby the driver from
inside the cab. This arrangemzntis saferinthe event of abrokencable, and
allows the driver to regulate engine speed to control the pull on the cable.

iZDRA&IC WINES use a small hydraulic puqwhichis usually driven

by the fan belt. This ptpnpis connected with hoses to a hydraulic motor in
tne winch. This arrangementoffers surprising power. The Land&over manual,
for example, notes that the hydraulic winch fitted to that vehicle will move
a fully loaded truclcacross a dry qurface with its wheels locked. The
hydraulic winch offers a built-in safety release to prevent overloading the
system or the cable. It is controlled from the inside of the cab.

EUXTRICWINCHES aregenerallyavailable fromsurplus sales houses,

as well as fromequipmentmanufacturers. They are not generally installed
by the car manufacturer,but are added later. The surplus types are made
with special-purposenrotorstakenfrcrmai.mr&t and adapted to drive the winch.
Others are designed for tie purpose. Since they do not need a shaft to'the
engine, they can be adapted to mst vehicles witi little effort, and are very
easily irstalled. They are the easiest type to put on in the field, and to
nr2vetoanewcar. Tney also offer the advantage of being operable when the
engine is:,notrunning, such as when the car is stuck in deep water with the
engine &Wned, as long as tie battery is in good condition. They do not
usually have as much power as a shaft-drivenorhydraulicwinch.

6.34 -j.l
Winch Cab&

The goal in selecting winch cable is to use the smallest diamster that
willnotbrealcunderthe strain. Heavy cable is not very flexible and tends
tobindupontiewincndrum. Tnere is no sense to using cable that will
hold~rethantAemaximumpul1whichcanbe exertedbythewinch. As an
 6.34 - 6.40

example, the standard cable supplied on the Ford Bronco is a 5/16 inch (8 mm.)
d.ianHer wire rope, 150 feet (45 meters) long. Uncoated plow steel rope of this
size will hold more than 8000 pounds (3600 Kg.), certainly enough for a car
whose gross weight is under 4000 pounds (1800 Kg.). (See section 6.01,)
There is aconmrontendencyto assume thatthebigger awixeropeis,
the better it is. This tendency should be avoided through realistic examina-
tion of the statistics on the car's weight and the strength of the cable in
question.

6.40 USE OF THE WINCH

Before discussing tie use of the winch in recovery operations, it is

well to note that this versatile device is useful for a great many other
things.

In logging and bridge-buildingwith logs, for example, the use of the

winch cable makes it possible to haul logs out of areas where the car cannot
go- The winch cable can ‘haula log across a s-am from the other side, or
across aswampthatwuldbe impassable for the car.

The winch can be used for removing rotten logs from a bridge by
liftingth~straightuptoloosenthe ends; then the carcanbebackedaway,
towing the rotten log.

In ?nwing a trailer, if the combined vehicle and trailer cannot get

up a hill it is often possible to drive the car up alone, then haul the
trailer up with the winch cable.

A vehicle fitted with a winch can lift its awn front end for tire
changes, service, and mounting tire chains in the field. Simply fasten the
endofthewinchcableto anoverhangingtree branchandoperate thewinch
until the front wheels are off the ground.

Thewinchmybe usedto liftheavyloads fromatruckbyrunning the

cable through a pulley in a tree and dawn to the heavy load. If the load is
to be put on a truck, for example, lift it with the winch, drive the truck
under it, and then lc~er it with the winch. To remove the load, lift it off
with the winch and drive the truck out fn.m under it. (See illustration.)

Iftheloadis very heavy, itmaydragthewinching carahead. In

this event, secure the rear of the winching car to an anchor with a piece of
cable.

While a similar technique can be usedwithoutthe winch, simply backing

up the EC to pull on the cable, much mire precise control is possible through
the use of the winch with its slaw drum speed.

To lift a load into or out of the vehicle on which the winch is mounted
difficult, but is not impossible. Put a pulley straight ahead of the
is ~IKZXZ
other anchor, and another pulley above the car. Runthe
car on a tree or son-u2
winchcabletotheloadandbackupthe car, The load will rise; if it does not
rise enougn,windup thewinch; if it risestoomuch, pay outthewinch. When
the load is over the body of the vehicle, pay out cable to let it down. Reverse
the procedure to mve a VW heavy load. (See illusmtion,)
 PULLEY
IN TREE\

\ LI FT LOAD LDRIVE TRUCK

WITH WINCH. UNDER LOAD
AFTER LIFTING.

USING WINCH
TO LIFT LOAD
 L TAKE UP WINCH
CAP,LE TO RA ISE
LOAD.

USING WINCt-i
TO LIFT LOAD
FROM SAME TRUCK
 6.40 - 6.41

Where rxxe than one car is under the same ownership, it is often
practical to fit only half of the vehicles with winches if they are to be sent
out in pairs. Onewinchwillserve two carsnearly as well as if every car
had its ownwinch.

Since tie win& can be used in so many ways, it is well to experkt

and practice with it in a safe environmentbefore it is needed. A car that
is bee deep in mud is not a practical place for experimenting,and in some
cases, suc;has a broken bridge, it will be necessary to use the winch quickly
to avoid disaster. This is notagoodtinxe forafirsttrialof the winch.

6.41 Anchoring the WinchCable

The main purpose of a winch in recovery operations is to eliminate the

need for wheel traction. It does this by making use of a fixed object, most
conm~nlyatree orrock,as ananchor andpulling against it. Sin& the
pulling force can be considerable,it is important to select the an&or with
some care. It is surprisinghaw quickly the winch will rip out small trees
and other insecure anchors.

An anchor may be a tree, rock, fallen log, or any one of a number of

sturdy fixed objects. It may also be another car, located on relatively
bettergroundthanthe stuckcar. The anchor shouldbe as nearly inline
with the direction inwhichthe car is to go as canbe arranged. If the
anchor is off to one side, the car will be pulled in that direction,

If there is no suitable anchor in fK>nti.oftilecar, check behind. It

may be possible to get out backward by rrunningtie cable under the chassis
and out the back.

Onlheroadwi~erethereis no treeorotheranchor straight-ahead--

or nearly straight ahead--a cable can be strung from one side of the road to
the other across the road. Thewinch cable is thenconnectedtothemiddle
of this rope. (See illustration.)

A BOAT ANCHOR may seem out of place in many parts of tie world, but if
trees are~t~~n,orhavebeenclearedfram~e roa&ide, aboatanchor
works very well for a car. Simplycarrytieboatanchoraheadofthe car,
running out the full'lengthof the winch cabie so that the lift will not pull
the anchor upward out of the ground. Start the anchor into the groundby
jumping on it, if necessary, although itwill sink itself into soft dirt or
mud and n?aydisappear entirely in a swamp. When the winch is operated it will
pull tkc anchor deeFr into the dirt until the car starts to move out. If the
anchor is stuck and hard to renove after the car has been freed, wind th? winch
cable onto the drum until the car is above the anchor, and it will then lift
upward and out of the ground.

The author has used a boat anchor with a great many curious stares and
imnense success in extricating stuck vehicles from thick mud.

A AJIZAIHUI
is a type of anchor which provides great holding power,
although somewhat difficult to build. In its simplest form, it is built in
the following steps:
 WITH
t--i
ROPE IF
I I I 7 LILY D TO PRE-
i-d L/WINCH _ _.__ HOOK
..- -._ .FROM
..--
SLIPPING.

BETWEEN
TREES.

ANCHORING BETWEEN TREES

JO. STUCK VEMLE

DIG TRENCH AND RAMP

WINCH CABLE

CUT LOG AND C0NNEC.T

WIMH CA13LE AT CENTER

DROP LOG IPJ TRENCH

APPLY WINCH POWER
 -_--
,-
6.41 - 6.43
1.

1
Dig a narrow trench in the middle of the road some distance in front of
the stuck car. It need be wide enough only to hold the winch cable. It
should be about eight feet (2.5 meters) or ten feet (3 meters) long, with
the endnearer the cartaperedupto groundlevel, and the far end perhaps
a foot (30 cm> deep.

2. Dig a wider trench perpendicularto the first one to a depth of about a

foot (30 cm.>. It should be wide enough to hold a log, and perhaps four
feet (later) long.

3. Cut a log of Suitable size to fit in the trench dug in step 2, ald pu-t:the
winch cable around .thecenter of it. Drop it into the hole.

4. When the winch cable is taken up, the deadmn will press against the sides
of the trench, forming an anchor. In very soft ground it may be necessary
to dig deeper or use a longer log.
Adeadman canbe a semi-permment installationin asp&in the road
which for one reason or another cannot be repaired and at which cars can expect
to be stuck. The deadmn is built and buried so that a car can drive over it.
. A short length of cable is attached to the log and left sticking out of the
ground where tilem's winch cable can be attached to it. An installation
of this type at the top of a difficult hill, for example, can save a great deal
of frus-brationand time.

6.42 Win&ir~ Safety

Wnen the winch cable has been successfullyanchored, the actual

recovery can begin. At this point i-tis well to remember the tremendous
power exerted by the winch against tie cable and the anchop-often in excess
of the weignt of the car. For this reason it is a good precaution to clear
oriiookersfrom-the vicinity of the cable. If it should break, the winch
cable will usually whip back under the frame of the car; the force is suffi-
cient to cut off a leg.

The au-r's caution in this regard was repaid on one occasion when a
winch cable, heavily loaded, broke off at the hook. The cable, recoiling back
under the truck, cut through a heavy tire, destiying it. Onlookers bdbeen
cleared from the area, however, and nobody was injured.

The operator should also be mindful of what would happen to the car
if the cable broke or the anchor were dislodged. Would the car be dropped
into a dangerous predicament? Would it be released and fall back into a
river? Would it capsize?

Although a broken cable is of no use no matter where it is broken, it

should be noted that the most comn place forfa winch cable to break is at
akinkorwhere it joins thehookor chainatthe end. Anybendinawh
rope produces a weak spot which is usually the first to break.

6.43 Winding In the Winch Cable

Assumirq;that the anchor holds and the cable does not break, the cable
willbewoundinand the carwillbe freed. Tne cable, as long as it is under
stmin, will usually wind flat on the drum without lumps or kinks.
 6.44

STUCK
V EH.I CLE
RUN ROPt THROUGH
WHEELS OF BLOCKS

USE OF BLOCK
AND TACKLE
6.43 - 6.50

When there is no load, after the vehicle has been pulled free, it is
best to have an attendant see that thecable is wound neatly on the drum. If
snarls and tangles do develop in the rope on the drum, they are often very
difficult to mve. Onemethod is to attach the endof tnewinch cable to a
tree!and back away, keeping tension on the cable and letting the drum turn
freely so that the cable can pay out. Sometimes it is necessary, even with
this method, to have an assistant with a ctibar or tire iron to help free
the snarled cable.

When tie winch is not in use, set the controls so that the drum will
not spin freely, causing tangles. Sorretimesit will be necessary to secure
the end of the cable with a piece of heavy cord or l'bailingwire."

6.44 BlockandTackle

Inordertoincreasethe pawerofawinch, ablock and tackle canbe

used. With sudh an arrangement,it is possible for a relatively small vehicle
tomvc amuch largeronewkichis s-tuck. Bear in mind, however, that a great
deal of cable will be needed, and the pulley blo&s should be very sturdy.

Similarly, a large single pulley can be used to change the direction

of pull exertedbythewinch. Thepulleycan, for example, be hung inatree
and the winch cable run through it to a stuck vehicle to exert an upward lift.
pulleys made for the purpose are available. They have hooks which swivel to
the side, making it possible to drop the cable into tie wheel without having
topullthe&olelengthofthe cable mugh.

6.50 RECOVFJ?YWIlBAWINCH

The two principal uses of a.winch are for the recovery of the vehicle
upon which the winch is mounted'or for the salvage of another vehicle. In
this unit the fomris covered.

ROCKYGROUNDp;resents agreathazardto avehicle. Ifacaris stuck

in a rocky area and the win& rrrustbeused to pill it free, the operator
must be certain that when the car llloves
forward it will not rip open the oil
pan,diffential,bralce line, transmission housing,,or someotherpart of
the car.

MUDDY GROUNDor lightsnow &es notpresent-thesamehazardasrocks.

Ingenekd it is safetopullthe car frommudor snaw, since the usual cause
of getting stuck in wd or SIIOWis loss of traction. The winch, not needing
any traction, overcc~~~sthis difficulty and canmove the car. The 0rJy excep-
tion is md or snow so deep that it is over the front of the car, in which case
the winch may be overloaded by having to move all the accumulated crudor;snow.
In +zt event it will be necessary to dig out some of the mud or SIXJWfirst.

WHEEL TMCTIONcan s-times be added to the pcrwerof the winch to

obtain extra pull to move the car, but in general this is not good practice.
The winch should have sufficient pawer to rry3ve
even a heavily loaded vehicle
without assistance. If tie wheels are used, when they get traction the vehicle
wi.ll.~~love
aheadandoveMzln the cable. This willfoulthe cable on the drum
or tangle it under the chassis and in the wheels. It is much better to let
thewin&dothework,pullingthe caroutandkeeping the cabletighton the
drum so that it winds evenly.
-

651
.

WINCH CABLE

RAISES CABLE TO TREE

TO LIFT CAR

WINCHING FROM
A BRIDGE
6.51 - 6.53

6.51 Winching from a Bridge

Usually the pat force of the winch will be enough to nave a car whose
tires have becone wedged in a log bridge, or which is hung up on the chassis
on the logs. No special methods are needed.

In some cases it may be useful to get an upward lift at the front of

the car to pull the tires out of the slot between logs. To do this, attach
thewinch cable ashighas possible ina ?ree aheadofthe car. The pull
on the cable will then be upward, tending to lift the front of the car. If
ft?ereis no tree in front of the car, anchor the winch hook in accordance
with section 6.41, and put a sturdy four foot long forked stick under the
cablenearthe oar. As the winch takes up the slack, the stick will be
wedged between the cable and the ground, and the ;ar will attempt to climb
up the cable and, therefore, up the stick.

6.52 Removing a Log Under the Car

A frequent cause of getting stuck is running the car onto a log or

stick buried in mud where it cannot be seen. The car gets hung up on the
log and omnot n-me ahead. Occasionallythe same difficulty is encountered
in a bridge made of many small sticks: one will come loose and catch the
chassis of the car.

To r?emxe the log or stick from under the car, assuming that the car
cannot be pulled free, thewinchrrmstbe usedwith apulleyto change the
direction of the cable.

First, determine which way the log can be pulled out. For this
example, assuresthat it can be removed from the front of the car; the same
principles apply whether it is to a side or the rear.

Using a tow cable, attach the rear of -thecar to a tree or some suit-
able anchor so the car cannot move forward. Fasten a large towing pulley
such as that discussed in section 6.44 to a -treeor other anchor in front of
the car. Run the winch cable through this pulley and back to the log. When pcrwer
is applied to the winch, it will take up the slack and then try to move the car
forward, with the log as an anchor. Since therearof tie car is fastened,
however, the winch will pullout the log. The operator ut be careful not
to damage the underframe of the car. Sometimes it may be necessary to -jack
up tie vehicle before starting the operation.

6.53 meringwith the Winch

In the same way that the winch overxxm2s the net-' ?LI traction in
rrroving
the car forward, it can be used to replace whec>;i
traction in slowing
the car or halting it. On a very steep hill with a poor bridge at the bottcxn,
for example, it will be necessary to stop the car at the edge of the bridge.
If a slick road surface makes this impossible, the winch can be used.

Before descending the hill, run the winch cable under the chassis and
Out the of the vehicle to an anchor. Engage the drum in reverse. Put
back
tie transmission for the wheels in neutral so that no pcrwerwill be applied
to them. Run the engine and engage the clutch to pay out cable, letting -the
cardamthehill. Disengage the clutch to stop paying out cable, and the
car will stop securely.
 1
6.52

ANCHOR REAR

- 1

/
\LOG WEDGED
UNDER CAR,

.
‘PULLEY ANCHORED
TO TREE

T-i.
“

REMOVING LOG
STUCK UNDER TRUCK
6.60 - 6.62

6.60 USING THEiWINCH FOR SALVAGE

The basic principles of recovery of a vehicle with its own winch also
apply to the use of a winch to salvage another vehicle. The basic difference
is that the caruponwhich thewinchis rrrauntedmustberegardedas an anchor
as far as the stuck car is concerned. In many cases the friction of the winch
car's tires against the ground will not be enough to keep it from sliding
ahead when the winch is operated. In that event it will be necessary to
anchorthewinching carwith acableto the rear end.

WHEEL TRACTION, as described in section 6.50, should not be used when

salvaginganothercarwiththewinch. There is a great danger that the stuck
car, once free, will become tangled in the winch cable. An operator who has
once had to free a j-d winch cable from the axle of a vehicle will not try
itagain: it. l;laybe necessary to cut the cable to get it out of the axle.

ATTACH THE CM& carefully to the stuck vehicle. The winch experts a
tremendous murltof pressure, and will easily fold up a conventionalbumper.
If the carhas notowinghitch,attachthewinchcabletothe axlehousing,
a spring shackle, or the chassis itself.

6.61 Salv~ing a Capsized Vehicle

To right a vehicle which has capsized, the pull on the winch cable must
from tie chassis side of the tipped car. This will tend to roll the car
con-us
over onto its wheels. If the winch cannot be placed in a suitable location,
use a pulley to direct the pull in the right direction.

Pass the cable over the derelict and attach it as low as possible on
the other side. Assme, for example, that the car has rolled over on she
left side. The winch cable will come over the chassis, which is now vertical,
and acI?ossthe right side of the car, now on the top. It will then go down
the top of the car to the ground. Dig a small hole until the cable can be
passedthroughthe cabwindaw,andattach it to scme sturdy part of the
vehicle. If the window frame itself, or the door pillar, does not seem
StYmg eJIOugh, Cut a3-fCd (1 Dieter)
sectionof log to use for a brace across the
windcwandattach the cable to that. If possible, pass the cable under the
left side and attach it to the chassis.

When the winch cable is tightened the p!rllwill tend to turn the car
over onto its wheels.

IN SLICK NJD or snow, the derelict may tend to slide along on its s!rle
without standing up. This can be counteractedby runnh a cable under the
car from the chassis to a tree on the opposite side from the winch. With the
bottom of the car anchored to the tree, the winch will be able to exert enough
force on the top to right the car.

6.62 Salvaging a Car from Water

Since water helps to support much of the weight of a submerged car, it

can be of great assistance 2n helping to right a capsized vehicle. Before
attempting to mve a car forward when it has capsized under water, it is
therefore advisable to right it. i-fowthisis donewill dependuponthe
situation, but the basic principle is the same as that described in section
6.63. above.
I/

WINCH
Si CURE
TO UNDERSIDE CABLE

RIGHTING CAPSIZED
 6.62 - 6.71

Once the car has been rightedand can roll on its wheels under water,
/I thewinch cable canbe attachedto the frontorrearof the car and it can
be pulled out. If the river bank is steep or soft, it may be useful to run
thewinch cable througha pulley inatreeto get an upwardpullas the car
rmves ahead.

In tie case of a car which has capsizedin water with a rocky bottom,
where the car could be damagedif it were towed, it shouldbe floatedfree.
See section5.01.

6.70 TOWING A iXXlXCC'r

So many of the things that pertainto winchingalso are useful for

t&.ng that the two 'havebeen groupedtogetherhere. In this sectionare
consideredthe problemsof roving a car which is incapableof self propulsion,
This assumesthat the car is not stuck .'imud or some other obstacle,and
would be free to move if it were not ~chanically damaged.

AN OLD TIRE is a great asset-in towing. It takes up the shocksof

starting,and softensthe load on the tcw cabie, if one is used, A-tire
can be used by itselfor in combinationwith a conventionaltow cable.

One of the best ways to tow a derelict,and also one of the safest,
is by connectingthe rear of the towing car to tilefront of tilederelict
with a tire. Tie the tire tightlyto each car so that there is no slack.
-Whenthe towing car moves ahead, the tire wiU.,giveslightlyand then start
to pull the derelict. The great advantage is that the tire will also cushion
the shock of stoppingthe derelict. If it Las no brakes,the tire will serve
to slm it at the same rate as the towing car, preventingdan-age to either
vehicle.

Acarwithno brakes should onlybetowedwith arigidtowing connec-

tion such as a tire. If a cable is used, tie derelictwill not be able to
sI;opgoing dcMnhil1, andwillcrash into the rearof thetawing car.

A PUSHER X#RD can be very useful on a car that is often used to

retrievederelicts,such as a garage taw-truck. This is nothingmxe than
a wide heavy board or piece of metal, perhaps a foot (30 a.) in width and as long
as the carbumper. It is ixxntedin place of the front bumper,and provides
a convenientway to push a derelict. It is not a good idea to push a car over
a long distance,however,since the driver of the pushingvehiclecannot see
well. This is especiallytrue in alas with poor roads,where the driver
of the derelictis likely to be pushed againsthis will into a swamp, snowbank,
or rotten bridge.

6.71 AttachingtheTow Cable

The point where the tow cable is to be attachedto a car shouldbe

carefullyselected,since the pull will be enough to cause damageto bumpers
andotherlightweightparts. Towinghouks can be obt&ed as optionson
virtuallyall 4W0 cars, and are a worthwhileinvesttxuant in areas where towti%
is often needed, or where a car is iikely to get stuck and need to be pulled
free. If tie derelicthas no towinghooks, attach the tow cable to a spring
shackle,axle or chassis.
 6.70

L TIE OLD TIRE

BETWEEN VEHICLES

OLD TIRE USED AS

TOWING CUSHION
6.71 - 6.72

When a tow cable is to be used, as distinctfrom a tightlytied tire

or a push board, a long cable is preferableto a short one. H long czible
allows the driver of the derelict to see the obstacles krediately in front
of nit-n
and steer away from them, and it gives 'himtime to stop his car when
the towing car stops. Witn a short cable the dexlict my hit the rear of
the towing car if the driver does not have enough time to react and stop.

6.72 Over-corkgMechanicali)rag

If a derelictis to be towed, the wheels must turn freely. If they

are lockedto the engine throughthe drive train, it will be impossibleto
tow the car at all.

depends upon what part of the

kim this mechanicaldrag is overcon-e
derelictis damaged.

ENGINE lAMAGE canbe most easily overcome. Put-thegearshiftin

neutral and releasethe parkingbrake, and the car will be free to roll.

GEARBOX lJAMAGE.may or may not jam the gears.

If the gears are not
janxxd,put the car in neutral and the wheels shouldturn freely. If the'
gears are j-d, try to free the transfercase and put it in neutral. This
will also free the wheels so that they can turn. If the transfercase has
been damaged,it will be necessaryto unbolt and rerrove the propellershafts
runningto the differentials.This must be done in such a way that a stub
end will not be left on the differentialto cause damage as it turns.

iXFFERE&TIALDAP&GE, even to the outsidecasing,may jam the gears

inside so that they will not turn. If this happens,the drive shaftsmust
be taken out of the axle housing,at least on one side and maybe on both
sides. (This can only be done with a..fullyfloatingaxle, where the axle
shaft does not fastenthe wheel to the car.) If the front end differential
is damagedand tie car has hub locks which are used to free the front wheels
on good roads, unlockingthem will free the wheels from the differential.
It may then be possibleto drive the derelicton the rear wheels; in any
event it will be pxkble to tow it.

6.80 TOWINGATRAULR

A traileroffers a great many advan%ges when used in combinationwith

a sturdy towing vehicle. Atrailercannearly double the capacityof a truck
at exkermzly3x4 expense. Specialservicescan be providedby a trailer
withoutthe need to tie up a vehicleon a permanentbasis. Examplesare fire
fightingequipment,road servicefacilities,and educationaland denrxxstration
projects. Severalsuch trailerscan be preparedat tierate cost and be towed
by the same vehicleas needed.

As a fire engine, for example,a trailercan be equippedwith a water

tank, a pump drivenby a s&l gasolineengine,and some hose. In an urgency,
the trailercan be quicklyhitchedto the tow car and taken to the scene of
thefire.

As a servicetrailer,the unit might includea combinationwelder and

power generatordriven by a gas engine,togetherwith cabinetsfor tools and
equipmmt for emrgency road service.
 6.80 - 6.81

An educationaltrailermight includemotion pictureor slide pmjec-

tars, book-s,and other materials. Or it migtlthave samplesof agricultural
or other self-improvement projectsarrangedin a suitabledisplay. Su& a
trailercan be towed to a villageand left there for a time for study, then
roved to the next site.

A trailer is impracticalin areas where roads are nearly impassable

for the towing car, since it reducesmaneuveraG.lity.In general,if a towing
car can pass a given area without great difficultyinvolvinga lot of backing
and jockeying,it should be p.cssjble to pull a trailer.

If tiere are short sectionswhich are very difficultto pass, SU&I as

deep swamps or steep slick hills, it may be possibleto send the tow car
throughfirst and then pull the traileracross with a winch or tow cable.

In exb?errrely
difficultareas, it is often possibleto pull a trailer
with a crawlertractor. The authorhas made a great many trips over distances
of up to 50 miles with a trailerbehind a Caterpillartractorwhen seasonal
rain made roads nearly impassable.

'EiE(XAEUXIti
RULE of traileroperationis that absolutelynobody must
ever be allowedto ride in tie trailerwhen it is pulled by a car. (The only
possibleexceptionis when the traileris pulled by a crawlertractor,due
to its slc~ speed,) Trailersare subjectto jackknifingon steep downward
slopes,to becomingunhitched,to rollingover, and all sorts of other diffi-
cultiesonbadroads. In many countriesit is illegalto carry passengersin
atrailer. Allcwinga person to ride in the traileris invitingdisaster.

6.81 TrailerHitches

The first considerationin operatingwith a traileris how to hitch it

to the towing vehicle. There are a great many types of hitches available,but
the r.x>st
satisfactoryfor a four wheel drive vehicleis a ball hitch bolted or
welded to the chassis. Such iWns as bumper hitches,axle hitches and frame
hitchesare intendedfor use on passengersedans towing house trailerson
gcdmads.
&XI-Elarge trailersare towed with a bracketand pin hitch. The towing
vehiclehas apininatowinghitchatthe rear, andthis pindrops througha
hold in a flat plate at the tit of the trailertowing arm. While such a
hitch is strong,it cannot turn as the car and trailerare twistedby the
md, and may break under the strain.(See illustration.)

A mxiificationis the -typeof hitch in which the eye on the trailer

is munted on a sturdy swivel so tit it can turn. This type of hitch is some-
times seen on heavy road constructionequipment,such as air compressorsmounted
on their own trailers. It oerccmes the twist problem,but is noisierthan
aballhitdhbecause thetrailertowing plate or ring has some free rfovemsnt
on the towing car"s pin. (See ilLMrwt.ion.)

For a mxleratesize trailera ball hitch is by far the best arrangement,

combiningease and securitywith the abi.liQto swivel and twist freely.

SAFETY (ZHAINSare requiredby law in many countries,and are.a practical

necessityregardlessof legal specifications.Tko safety d-aim shouldbe
attachedto the front of thetowingarrnof the trailer,son&ims rsferreito
 6.81

BOLTED
/ TO TONGUE
TOWING HITCH OF TRAILER
ON VEHICLE

I’

BRACKET AND PIN HITCH

 FREE TO
TWlST ON BRACKET
/

I
TOWING HITCH
ON VEHICLE
TRAILER
I
f3OLTED TO
TONGUE

IMPROVED TYPE OF
BRACKET AND 8 PIN
HITCH
6.81

HOOKS ON
TRUCK

MOUNTING PLATE
FOR CHAINS

I
-

L I’
L TOW TRUCK /TRAILER

CHAINS CROSSED
UNDER HITCH

TRAILER SAFETY CHAI NS

 6.81 - 6.82

as the tongue. These two chains shouldbe crossedunder the hitch and joined
to the towing car. Thus arranged,the chains will cradle the hitch if it
breaks andwillkeep thetrailerf~mdraggingonthe ground. The chains,if
not crossedunder the itit&, would simply attach the trailer;if the hitch
broke the trailertonguewould fall to the ground and be draggedalong by the
.- until it met an obstaclewhich would either break the chainsor rip
CLUE
them out of the back of the car.
TRAILEX BRAKES should be providedto assist the titch in stoppingthe
trailerif it weights 1500 pounds (675 Kg.) or IKUX, fully loaded. The brakes
may bemanual or automatic,and in nxxt cases the manufacturercan supply a
br)eakawayswitchtothatifthehitdhbrealcs the tilerbrakeswillbe
appliedautomatically.

6.82 Towing a Trailer

The first step in towing a traileris the loading,which must be care-

fully done to avoid overloadingany part of the combinedtow car and trailer.
Theloadshouldbebalancedonthe trailer so thatthetongue pressesd-ward
with a weight of about ten per cent of the whole trailer. If the gt-0ss
weight
of the traileris 1500 pounds (675 Kg.), then the tongueweight on the tow car
shouldbe about 150 pounds (67 Kg.).
If the tongueweight is too great, it will put too much load on tie
towing car; if it is too light, or if the tongue rides up witi the trailer
weight all at the rear, it will lift up and may jump off the hit&.

fikCKlXGUP is the nrxatdifficultpart of traileroperationfor most

driversto learn. There is no way to learn this procedurefrom a book, except
torememberthatthe front wheels mustbeturnedinwhat seems to be the wrong
directionto turn the trailerwhen backing. The only answeristotake the
vehiclewiti tie trailerinto a relativelyunobstructedarea and try it a few
tim33. (See illustration.)
GOING FORWAFQis no troubleat all with a trailer. Just keep in mind
that additionalweight and length,particularlyon a bridge or when m&ng a
tight turn.

JACKlQiIFINGis the term used to describethe "foldingup" of a trailer

and tow car when the traileroverrunstie tow car and spins aroundbeside it.
This sarrr3tizshappenson a hill, where the trailer,without brakes,will
slide tibeside the oar andtwistarounduntil therearof-thetraileris
beside the oab door of the car. If this happx~ suddenly,tie trailertongue,
hit& or body, or the tow car body or hitch, may be badly damagedby the -ct.

It may also happen if the towing vehicle is suddenlybraked to a stop,

or hits s-thing and'stopsquickly. The inertiaof the trailerwill carry it
ahead,and it will jackknifeto the side.

Jackknifingin its early stages can be halted in some oases by speeding

upthetowoar. This will..s~~pthetrailer back behind the car, and another
effortcan be made to stop the two vehicles. It may also help to steer the
oar away from tie side on whidh the trailer is jackknifing: if the trailer
is czumingaround to the right side, swerve to the left to get'.+&e
hitch in
front of the center of gravityof the trailer.
6.82

BACKING STFWGHT

TURNING
DESCENDING ON A fURVE
. ‘\
\

‘\\

\ ‘\
TRUCK BRAKES
TRAILER JA!,‘KKNIFES

JACKKNIFINGTRAILER
6.82 - 6.83

Jackknifingis one of the best argumnts for separatebrakes on the

trailer,since tiler brakes will generallypreventthis trouble.

A FLAT TIRE on a traileris often hard to detect,especiallyon a bad

mad where the tiler wanders a lot even with g;oodtires. For this reason
it is a good idea to get out and look at the trailertires periodically. Some -
trailershave skids under the axle to supportthe weight of the trailerin the
event of a flat tire, but these are not useful on poor roads becausethey get
hmguponr&cs andinmud.

6.83 Ektricatinga Stuck Trailer

Getting stuck with a trailerattachedto the car can offer some special
problems. In generalthe easiestway to get free is to unhitchthe trailer
and get the car out, then pull the trailerout with a tow cable or the vehicle's
winch.

If the traileris stuck but the car is free, it is often possibleto

unhitchthe car, mve it to a differentangle of approachto the trailer,and
hitch it on for anotherizy. The pullina differentdirectionmayfree the
stuck trailer.

If a car is frequentlyused to pull a trailerin a difficultarea, it is

oftenworthwhiletoweldahallhitchto the fmntof-the car as well as the
rear- The driverwill find that there are many times when he can get the
trailerout of a predicamentif he can see what it is doing under strain.
Vision of the traileris greatlyimprovedif it is attachedto the front
towinghitch. Puttingthe trailerin front of the car also makes it
ezier to back the trailerinto a smll or difficultspot.

In general,all the suggestionsgiven in sections4.00 and 6.50 for

extricatinga stuck car will apply to the co&&x&ion of a car and trailer.
The principaldifferenceis that the trailerwheels are "dead weight,"and
cannotprovide any mtive power, so all power must come from the towing.
 6.83

I 1
I I

TOWING
-W’dLER . ’ )4 VEHICLE

c I I

I. TRAILER STUCK. TOWING VEHICLE

CANNOT MAKE PROGRESS FORWARD.

I I

I I

2. DISCONNECT TRAILERtMOVE TOWING VEHICLE

O’F PULL RECONNECT
i&!&?tfi’fib?‘lP6” REMOVE ‘TRAI LE R.

EXTRICATING STUCK
TRAI LE R
7.00

7.00 FIELDEXPEDIENTS

When a car fails on the road the first considerationis haw to get it
runningagain. In + area where servicefacilitiesare few or nonexistent,
this is a matter of using one's imaginationto devise some way to get the
machineryoperating. This sectionis not concernedwith the beauty of a
repair,or even whether the manufacturerwould approvethe techniques;a field '
expedientis intendedonly as amans of gettingthe carmoving again. Once
the vehiclehas reachedits home.base it can be repairedby ITKXXConvenTional
r~~thodsand restoredto its originalcondition.

For conveniencethe sectionhas been dividedinto units coveringeach

major part of the car.

There are many field expedientswhich need not be categorized: they

apply to variousparts of the vehicle.

BOLTS, NUTS and otner parts can often be taken from other parts of the
car if they are in short supply. If the flangeon the propellershaft comes
apart and the bolts are lost, for example,replacementscan be taken from the
batteryhold-downclamp, seat IIyluntings, bumper brackets,or other places where
they d3?enot needed.

WHEEL LUG NUTS ax occasionallylost in mud or snow. Even if an entire

set is lost while &anging a tire, no great damage is done. Take one nut from
each of the other wheels. Even two nuts per wheel will serve in a pinch. It
maybepossibletotakenuts fromthe sparetire rrounting on some types of cars.

ABIT OFOILto free astucknutor choke controlcanbetaken fromthe

dipstickin the crankcase. Justpullup tie stickas thoughcheckingthe oil
level, and a few drops of oil will run off it.

A 'Y'ROZEN"WI' can stop progresson a field repair until it is removed.

If there is dirt on-thethreads,&Lear it out with awirebrush,rag,or a
piece of stringwound around the bolt. If it is rusted on, apply a few drops
of oil or Liquid Wrenoh,tap the nut witi a hamnu3rto work the lubricantinto
I52 space between the nut and the bolt, then mve -thenut. Heat will also
help to free a frozennut by expandingit slightly. The heat might come from
aroadflare or the jackhandle whichhas been heated in a small fire. If
CC else fails, greaterleverageon the nut may be the answer,but it may
also break off the bolt or stud. Try putting a piece of pipe on the wrench
handle as anextension.

SMIIW,BROKEN SPRINGScan be replacedwitiia piece of old inner tube.

This is an indispensableitem in any toolboxthat can be used for many purposes.
It might rep:Lacethe return spring on the acceleratorpedal, for example.

A WORK LIGHT at night can be easily made by taking out a parking light,
socket and all, from a fender. Chop off enoughwir32with it to reach the
battery. When the repair'hasbeenmade, put the light on the cab floor as a
reminderto fix it when the car is back in the shop.

SOLDERcanbe improvisedfromatoothpaste tube or any similardis-

&sable tube that is not plastic. (Althoughit seems unlikelythat a stuck
travelerneeding solderwould have a toothpastetube with him, the Suggestion
is includedon the theory that it could happen.)
 7.00 - 7.10

A COTTERPIN can be replacedby a short piece of wire if necessary.

Ifacotterpinwas usedto secureanassembJ.ythat was takenapart during
repairs,be sure to replacethe pin or to put somethingin its place, O-id-l-
wise the nut, rod, or tihatever
was securedby the pin, will work loose and fall
off. Often a paper clip, safetypin, or nail will serve the purpose.

KEEPINGTHUGS CLEAN is difficultbut importantin making field repairs.

Nuts with dirt in them will not go on again,and dirt in a brake,gas, or oil
line canbe areal disaster. Beforestartingto disassemblethings,spread
out a tarp, big rag, raincoat,seat cover or even a big leaf to hold the parts
as they come off. LayingIi-emout in the order in which they were roved will
make assemblymuch easier.

7.10 Capsizingand SubmergingAccidents

CAPSIZINGACCIDENTSare not com'coIIin areas where roads are well r&n-

tained,but becow quite routinein my parts of the world. Cars on frontier
roads are usuallygoing slowlywhen they tip over, so that no major body damage
x-E%3ilts.Many r~chanicalparts of the car are affectedby capsizing,hmever,
andshouldbe examinedbeforeattempting-to r-e-start.The first problem,
obviously,is to right the car; informationon this procedureis presentedin
sectim 6.61.
Xext, check for spillageof batterywater, crankcaseoil, radiator
watts, fuel and brake fluid. Clean off spillsand refill if necessary. If
no seriousdamagehas been done to the body of tilecar, and if the engine
looks normal,attemptto start the car. If it will not'operate,see the
check lists in section8.CO.

After a SLJHEBGINGACCIDENT, there are other items to check. In

generala car that has been submergedfor a she-rt periodm be savaged witi
littletmuble. The prtiE consideration is whetherwater was taken into the
engine. If water is drawn into the cylindersthe pistonswill attemptto
canpmss it; water cannotbe compressed,and the enginewill burst open or
the crank axms or shaft badly damaged,inthe attempt.

If the car,wassubmergedin salt water, wash it carefullywith fresh

water at the first opprturiityto avoid corrosion.

It may be necessaryto rxxoveaccumulatedmud, silt or sand from the

body and the chassisbefore furtherwork can be done.

After recoveryand inspectionfor exteriordamage,run throughthe

foIlawingsteps:

1. Drain, flush and refillall fluids: gas, oil, brake fluid,trans-

missionoil, differentialoil, steeringbox oil, air cleaneroil,
radiator,water, etc.

2. Inspectthe batteryand replaceif nece-qsary.In salt water it

will have neen nearly short-circuited.Lhe electrolyterraybe
contaminated by any submrsion. In generalit is not practical
to flush out and restorea batteryif it has becow contaminated.

3. Inspectelectricalparts; dry or replaceas needed. This would

includestarter,generator,voltageregulator,spark coil, dis-
tributor,lamps,horn, connectionson back of dashboard,etc.
7.10 - 7.30

4. Attempt to start the engineand move the car. If it does not

function,see section8.00 on check lists.

7.20 Drive TrainExpedients

CMTU-i SLIPPINGmay be due to oil on the clutchfacing. Asatemporary

remedy,block the plates apart by holdingthe pedal down with a stick over-
night. Sorr&imesthe oil can be burnedout by slippingthe clutchunder load.
It may be useful to blow a grittytype householdcleansersuch as Comet,Ajax,
etc. into the clutchus&g a small'hoseinsertedin the drain plug hole.

A DRAGGINGCLUl'mthat will not allow gear-shiftingis evidencedby the

of the gears even thoughthe clutchpedal is presseddown. It may
"grindingr~
be possibleto get home in one gear, .ilsually
second,by engagingthe gear with
the engine stoppedand then startingthe engine.

It is quite possibleto drive withoutthe clutchafter startingthe

enginewith the transmissionin first gear. To shift up to a higher gear, hold
the gearshiftlightlyand press it towardneutral. When the engine speedmatches
the road speed the gears will be spinningat the S~UIEspeed and the transmission
will drop into neutralwithouteffort. Slow the engineto match road speed
in the next higner gear and gentlypress the gearshiftinto the higher gear
while using the acceleratorto find the right engine speed. Thesameprc-
cedurewill work in reverseorder to shift to a lower gear.

OLD LAND ROVERShave ahabit of hoppingout of lcrwrange under load if

tiey are not properlyadjusted. To solve the problemtemporarily,drop a
large rock intc the space betweenthe transfercase lever and the toeboardof
the cab.

7.30 SteeringSystemExpedients

Minor steeringproblemsdo not requirefield‘expedients,

since the car
cm still be controlled.

BALL JOINT failureis fairlycommoninxoughuse. The jointsat the

ends of the tie rods come apart due to wear, rusting,or abrasiveroad
materialsintie joint. All of these shouldbe detectedin regularinspection.
If they are not, the front wheelswill eitherbe free of each other or of the
steeringsystem. To repair,fit the ball back into the socket,jackingthe
wheels if necessaryto get free mvae.nt. Then securethe jointwith baling
wire; the patch shotidbe checkedperi&&llyontiewayhome.

BENTTIE RODSmaybe causedbyhi-ttingastumporrock, andmay throw

the front wheels out of alignrrr?,nt
so badly that the car cannotproceed.
Straightentiebentrodas rnuchaspossibleby tying it to a tree and backing
up, or possiblyby using the jack or the winch for power.

A I CRANKARM will turn fine in one dixction but not at all the
other way, or the car may only be able to go in circles. The -tins will not
be out of ali.-&, hxrwever.Straightentie arm'withthe jaticplaced against
tie chassisat any convenientpoint. It 9ay be pxxxiblcfe p;;t; plank or
small log againstthe arm as a lever and pull tie end up with the winch.
 1

730

PIECE OF WIRE
MAIN-I-AI NS LENGTH
OF TIE ROD.

i I
(!zEzxd
’ SROKEN
TIE ROD

WRAP BREAK WITH

LICENCE PLATE OR
SHEET METAL, OR
SPLINT WITH STICKS.

FIELD REPAIR
FOR BROKEN TIE RC!D
 ..,

7.30 - 7.50

A BROKENTIE ROD is rare, even in rough service. If one does bp-ak,

other pr%s such as ball jointswill probablyDe darqed. As a field e--
dienL,straightenthe rod as !nuchas possiblemci pt a s-t$~~; inside -the
broken ends or t\rrapthe bleak with the licenseplate or s&@;other piece of
sheetnxzal, secur.ing VJithbalirgwire or radiatorhose CL&@. That will
) keep the rod &xi&t, but the ends will fall out of the "splint." Fasten
a~ler@h of wire or chain betweenthe two ends of the rod to maintainthe
length. (See illustration.)

7.40 Brake SystemExpedients

PUMPINGTHE BRAKES indicates-thatthey need adjustment. This can be

done on the road if necessary,as de!zil.ed
in section10.42.

BROKEN BRAKE UE cannotbe fixed with Tape beCdUSe oi the high pressure.
If the car has a splitbrake systemwith independentbmking on two combinations
of wheels,there is no problem. If i-r:
does not, close the broken line by mash-
ing and foldingthe -hibring
with heavy pliers. The other brakeswill then work,
thoughthey my need to bq bled or have Quid added.

A BROKENDRUM cannotbe fixed in the field. To keep the brake from

lodking,fastenthe pistonsin place by wrappingthem with .w&. If tile w&
is not strongenoughto hold them when the brakes are applied;pinch off the
brake line to the affectedwheel.

ASMALLHOLE inabrake line can sometimesbe repairedby coveringit

with a pat& cut from inner tube rubberand holdingthe patch in place with
a worm-typehose clamp appliedright over the leak. It will -&en be necessary
to refilland bleed the system.

DRAGGINGBRAKESwill cause one or more wheels to get hot or even lock

UP* A poor grade of brake fluid,cloggingof the master cylinderreliefport,
orcontamination in the line may cause this problem. Bleed some fluid off at
any wheel and see if the wheels'
turn freely. In the shop, be sure to flush
out the whole brake system carefullyand put in new brake fluid.

BRAKE FLUID shouldbe carriedin the toolboxof any car with a history
of brake trouble. If none is availableand the brakes are inoperativefor
lack of fluid, do not use water or oil as a replacement. The authorhas
drivena great many miles using locallydistilledsugar-canerum as brake
fluid. The alcoholdoes notdamagethe braketubingorthe rubberparts of
the system.

7.50 Fuel SystemExpedients

BROKEN FUEL,LINES cannotgenerallybe patchedwith adhesiveor plastic

tape becausethe gasolinedissolvesthe adhesive. If a joint must be patched
wititape, clean-theareacarefullytith adryragfirst. Awormclampis a
betterpatch, or cut the broken sectionand inserta short piece of tube or hose.

BROKEN GAS LINE can be replacedwith a piece of plastictube. Cut out

the broken section,and slip the plastictube over tie cut ends. Securewith
hose clampsor a few turns of balingwire twistedtight.
 7.50

CLOGGEDFUEL LINES ~2~1 be cleanedby blowingthem out. Open jointsin

varioussectionsof the line and blm the pipes and hoses out by mouth or with
a tire pump.

After blowingthe lines, they must be refilledwith fuel. The fuel

pump may not be able to do this, especiallyif -thebatteryis weak and cannot
crank the eqine for a long period. There are severalalternatives.Open the
fuel fillercap and force air into the fuel thankby r~~th, thus pushingthe gas
throughthe lines to the carburetor. Rmve the fuel lines from the carburetor
inlet and suck on it with the mouth until gas apFcarsin the glass cup of the
fuel filter. On SOTE cars, such as the Land Rover,there is a manual lever on
to bottomof the fuel pump which makes it possibleto pump fuel without
crankingthe engine. It is also possibleto removethe air cleanerand pour
a small munt of fuel directlyinto the carburetor,which will run the engine
for a few mts and enablethe pump to bring up a supplyof fuel; These
proceduresfor gettingfuel to the carburetorwill also work after a car has
run out of gas and the tank has been refilled.

A CLQGGEDFUEL FILTERof the in-linetype can be bypassedif necessary

by removingthe filterand replacingit with a short piece of pipe, or by
stickinga screwdriverright thrcughthe filterelementto allcrw fuel to flow.
This will, of course,allow foreignmatternormallytrappedin the filterto
reach
0, the carburetor.
THE CLASS SEDIMENTBOWL on the fuel pump may bebroken by a stone..
It can often be replacedby a small medicinejar, eitherglass or plastic. If
the jar is too short to be securedby the clamp,put a few washersor a small
stickbetweenthe cl- and the bottom of the jar to make up the difference.
If the glass bowl is only crackedand not broken,it can be patchedwith Ed
laundrysoap of the type usuallysold in squarebars or long bricks.

LEAKY GAS TANKS can be fixedwith the sarretype of soap mentionedabove.

It does not dissolvein gasoline,and can be worked and mlded to fit the space.
Such a repair,though crude,often lasts for years. LiquidSteel,if available,
does the Sara job and ties an excellentand semi-permanent repair. It is easy
touseandquickdrying.

IJOGAS due to a cloggedline or broken pump can be overcomethroughthe

use of gravity. Put a small can of gas on the roof of the car and siphongas
down to the carburetor. Disconnectthe fuel line to the carburetorand replace
it with the hose from the elevatedtank. The car will run until the tank is
empty.
WXCERINTHE GASwillsinkto -ihebottomof the tank, since it is
heavierthan gasoline. When water in the gas tank has reachedthe level of
the fuel tube to the engine,water will be pumpedto the engine. The engine
will run erraticallyor stop co@etely. Remove the drain plug in the gas
tank slowlyand let the water drip out until gas startsto flow, then tighten
it. Clear the water out of the fuel line and carburetorand the car will run.

A chais can be used to separategas and water: pour the contaminated

gasolinethroughthe &uis and water will be held back lilhile
the gas passes.
In areaswhere gasolineis often of poor quality,it is a good idea to filter
all fuel in this manner. Many 4wD cars 'havefu& filtersin the fillerhose
to the gas tank to keep out water and other debris.
7.60

7.60 Tire Ehqledients

JACKINGa vehicleis a precariousoperation,and shouldbe regarded as

dangemus. Wck the wheels carefullyso the car cannotroll while on tne
jack. Put the jack on a securefooting,using a plank if necessary. Put the
liftingend againsta flat surfacewhere it will not slip off--thechassis
itselfor the flat part of the bottom spring leaf is excellent. Some jacks
have curvedtop plates designedto supporttieaxle housing.

HAVING NO JACK is an inexcusable

oversight,but such thingsdo happen.
If caughtwith a flat tire and no jacic,
block the frai& up with a rock, log,
toolbox,or some other suppoi:L.'l3endig a hole under the tire with a shovel
until the tire can be removedand replaced.

IXIVINGONAFlATwillruinthetire. If there is no way to fix the

tixe, m-roveit anddrive on the rim. The rim will be ruined in any event,and
thisqyatleast tie tire will be saved. There is also the dangerof fire if
a flat tire is drivenupon, since the continuousflexingbuilds up great heat.

CBANGIi'\iG
A TIRI,is not a big project,but for those who have never had
to do it, here is a quick outline:

1.' Rmve the spare tire from its munt and get out the jack and tools.

2. Turn the lug nuts on the wheel just enough to break them free. On some
cars the studs maybemarkedLandR. Turn those marked L the %r~@
way: clodlcwise to loosenthem.
.. -
3. Chock the wheelswiih stones,boards,etc. so the car p-not shift and
falloffthe jack. Toomanydrivers have been injuredorkilledbecause
they overlookedthis precaution.

4. Put the jack on a firm footingunder the axle, chassis,springleaf, or

soe other suitableliftingpoint. A fm orbumper jack shouldlift
at points specifiedin the instructions from the car manufacturer.Jack
up until tie-&e just clearsthe ground.

5. Loosenand removethe lug nuts, keepingthem clean.

6. Rermve the -Yat tire. It makes 3 convenientseat while workingon the

wheels.

7. Put the new tire in position,liningup the studswith the holes in the
wheel. It may be necessaryto jaw the axle up some m0r-eto do this.
a. Put the lug nuts on and tightenwith the wrenchuntil the wheel startsto turn.
9. ~wer~enewtiretothe~~d~t~the jack.
10. Tightenthe nuts all the way, alternatingfrom one side of the wheel to
the other as shown in tie diagramto avoid warpingthe wheel.

ll. RemoveIdlechocks,stow tie flat tire, jack and tools.

TIRE P~AIRS are describedin detail in section10.62on shop

procedures.
 UNDER TIRE
LOG OR ROCKS
TO SUPPORT
AXLE

CHANGING A FLATTIRE
WITHOUT A JACK
7.60

ORDER OF TIGHTENING
WHEEL LUG NUTS
 -‘“-----“-a

7.60 - 7.70

'TIE mki break fXqUently in rcugh service. lkey ar+eeasilyrepaired

in the samemannerastow chains. See section6.23.

7.70 cooli.ng
systemExpedients

OvEMEXED EXGIiiIELYbe the rescllt of overw.Irk

or lack of water. In
any evq?nt,
leave the enginerunningwithouta load so that it will Lcntinue
to circulatewhat water there is. Try puttingthe transmission in neutral
and rur-?ing
the engineat a fast idle for a few minutes;if there is enough
coolantandthe fanbelt is r&broken-the engineshould co01 off.

TO ADD WATER to a hiling radiator,leave the engine idling. ~rx>sen

the radiatorcap very carefullywith a large rag to protectthe hands from
the blast of steam. Vhen steamhas flmed out, take the cap off and slowly
add water until fLL1.

CARRYINGWAER is sametimesa problemin the field,even if a stream

is nearby. Considerthe use of hubcaps,a hat, the sleeveof a raincoattied
in a knot at the end, a large leaf fomd into a cup, an air cleanerhose with
one end plugged,a plasticbag, or a toolbox. Fuel fmm an extra five gallon
can could be emptiedinto the vehicle'sfuel tank and the can used for water.

IF THEE IS NO WATER available,tist any thin liquid can be used in

the radiatorin an urgency. Probablytie rrrost co-n substituteis urine,
althoughflat beer or soft drinksare also useful. No gasolineor oil should
ever be put i;nthe radiator. The entirecoolingsystem,includingthe engine
block, shouldbe well flushedas soon as possible.

tiROlCEN
RADIATORHOSE can be mendedwith plastictape. Sincehigh
pressurewill open the leak again,loosenthe radiatorcap so the systemwill
not be pressurized.

RADIATORLEAKSthatcanbe seen canbe nwlded. Dry the areaarcundthe

leak and put on a thick coat of LiquidSteel to make an excellentrepair. If
LiquidSteel is not available,cut a dry stick and jam it into the hole; the
stickwill swell in the water and close the leak. If the hole is not visible
no great amunt of water will leak out, and periodicfillingwill keep the car
going until repairscan be made in the shop.

A &ROKLN FAN BFLT must be replacedirrpnediately.

Do not drive even a
shorct:
distancewithouttie fan belt, since tileenginewill overheatand may be
badly damaged. Carry a spare belt. If none is available,a few turns of nylon
orpolypropyleneropewill serve. A nylon stocking,thoughrarelyavailable,
is an excellentsubstitute. )

ti0ANTI-EXUE in cold weatherwill not affectan enginethat is running.

If it must be stoppedfor a long period, eitheroperateit often enough to keep
the water in the radiatorwarm, or drain all the water out.
7.80 - 7.81

7.80 ElectricalExpedients

Electrical problemscan be dividedinto two broad categories: those

involvingthe high voltageignitioncircuitand those involvingthe low voltage
starting,primaryignitionand accessorycircuits.

7.81 Emblems in the Primmy Circuit

In most vehiclesthe primaryelectricalcircuithas a voltageof 12

volts,althougnolder vehiclesarc occasionallyfoundwith six volt systems
and a few Diesel-poweredsystemsuse 24 volts or xx-e. Higher voltageis also
coxixkon
in large trucks.

A DEAD EVUTERYis one of the mst co- complaintsinvolvingthe prinary

electricalcircuit. It is usuallyevidencedby failureto crank the engine.
Beforeassumingthat the batteryis not charged,a carefulcheck of its ccnnec-
tions shouldbe made. It is much more corrmylnto find ?hat corrodedterminals
axe impedingthe power flow than to find that the batteryhas suddenlyand
unaccxxntablydied.

To clean the terminals,removethem from the batteryand scrapethe

insidesof the connectorswithapocketl&fe until they are bright and clean.
the posts on tie batteryshouldbe cleanedwith a We or a piece of rough
sandpaper. QxdciL wire brush tools are also availablefor this purpose.)
Tha replacetie connectoron the battery,tightenit in place, and attempt
to start the vehicle. If it stillwillnot start,checktheheavywires from
tiebatteryto tie chassisorq$neblock,and fsolnthebatteryto the
starteror startersolenoid. The connectionson these lines shouldalso be
clean and bright.

IFTHE l3ATI!ERY~DEAD,thecar canbe startedinanyoneofanumber

of ways. Many 4WDcars are pmvidedwithahand crankwhichmaybe used to
start tie car. Batteryjwrrper cableswill supplypower to the dead battery
fmn another vehicle. Or tie car may be rolledor pushedto start the engine.
Eachofthesen&hodsis describedins~ detailbelow. Oncetheengineis
started,the driver shouldresistthe temptationto ttfloorll the accelerator
pea* It is nxxe likelyto stay running at a 1~ speed.

JUMFERCABUS areheavywireswith clips ontheends usedto connect

thebattery of one car-tothe batteryof anotherwithoutren~~ingthe batteries
or their ocnnectingcables. Tb use these cablesto start a car with a dead battery,
drive a car witn a good battepy as close as possibleto the dead one. Connect
the positiveterminalon one batteryto the positiveterminalon the other; the
abbr%xiationPOSorPUJS shouldber&dedinto thebattery caseneartheproper
terminal, In similarfashim join the two negativeterminals. Start the car
witi the deadbattery,andthenremove the juqx?rcables.

CmGwithahand crankwas theonlywayto start cars until the

eb&ric starkerwas invented,and is still a very satisfactorystartingmethod.
TkWInustbe anoughpowerleftin-i&e battqtomake asparkacross the
spark plug, SO this mtlxodwill not work with a totallydead battery. A diesel
en&c cannot genemy be hand crankedbecauseof tie high compression,but
scMy!dieselshave a valve lifter controlto open the cylinders. When the engine
is being&xranked the valves are held open. When the enginehas been cranked
up to as fast as the operatorcan turn it the valvesare releasedand the engine
starts.
 7.81

A RXJJNG STARI' cranksthe engiaethroughthe gearboxand wheels as

the car is rmved by gravityor some other sourceof per. pu-t:
the trm-
missionin secondor third gear and turn on the ignitionkey. Bold me
clutchpedal down. Move the car by pushingit tith anothervehicle,pushing
by hand, rollingdm ahill, or anyothermans. When the car is moving,let
the clutch up ~kdy anti the engine will he cranked and should start. Never
~I!Yto start a car by towing it, since it rraycharge forwardthen when the
engine starts,rxmmingthe towingcar.

The rolling start is perhapsthe easiestof the three nrethods&s-

cussedfor startinga car with a dead battery,and many cars with doubtful
batteriesare left stoppedon hills for this reason. Diesel enginesmay be
startedin the samz way, and it is comn to see heavy construction equip--
-t parkedon a hill t9 n&e use of gravityfor a rollingstart. It will
be found very difficultto roll or push a car with tire chains,or one in
mud or snow. A car with an automatictransmissionshouldnot be startedby
nming.

THE STARTERMOTOR may also be the cause of failureto start. On

occasionthe releasemxhanism which separatesthe rotor from the car's engine
when the latter has been startedwill fail to release. Or it rrayjam and not
turn at all. SORE 4W13cars have squareend shaftson the startermotor which
can beheldinawrench so thatthemotor shaftcanbe nrxedto free it if
itjams. On other vehicles,it is necessaryto reeve the startermotor.

A BLowr FUSE will disablelights,windshieldwipers, gauges,radio,

horn, or other electricalapplianceson the car, If there is no replac-nt
fuse available,wrap the old blown fuse with a piece of tinfoilfrom a candy
or cigarettepa&age. The tinfoilwill serve as a conductor,but shouldbe
replacedwith a fuse of-tieproper ratingas soon as .possible.It might also
be possibleto take a fuse from a less useful circuitwhich is not needed at
the tins. The fuses are generallylocatedon a plasticblock on the firewall,
under the dashboardin the glove compartmentor in some other accessible
location. Scxuaaccessories, particularlythose added after manufacturesuch
as a radio,electricwinch, extra lights,etc., may have a fuse installed
inaplastic tube inthewireto the accessory.

TO FIND THE CALJSEof a blcwn fuse, connecta test lamp across the fuse
terminals The test lamp can be a specialone rrade for tie purpose,or it
canbe ani smallbulbtaken fromalampon the vehicle. The bulb will shine
bristly as long as the fused circuitis %hotied.;'.'?..e.,
when the positive
wire from tie batteryis connectedto the negativewire withouta load such as
a lap, Whenthe sourceofthe short circuithas been foundandeliminated,
the test light will glow dimly or not at all. (See illustration.)

A FROZEN BATTERYis usu&Ly ruined,althoughit may be possibleto save

itbythawing it inawarmrwxnandrecharging. Abatterywhichis fully
chargedwill freeze at about 70 degreesbelow zero Centigrade,but a completely
discharged("dead")batteryfreezesat about zero degreesCentigrade. Since
few areas have temperaturesas low as the freezingpoint of a well charged
battery,the obviousanswerto -theproblemof frozenbatteriesis to keep
them fully charged. In soma frigidareas it is commonto use electrichaters
for car batteries,or to remove them and camy them insidea heatedbuilding
whennotinservice.
 7.81

‘W-EN THE SHO8T

CIRCUIT WHICH BLEW f
IF BULB LIGHTS,
THE FUSE IS REMOVED,
FUSE IS BLOWN.
THE LIGHT WILL STOP
SHI NTNG,

USE

TESTING A FUSE
 7.82 - 7.90

7.82 IgnitionSystemExpedients
Probablythe nmst frequentcauseof failureof the high voltageignition
systemis mistur~ on the wires. This my be causedby rain or splashedwater
from the road,or it may con= from condensation
on a foggymming or when
tempemtureconditions are right. Ifthewires fromthe sparkcoilto the
distributor,and fromthe distributor to the sparkplugs;are not in good con-
ditionthey my absorbmoisturethroughporesor cracks,worseningthe problem.
ff wet wiringis suspected, thesewiresshouldbe carefullydriedwith an
absorbentrag, as shouldthe top of the sparkcoil,the outsideand inside
of the distributorcap, and the whiteporcelaininsulatorsof the sparkplugs.
If wet wiringis a frequentproblem,the wiresshouldbe replacedwith
new slick-surfaced
wiresthatwill shedwater. It is also possibleto use a
plasticvarnishspmy made for the purposeto providea coatingon the wires.
THE SPARKCOILmay get wet and fail to function,especially
on cars
wherethe coil is nmnted on the f&wall and subjectto road spray. If it
is not possibleto mm the coil,coverit with a plasticbag to protectit.
LEAKIN POWERmy escapefrom cra&ed wiresor distributorcap,with
the sparksquitevisibleto the nakedeye. Asatentporary~pa.ir,cled.nthe
affectedarea carefullyand then applyblackplasticelectrical
tape over the
cmck in severallayers.
SPARKPLUGSnrayfail for any one of a numberof reasons. If the engine
runs muglilyor not at all, and a sparkplug is suspectedof beingthe cause
of the trouble,it can usuallybe at leastpartiallyrestorvzd by a thorough
cleaningof the outsideof the porcelaininsulator and sandpapering and re-
gappingof the electrodes.Furtheradviceon thiswill be foundin section
,10.55.
If the sparkvoltageis weak and the plug will not fire properly,try
closingthe gap to about0.010inches(0.25II&. This can be approximated
closelyenoughby usinga papermatchbookcoveras a gauge. The voltagemy
be able to jumpthe smallergap and get the car to a shop.
7.90 EngineExpedients
Relativelyfew thingsgo wrongwith enginesin the field;it is rare
oftenthe auxiliq equipmnt such as fuel lines,electrical devicesand otha*
accessorieswhichprovidetrouble. Real enginetroubleCXUArarelybe fixedin
the field. A brokenpistonarm, for example,requiresmajorrepairsthat am
betterhandledin a cleanshop.
ARXPPED CRANKCASEoilpanmaybe causedbyasharprockorscmeother
obstacle. If damageis relativelyminor,,arip can oftenbe fixedwith soap
inthe samewayas agastank, .(Seesection7.50.) If the pan is pushedin
it may be struckby the descendingcrankarms,causingadditional damage. If
this much damageto the crankcase
is suspected, turn the engineby hand to see
if it turns fmely. If it doeshit the pan, it will be necessaryto remove
thepanandstmighten it mmwhatbefom it canbe used.
7.90
-----------l
RACINGENGDE is usuallycausedby a stuckaccelerator pedal. After
stoppingihe car, investigation
will usuallyrevealthat the returnspring
is bmken or may have fallenoff. It can be replacedby a pieceof innertube
rubberuntilsuchtix as acorrectreplaCeTlhent can be obtained;do not use
the rubberfor an extendedperiod,h&ever, for it will dry from the heat of
theengine andbreak.
 _ .,.,..-.,...- -m

8.00 OlEcKLISTS

It is senselessto open the hood of a disabledcar in the hope of

seeingwhat the troubleis. Thereat-eso many thingsthat can go wrongwith
a car that it wouldbe only by the greatestgood fortunethat such casual
inspection wouldfind the fault. The checklistsin this sectionare intended
to replacehit-oPmissfumblingas a meansof locatingtrouble. Itemsare
listedhere accordingto obvioussymptoms,so that even if only a few outward
signsare kncwntie drivercan attemptto locatethe difficulty.In some
casesit may be necessaryto referto the sectionon testingprocedures
(Section9.00)for furthermans of isolatingthe problemand &&g a pre-
cise diagnosis.Once the problemhas been found,if furtheradviceon repairs
is neededit may be usefulto referto section7.00on fieldexpedients or
section10.00on shoptechniques.
.
8.10 Craning andStartingTrouble
Problemsof thisnaturemay be dividedintotwo categories:the engine
will not crankat all, or the enginecranksbut will not startand run. Each
of theseis discussedseparately.
In orderto starta gas engineit is necessaryto turn it by some
outsideforce,usuallythe electricstartermotoror a hand cti. w;len the
ignitionand fuel systemsstartrovingthey providethe necessarysparkand fuel
vaporin the cylinders,and the enginewill then operateby itself.

8.11 EngineWill Not Crank

Checkthe batteryand its connections by tryingto make a sparkbetween
the two terminalswith a pieceof wire or the handlesof a pair of pliers. It
shouldmake a healthyspark, If not, the batteryis weak or dead.
Bypassthe startingrelayor switchwith a screwdriver
bladeor piece
ofheavywire. If this is the Inoperative
elementthe enginewill be cranked
throughthet~raryjLunperwti.

The wiresto the startermay bt:broken,loose,or corroded.

The groundingstrapthatconnectsthe engineblockto the car frm
rilaybebrokenorcorroded.
The starterengaginggearmaybej-d.
:
Althoughpare,tileengineitselfmay be jamned. Try to turn it with
the crankorbyrollingtie carbyhandwhile in gear. If itwillnotturn
at all, reTIlDve
all the sparkplugs. If water squirtsout of the sparkplug
holeswhen the enginsis turneu,the head gasketor blockis leaking,and
majorwork is needed.

8.12 EngineCranks,WillNot Start

The enginemust have threethingsto run: fuel,air, and a sparkto

i@nitethe mixture Fbst of thesetestsare designedto findwhichof these
ingredientsis mi&ng. If all threecan be broughttogetherat approximately
the right-t*, the enginewill run. It may not run smxthly, but it will run.
 8.12

AIR is &he least,likelvof the threeelmts to be missing. Checkto see

that -theair cleaneris not clogged. If-there is a hose betweenthe air
cleanerand the carburetor, as is usuallythe casewith oil bath air cleaners,
see that it is free and not kinked. If in doubt,-ve the air cleaner.
FUEL is not difficultto tracethroughthe systemfrom the gas tank to
the carburetor.Be sure thereis gas at everypoint: gas tank,fuel line,
pump,filter,carburetor.Open the fuel line at severalpointsand be sure
, that'fuelflawsout when the engineis cranked. Checkto see that the vent
hole in the gas tank fillercap is open,or tie vacuumin the tankwill stop
the gas from flowing. The carburetorfloatvalvecouldbe stuck.
tlFlooding"is causedby too much gas in relationto the amountof air.
Therewill be a sn~llof gas aroundthe engine. Wait ten minutesfor <t to
evaporateand then try againto startthe engine. Ef thereis a manualchoke,
push it in to open the butterflyvalue. Hold the accelerator to the floorand
crankthe engine.
Watercan preventstartingby contaminatingthe fuel or by leaking
pcwerfrmn the ignitionwiring. Examinethe gas goinginto the carburetorto
be sure it doesnot containany water.
ELECI'RI~troublesare perhapsthehardesttofindbecausethere are
so many contributingfactors,and the electricity cannotbe seen. If there
seemsto be air and fuel gettingto the engine,checkthe follcwing points:
ignitionwiringmaybewetorcraclced;thesparlcingvoltagemaybeleaking
fromthe distributor cap or the sparkcoil cap; the tops of the sparkplugs
.maybe wet or cracked.
To test the sparkcircuit,pull the wire fromthe centerof the dis-
tributorand hold it aboutl/4 of an inch (5 I-D-A)
fromthe engineblockwhile
czmnkhg the engine;eitherwitithestarterorthehandcrsnk. Analternate
way of checkingthe coil is to open and closethe breakerpointsby hand with
the ignitionkey tied on. Usingeithermetiod,thereshouldbe aspark ftim
the centerwire of the coil when it is held near the engineblock. 'Ifthereis
no spark,checkthe coil,points,condenser, distributor,and the smallprimary
wirebetweenthe coil and the distributor.
Checkthe distributorin the SEE way by holdinga sparkplugwire near
theengineblockandlookingforasparkwhile crank&g-theengine. If there
isno spark,be sure the distributorandwires axe dry and checkfordamage.
The insideof the distributor
cap may be wet with condensation.
If thereis stillno spark,the primaryvoltagemsy be too low to give
sparkingpawer. TAXI on the headlights and crankthe enginewith the starter
motor. If the headlightsget very dim or go out, the primaryvoltageis too
low, probablybecauseofadeadorweakbattery.

OEJERPROBLEMSmayalsoblockenginestarting:
 _ _ ._..II

8.12- 8.15

If the startermotor spinsbut does not turn the engine,the starter

engaginggearmust be disassembledand cleanedcarefully.The car can still
be startedby hand crankingor pushing.
If the car seemsto run for the mxnent---the
startermotoris crankingbut
stopswhen the ignitionkey returnsto the operating position--checkthe resistor
in the lm-voltagewiringto the ignitioncoil. This resistormay be burnedout
and not passingany current.As a furthercheck,try "jumping" it with a piece
of wire. The resistoris usuallyin a smallporcelain blockon the firewall.

8.13 EngineStarts,thenQuits
E3yfar the most ccxmnacauseof this complaint,especially in cold
climates,is the choke,whichrraybe adjustedincorrectly or not workingat
all. In addition, the fuelmay be contaminated
with wateror dirt,or the
fuel linemay be blockedor partiallyblocked.
See also section8.60on ConkingOut, and 10.31on ChokeAdjusQnent
8.14 Low Charge;Dead Battery
A sl&ppingfan belt is the most commoncauseof a dead battery,aside
firm exceedingthe usefullife of the batteryitself. If the belt is too looseit
will not turn the generatorand the batterywill beoxnedischargedin normaluse.
The generatoritselfmay be looseon itsmountings.
Checkforanopencircuitbetweenthe generatorandthe battery. All
connections
shouldbe cleanand tight.
The brusheson the generatormay be stuckin theirholdersor worn, or the
cammnxtorglazedor burnedso that the brushesdo not make go& contact.
?he voltageregulator
may need to be examinedand tested.

Electrical
accessoriesmay have been lefton when the batterywas not
charging,
depleting
the battery.
If failureto chargetakesplaceafterfordingdeepwater,the problem
is probablya wet fan belt. Water lubricates
the belt and allowsit to slip
overthe generator pulley.
8.15 Poor SparkA12mssSp*k Plugs

If sparkplugsa= fouledwith deposits,theymaybe ofthewrongtype

for the engine. Checkthe owner'smanualto determine
the correcttype.
Crackedporcelaininsulatorsmay indicatea sparkplug that is running
too hot. Anothermdel is needed. Crackedinsulatorscan also be causedby
flyingstonesor otherabuse.

Poor spmkmayresult frunwateron thewiringor franpoor supply

voltagefmm the distributor
and ail.
 8.15- 8.21

Withmagnetoignition(althoughthis type is not camnon>it may be

causedby stuckor brokenmagnetobrushed.

The distributor
armmay be stuckor sluggishin operation.
8.16 EngineRuns: Will Not Stop
An enginewhichruns afterthe ignitionkey has been turnedoff is
describedas "Dieseling
,!Isinceit is operatingin the sameway as a Diesel
enginewithoutany sparksystem.

,,pj...!:: carbondepositsinsidethe cylindermay be heatedby fuel combustion

.-'-.
no.. '-
r.- -qd serveto ignitesubsequent cyclesof the engine.
,:
_' .:I
I
;y.
I.,. '.
:*.;,
c*--
5n,i:,;,
I
p-a
'~"-,i" A poor gradeof fuelmay also causeDieseling.
To overccmethe problemtemporarily, set the pxrkingbrake,engage
the gearshiftin any gear,and let up the clutch. With the car unableto move,
the enginewill be stalled. I

8.20 Law Oil Pressure,or No Pressure

Stop the engineimmediately
beforepermanentdamageis done.
Checkthat the is sufficient
oil in the crankcase.
The oil pumpmay be dwed.
The sump intakefilterwhereoil entersthe pumpmay be clogged.
Thin or dilutedoil will muse law pressure.
The pressuregaugeor indicatorlightmay be wrong.
An oil linemay be loosefrom its connectionsso that oil leaksout, or
be pinchedor cloggedso that not enoughoil can pass.
If oil pl?essure
droopsslcrwlyover an extendedperiodof months,it may
be due to wearingin the bearings,alltxLngoil to leak out of the space
betweenthe shaftandthebearing.
If the crankcase
breathercap is plugged,a vacuumin the crankcase
may tiw in fuel,dilutingthe oil and causinglaw p~ssure.
8.21 EngineUses Too Much Oil
This is usuallya matterof wear in the engine. The followingpoints
shouldbe checked:
Manifoldgasketmay be brokenor cracked.
Valveguidesmay be worn,especially
the intakevalve.
The cylinderhead gasketmay be brokenor cracked,or the cylinderhead
maynot be,fastenedsecurely,
~‘
The crs&case breathercap or the breatherin the rockeram co=rmay be
clogged.

;r
-.

8.21 - 8.33

Enginebearingsor pistonsmay be excessively

worn.
On carswith a vacuumboosterfor the brakes,checkto see that tie
pump diaphragmis not,cracked
or driedout.

8.30 SteeringProblems,
Alivnt, Wheels,etc.
Sincethe operationof the brakescan affectsteering,it may be useful
to inspectthe brakingsystemin accordance
with section8.40. The following
sectionsdealwith specificproblems.

8.31 FrontTiresWorn .

pressure.Eithertoo much or too littlecan affectsteering.

Check-tire
Be sureldheelsand tiresare properlybalancedif used at speedsover
30 m.p.h.(50 KPH). At low speedbalanceis not usuallya problem.
Brakedrumsmay be out of rounddue to wear or damage.
Frontwheeltoe-inrrayneed adjustment.
8.32 UnevenTire Wear
Frontierroadsare hard on tires,and a set of tiresmay last a very
shorttime comparedto what wouldbe expectedon a pavedroad. If wear is
unevenor irregular,however,the followingitemsshould-bechecked.
The tiresmaybe outofbalance, thoughthisis rarelyaproblemon
frontierroads.
A wheelmay be bent or damaged,or mountedlooselyon the lugs.
Tiresmay be underinflatedor over inflated.
Checkto seethattheaxleis ~untedstraight. Sorrretimas
the center
pinintheleaf springsupporting-the
axle breaks,allowingtheaxleto shift.
The chassismay be out of linethroughoverloading
or road barrage.
t
The springsshouldbechecked for a brokenmain leaf.
8.33 VibrationinDriveTrwin
.
Ebamne universaljointsin the drivetrainfor brokencups,missing
needlebearings,etc.
The prqeller shaftmay be bent,or my be out of balance.
Boltedflangesin the drivetrainmay be loose.

The splineson the driveshaftmay be worn or damaged.

'8.34 - 8.41 :

8.34
-y- WheelBearingshot
i
The brakeson the affectedwheelmay be dragging,or may have dirt in
them. See section8.44.
Bearingsmust have sufficient
greaseof good quality.

Bearingsmay be adjustedtoo tight.

The bearingsmay be damagedor broken.

8.35 Steering'Troubles

Shirrpny,
swaying,wandering,hard steering,and othertroublesmay be
causedby any of the followingitems: wrong tirepressure;looseor tight
frontwheelbearings;steeringbox loosefrommountings; loosesteeringrods
or joints;brokenroad springor main leaf;chassisbent;brakesdragging;
bent rearor frontaxle;worn shockabsorbers; tiresof unequalsize;shock
absorbersbrokenloosefrommounting.
On carswith a hydraulicsteelingdamper,such as the Volkswagen,
shirranymaybecausedby failureofthis damper.
If the steeringwheelis too hard to turn,checkthe following:a
stickor other foreignobjectmay be caughtin the steeringgear;the front
wheelsarraynot turn freely;the steeringgearboxmay need oil; gearsor bearings
in the steeringgearboxmay be jamnedwiti grit;the beartigat the top of the
steeringcolumn,insidethe steeringwheel,may be stuck.
If the steeringwheelturnstoo freely,it is usuallythe resultof
wear. If the car suddenlyceasesto steerproperly,checkthe following:
frontwheelsnot aligned;tie rodloose orbroken; checkfreemvementbetween
steeringwheel and wheels;tierodbent;ball jointlooseorapart;tie r-cd
connectionto wheelhousinglooseor apart;CL-E&.& arm bent or loose.
8..40 BrakeTrouble

Prdbablythe~~~~~frequentcomplaintregaMingbrakesis thattieydo
not stop the car. On frontierroadsa driveris not usuallyparticular about
lesserdifficulties 'because
his speedis low and the road is mugh enoughto
pr?eventhimfromnoticingaminorpul.ltoone side,orsaTneothertrouble.
Difficulties with brakeshave been dividedinto severalsectionshe&J.
8.41 ' &ake PedalSinksto Floor;E&&es Do Not Hold

Maybe duetolackofbrake fluid. Checkthe mastercylinder,

wheel
cylinders,
and connecting
tubingfor a breakor leak.

Air in the systemwillallowthe @alto sinkandgive a spongy

feeling. The same thingcan be causedby rubberhosesin the brakesystem.
whichawellup under@essu~, a pluggedmastercylindercap vent,contaminated
& poor~g~de brakefluid,a leak in the system,or the sealingcups in the
mastercylindermaybeworn. The shoesmay be so poorlyadjustedthat they
clonctreachthedrums.
 8.42- 8.46

8.42 Bmke PedalOperatesProperly;BrakesDo Kot Hold

If the car has gone throughwater,the liningsare probablywet. Hold

the brakepedaldown lightlywhiledrivingto heat xhe liningsand dry them.

The liningsmy be of poor quality,or may be glazed.

Brakefluidor oil may be on the shoes.

8.43 BrakePedalRisesandBmkesDrq

The mastercylindercompensating port is beingblockedby dirt,a

sullen prinm-ycup, failureof the mastercylinderpistonto returnfully,
of the pushrod. For all of thesetroubles,
or improperadjus-bncnt the master
cylindershouldbe reconditioned.
Referto
The use of inferiorbmke fluidcan case this complai.nt.
section7.40.
8.44 BrakePedalSatisfactory;
BrakesDrag
In this eventthe brakesLll probablyoverheat, Checkthe following:
swollenrubbertube in brakeline;dirt or gravelin drums;shoesadjusted
too tight,touchingdrums;shoesnot beingreturnedafteruse due to weak
brakeshoe returnsprings;brakefluidtube mashedor restricted;liningstoo
thick,touchingdrums.
8.45 Car Pullsto One Sidewhen B--
If the car pullsto one side,it indicatesthat one of the brakesis
mtworking properly. It couldbe on eitherside,dependingon whetherone
brakeis slippingor the oppositeone is locking.
Bmke fluid,oil or wateron a liningwill causeit to slip.

Wheel cylinders
may be munted looselyso tiat they do not open the
shoesenough,oropentiemunevenly.
Brakehose may be restricted
or clogged.
Bmke drum may be so badlyworn or scored-that
they do not hold
mwW l

All liningsmust be of the samematerial. If any brakesneed relining,

'bothWheelsonthe SEW axlemustbe relinedatthe sametime.

,-8.46 &akesGrabbiq
See the suggestions
listedundersection8.45above.

In'addition,checkbrakeshoeadjustrruzntandlook
for crackeddrums.
Brakesthat are oper+xting
properlymy seem to grabon slipperyroad surfaces
if not usec gently.
8.47 - 8.52

8.47 BmkePedalDoesNotRetum

If the peti does

not ccme up again-after
the bmkes have been used,
checkthe pedalreturnspring;see thatthe mastercylinderis munted securely;
andexaminethe clearance
amundttlepedalshaft. Sonletims a rockorstick
will jamintie pedalmchanismeitheraboveorbelowthe floorboards.
8.50 Clut& and GearshiftProblems
-.
Sincethe clutchand gearshift are used together,it is easy to corlfuse
problem of one with the other. In checkinga disabledvehicle,themfore, it
is advisableto referto both sectionshelm.

8.51 Gearbox'WubJe

GEARSDO NUf IMAGE. Examinethe clutchto see that it is releasing

all the way and not dragging.The gearsin the tmnsmissionmay alsoneed
adjusQnent, thoughthis is rare exceptwhen the gearboxhas been disassembled.
GEARSDO NOT DISENGAGE.The same troublesas mtioned aboveunder
Wears do not engage"shouldbe 'checked.In addition,the splineson the gear-
boxshaftmay be damaged.
SLIPSOUT OFGEAR. Sever&.thingscancause this problem. Checkthe
following:Shiftforkbent so gearsdo not 'msh fully;shiftlinkageout of
adjustrrmt;
transmissionSpLinesuo~; too much end play in tmsmission gear
shaft;geam badlywornordamagedby lackofoilorthe presenceofdirt;
bearingsbadlyworn;synchmnizerringsworn.

8.52 ClutchTrouble
CLUKXSLIPPINGmay be causedbyweakorbroken pressuresprings;
pedaladjustedtoo tightwith no freemvemnt; worn clutchlinings;pedal
mechanismbindjng;oilonthelinings;orthe drivermaybe %idingtie
clutch
)" causingexcessivewear.
CLUTC@f&WING may be causedby a releaseleverthat is out of adjust-
.~~t;oilon-the~;l~se~mountings;sticking clutchpedalcaused
by weak -turn springor bent parts;clutchplatehub stickingcm pinionshaft
becauseof rust,etc.;brokenor weak presmre springs;bindingor worn oper-
atinglevers.
cm -. ThL is causedby threemain factors: poor or loose
enginemunts; unevenreleaseof the pressureplate;and oil or gmaaseon tie
clutchcling. If the clutchvibratesor shudders,look for worn propeller
shaftuniversal.
joints,a looseflywheel,bent splinedshaft,or bent driven
plateinaddition.

CUJ!KEiDRAGS. If the clutchwill not releaseproperly,it makesgear

shift& very difficult or even impossible.Xhis maybe causedbyoilon the
linings,poor leveror pedaladjustmnt,dirt in the clutch,bent clutchplate,
a stuckwithdrawalsleeve,or brokenlinings.
 8.52 - 8.62

On a hydraulicclutch,also look for a shortageof fluid,or the

presenceof air in the hydraulicsystem. This typeof clutchis subjectto
many of the ailmentsof hydraulicbrakes,including sponw pedal,sinking
pedal,etc. See section8.40for similarconditions in brakesystems.

8.60 RoughRm on ConkingOut

Anenginetihidhruns roughlyma~sufferfxa-nanyofanumberoftroubles.
The difficultymay causeonly a minorirregularity
in tL2eoperation,or it may
resultin severelossof power. In the most extm caSe the enginewill %onh
out,"or stop runningcompletely.
8.61 RouE;ilRunni+
Tne difficulty
can be localizedby observingwhen the roughrunningis
worst: at idlingspeed,when the engineis loaded,when accelerating,
etc.
MISFIRLSUIUXRiLW. Checkthe following items: overheated sparkplugs;
dirtyair cleaner;improperignitiontiming;poor qualityof fuel;sparkplugs
have incorrectgap; sparkplugsare not the 1-ype
specifiedfor the engine.
MISFIRES-Iu1)E;R
ACCEWION. Althoughthismay be due to the spark
jumpingacrossa dirtyor wet insulator to the engineblockor othermetal
partsof the car, it is 1110~conu~~nly
due to fuelproblems. L for water
in tie carburetorfloatbowl or fuel strainer.Theidlemixturemaybe set
too rich. The air cleanerrraybe clogged,resultingin chokingthe engine.
If electricalproblemsare suspected, checkthe settingof tie breakerpoints,
ooilperformance, and sparkplug condition.The condenser may be danqed.
ENGINL KNOCKS. The two mst conuraoncauses
of knock,whichis evidenced
by a soundlike loosemarblesmttling amund in the engine,are poor fuel
andimpropertiming. Otherdifficulties relatedto this symptomare carbon
deposits in the engine,impropercarburetoradjush?nt, worn bearings, wrong
valvetiming,worn or darwed sparkplugs,inoperative distributor advance
me&an&m, and theneed for valveadjusbxnt.
ENGINl2
BAC~IRiS. The first&Lng to checkis ignitiontiming. After
that,try carburetoradjustit, valvetiming,valvetappetclearance, loose
timingchain,carbondepositsin the cylinders,
weak valvespringsor sticking
valves,valvesnot seatingt&t, or valvestemsand guidesworn.
8.62 EngineShortof Power
Any of tie itemslistedin section8.6lwill affectengine mer. In
generslashortageofpawerresultsina dropinengine speed,a tendencyfor
the engineto die undera normalload,and possible overheating.
Valvesthat are mis-timedwillwork well with a lightload,but not
withaheavyload, Worn valve stems or guideswill causea shortageof power,
. and may be detected by hxking for a &ange in enginespeeawhen gasolineis
squirtedon tie valvespring.

A hot exhaustmanifoldmay indicatestickyvalvesor lackof sufficient

clearance
aroundthe valves,restrictingtie flow of hot exhaustgas2.S.
_. /” , ,

8.62 - 8.63

In adjusting the aburetor, or lookingfor hcomct adjustment,

m-mnber that too lean a mixture will causepoor acceleration
or even back-
firingin tie carburetor.Too rich a mixturecausessluggishpickup,makes
the enginerun in a "loping"manner,and may resultin bkck smokein the
,,
exhaust.
Poor compression may be causedby worn rings,valves,or cylinderhead
gasket. It may be detected with a compression meter.
If the muffleris cloggedor constricted
tie enginewill lackpoweror
may stop cc+etely.

Othercausesof lack of power,or what may seem to be lack of power,

includem brakes, slippingclutch,leaksor restrictions in the fuel
line,bad coil or condenser,ignitiontimingoff.
may be causedby worn or scoredcylinderwalls,which
Low compression
will causea bluish exhaustbecauseof tne hign oil consumption.It may
resultfrom leakyor stuckvalves,tighttappetadjustmnt, or a brokenvalve
spring. Poor cylinderlubricationwill reducecunpression and also increase
friction.If the cylinderhead or blockis cracked,tileengineneedsmajor
repairsor must be discaWed. Oftenthis conditionis indicated by the
presenceof waterin the cnsnkcaseor a gurglingnoisein the radiatoras
bubblesar?eforcedintotie coolingsystemby engine compression.
Inanenginewitifourcylinders,tie lossof one cylinderdue to a
cracked sparkplug or leakingsparkvoltagewill resultin a greatpcrwerdrop.
In a six or eightcylinderengineMS loss will be lessnoticeable, and may
even go undetected.
8.63 Ehgjne Conks Out

Any of the difficulties

listedin sections8.61and 8.62may lead to
lIconj&goutl~
: completestoppageof the engine.

In tryingto diagnosewhy an enginequits,noticehow the stoppage

takesplace. If the enginechugsand sputtersas it corksto a stop,the
difficultyoan probablybe tracedto -thefuel system. If the enginestops
suddenlywithouttryingto keep going,electrical troubleis likely.
If the enginecan be madzto run at higherspeedsbut quitswhen idling,
the idle speedmaybe adjustedtoolm.
E~C'J.'RIWTROUBLESwhichcause conkingoutincludethe following:bad
sparkplugs,coil,condenseror points;ignitionwireswet or crackedso that
sparkltar~s out; loosecircuitin primsrycircuitof ignition, possiblywhere
wiresgo -~zhrougha connectorblockon the firewall;loosebatteryconnections;
loosewires in ignitioncircuit. Aconurr~n complaintonsome cars is breakage
of the finewirt-3
within-the,distributorthat carriespowerfr0m the primary
windingof the sparkcoil CO the innerplateof the distributor, and flexes
each time the distributoris advancedon acceleration.
FUEL SYLiENTKIU~US shouldbe checkedas follms: carburetor adjusted
too leanor too ridh;fuelhas waterin it; heat has causedvaporlock in tie
fuel lines,pump,or floatchamberof the carburetor; fuel line clogged;cnoke
platestuokshut;air cleanerclogged;dirt in carburetor needlevalve.
 8.63

I&&? measure
Am k moved
hming ca M,

hm THE DISTRIBUTOR
6.6'4
- 6.70

8.64 LngineconksOut, WillivotRestart

In generalan enginewhicnconksout due to somemaladjustment can be

restartedand run a bit beforeit conksout again. Tne runningintervalmay
be only a few seconds,but tne engineis not totallydead. In the eventtnat
the engineis dead and will not restart,additionaltroublemust be suspected,

liesure tnereis fuel in the tank and that it is gettingto tne car-
buretor If the engineis seriously
l overheated the pistonsmay have seized
in tne cylinders.Tne same thingrraybe causedby lackof oil.

In generalthe notesin section8.10on startingtroublesIMY be used

if therehas beenno majordamageto the engine.

6.70 L&.ne Overheats,

Radiatorijoils
1%e mst c-n causeof an overneatjd coolingsyst&nis lackof suffi-
ci&t water. he sure the radiatoris full of cleanwater. If tne radiatoris
boiling,the greatestcare must De.exercisedin openingthe cap, sincesteam
or bojlingwatercan snootout with greatforce. Put a largerag over the cap
and loosenit only slightlyso thata littlesteamcan escape. Whenno xx-e
steamescapes,cautiously open tne cap a bit x~re untilit is free. keep well
away from tie open radiatorwhileslowlypouringin water.
A car with an overneatedor boilingcoolingsystemsnouldnot be shut
off; tie engineshouldbe left idlingif at all pssible untilsufficientwater
has been addedand the systemnas cooled.
Overneating may be causedby too lean a carburetor
mixture,insufficient
advancein the sparktimiq, low oil level,oil that is too tt&k, overloading
the vehicle,dirtyoil or a cloggedcrankcasesq filter,an obstruction on
the outsideof tne radiatorkeepingair from flowingthrough,chokedor damaged
exhaustpipe or muffler,loosefan belt,inoperative tnemmstat,damagedwater
pump,dilutedor thin oil, slippingclutch,carboncepositsin tie cylinders.
Sincethereare so many causesof overheating,
it is usefulto break
downthelistinto a few symptoms.
hARD STARTJ&G,
poor operationat moderatespeeds,and generallysluggish
performanceis probablycausedby timingproblems. iook for breakerarm wear,
worn or damagedsparkadvance~chanism or a loosedistributor.
NOISYEJilGIiJ'E
and low oil pressuretogetherwith overheating, indicate
lubricationproblems. Oil may be dilutedor of the wrong grade. Sludgemay
have clogged-the
intakefllterinthe crankcaseora screenin the oil pump.
POOR OPERATIONat normalspeedsmay be due to low fuel levelin the
carburetorbowl,causedby the float,or couldresultfrom dirt cloggingthe
jets in the carburetor.

RAPIDTEMPERATURE IUSEwhen the car is startedmay indicatea slipping

or brokenfan belt,or the radiatormay be coveredwith chaff,mud, leavesor
Sane otherforeignmatter.If airflawis normal,the temperature risemay
 8.70- 8.80

resultfrom waterpump problems,dirtin the enginewater passages,

or dirt
or corrosionin the radiatortubes.
POOR VEKKLE PERFORMAKL,even thoughthe engineseemsto run properly,
can probablybe tracedto the brakesor clutch,or may be due to overworking
the enginewith a heavyload.

8.60 Fmny Noises_

In some casesof engineor gearboxtroublethe difficulty can be
l-ted by the sourceof the noise. At times,hmever, the sourceof the
noiseis not evident. This sectionis intendedto aid in identifyingthe
problemby findingthe sourceof the noise.

As a starttowardisolatingthe noise,determine whetherit is the

~samewhetherthe vehicleis rovingor standingstill. If it is the sme, the
problemis probablyin the engineor clutch;if the noise changestihenthe car
is not mving, or if it stopscompletely, the problemis more likelyin the
wheels,drivetrain,or body. It shouldbe rem&kredthatsornenoisesare
causedby the road surface. Try the car on a differentsurfaceif this is
suspected.For example,the soundmade by tireswith big lugs in the tread
movingoncertainQpesofrcad.isvirtuallythe same as the soundofworn
gearsin thedifferential.
ROARINGUNDERTHE HOOD is usuallythe resultof exhaustgasesescaping
fromthe exhaustmanifoldor the pipe leadingto the muffler. This soundmay
be quietwhenthe engineisidlingandthen increasegreatlywhentheengine
is laboringunderaload.
A HIM SQuEALnvGnoise from underthe hood,especially at high engine
speeds,is usuallycausedby a glazedfan belt slippingover the pulleys,or
by a failingwaterpump.
SOUNDOFRATlLIi~GMARBLESwhenthe engineload is increased, such as
on a hill,is called%nockin~~r It may be causedby the use of a poor grade
of gasolineorincorrectignitiontiming.
SQUEAKINGNOISESgenerallyoccurneartieengine,and= usuallythe
resultofadrybearing. Checkthe bearingat the centerof the fan to see
if it is overheated.The generatorshaftbearimgmy be hot as tie resultof
too littleoil. Squeakingcan alsobe causedby worn generatorbrushes,or
by a loosefan belt.

PROP= SHAFTNOISEZmay - fromworn splinejoints,loosebolted

flangejoints,wornbearings inthedifferentialorthegearbox,lackofgzease
in the Universaljoints,or worn or idssingneedlesin the universaljoint
bearings.
PROPELLERSkiAFT
NOISFSmay coma fromworn splinejoints,loosebolted
flangejoints,worn bearingsin the differwtialor the gearbox,lackof grease
in the universaljoints,or worn or missingneedlesin the universaljoint
bearings.
 AXLE N‘OISEScan be localizedsomewhatby observingwhetherthe noise
occurswhen the car is nr>vingunderpawer,coasting, or both. If it only
rndcesnoiseunderpower,checkthe pinionbearingsin the differential for
excessive wear or grit. Thesebearingsmightalsobe adjustedtoo tignt.
If the noiseis heardwhen coasting, the ring gearand pinionmay be adjusted
too loose;also dheckfor wear or grit in the pinionbearings. If the noise
is heardboth underpowerand whilecoasting,checkfor a worn universaljoint,
damagedaxle shaftbearing,looseor worn differential side bearings,worn
pinionor ring gear teeth,pinionadjustedtoo.deepinto the ring gear,loose
or worn wheelbearings, or grit in the pinionbearings.
FRONTWHEELNOISEcan resultfrom loosewheellugs or lug n;lts,worn or
brokenfrontwheelbearings,a blisteror bump on the tire,need for lubrica-
tion,or scoredbrakedrums.
REARWHEELNOISEcan usuallybe tracedto loosewheelhub nuts,worn
differential,loosebrakebackingplate,or warpedor draggingbrakeshoes.
Vehicleswith a limited-slip differential
are subjectto a peculiarcnattering
noisefrom the rear end if the differential
is filledwith the wronglubricant.
KLUNKIN~WHILE:TURNINGusuallyindicatesscmethingloosewhichbangs
againstthebodyofthecar. Examplesare a shockabsorbermountbrokenoff,
a loosemuffleror exhaustpipe,or such unlikelybut co-n troublesas a
beer can inthetoolboxorarock orirarblein the pickupbody rollingaround.
A solidklunkaftera turn can also indicateexcessiveend play in the axle
shafts.
A MEZMLIC BANGINGNOISEwhen the car goes over a bump can indicateworn
or missingshockabsorberrubberbushings, worn rubberenginemounts,a broken
spring,the radiatorcap or gas fillercap hanginglooseon its chain,a seat
belt hangingout the door,or a vehicleso badlyoverloaded that the framehits
the axle.
GEARBOXNOISEcan be tracedto a worn speedorr&er gear,worn synchromz?sh
wheels,worn primarybearings,or tie wrong kind of oil. Lack of oil will
resultin noise,and tie problemcan also be worn gearsin the transmission--
especiallyif one speedinthetransmissionmakes~renoise-thantheothers.
 9.00- 9.20

9.00 TESTSAND TESTINGEQUIPMENT

Whilethe checklistsgivenin section8.00will oftenlocalizea prob-
lem-tothe pointwhereit can be identifiedand repaired,sometimesmore posi-
tive testsare needed. In some casesthesecan be conducted
with materialsat
hand;othertimescertainelmtary testingequipmentis helpful.

9.10 CoolingSystemTests
The ILxmostatcan be testedby puttingit in wateron a stove,and
checkingthe tempemturewith athemmeter. It will be possibleto see the
thexxxxtatopen and close;the temperatures
shouldconformto the car manual.

Oil in the radiatorindicates

that the blockmay be crackedor a gasket
leaking. Test the compression
of each cylinderwith a co=rcial pressure
gaw. The cylindersshouldtest to within20 pounds(1.5KG/cm*)of each
other;a cylinderwith low compressionindicatesa leak. (See9.20for test
metiod.1

If air or exnuastgas from the engineleaksinto the coolingsystem,

the water levelin the radiatorwill rise and somewaterwill be forcedout
the overflW tube from the radiatorfillerneck. When the engineis stopped
the waterwill returnto its naturalleveland it will be necessaryto add
rmxe waterto the radiator.Air can be forcedthrougha poor sealon the water
pump,orexhaustgas canenterthecooling systemthroughalealcing cylinder
head gasket. To test for air or exhaustgas in the coolingsystem,run
theergineuntilit is warm. Put the lowerend of the radiatoroverflowhose
into a bottleof water. Remxe the regularcap fromthe radiatorand replace
it with a coverthat only sealsthe top edge of the fillerneck;a pieceof
old innertube rubberheld in placewith a flatboardpressedon the radiator
by handwill servethe purpose,or an old radiatorcap can be modifiedinto
atestcap byremxalof thelowerpressureringthatproavdes fromthe under-
sideof tie cap. If bubblesccme from the overflowtube in the bottleof
water,air or exhaustgas is gettinginto the coolingsystem.
Specialtoolsare availablefor testingradiators, consistingof a hand-
operatedpump and a pressuregaugedesignedto fit over the radiatorfiller
opdng. The pump is used to buildup pressurein the systemso leakscan ‘bz
located. The gaugeindicates whetherany pressurehas been lost. Operating
pressurein the coolingsystemgivesmuch the sameresults,exceptthat the
mechanicmust work on the radiatorwhen it is dangerously hot, and thereis
no px~sure gaugeto detecta slc~leak. As anexpedientitmaybepossible
to make a hole in the top of the radiatorto connecta pressuregauge,which
shouldindicatewithinone pound (0.1KG) of the ratingstampedon the cap.
The hole wouldhave to be sealedafterthe test. If the radiatordoesnot
achievethe properpressurethe enginewill overheat.
9.20 EhgineTests

VACUUMGAUGEtestsare made by puttinga oxu~~~rcialvacuumgaugein the

intakemanifold. Sam vehicleshave connections for this purpose;on cars
with vacuum-operated
windshield tiipers
the vacuumhose to the wiperscan be
used. On othercars it may be necessaryto drilland tap the manifold;When
9.20

this is done it will be necessaryto fit a plug to fill the hole for normal
operation.

The gaugeshouldindicateabout17-21inches.(43-53cm) of vacuum

whiletheengineisidling. When the throttleis suddenlyope,l-,:d
and closed,
thegaugewill dropbelaw 5 (12 cm), cltitoabout25 (62 cm),andthenreturn
to norYnal.

A steadilyreadingof less than 16 inches(40 cm) indicates

awcm "Jlgine
in need of beingoverhauled.If the gaugeis steadyat law speedsbut vibrates
at high speed,weak valvespringsshouldbe suspected.If the needlevibrates
at 1~ speedand is steadyat high speed,checkfor worn valveguides. If the
gaugedropsintermittently to about4 inches(10 cm), a stickyor burnedvalve
may be the problem.

A quickcheckfor worn pistonrings,as indicated by consistentlylaw

vacuumgaugemadings, is to put a spoonf~fi of heavyoil into the suspected
cylinder--or all the cylinders.This will temporarilyalleviatethe problem
as the oil closesthe leaksaroundtherings.
If-thegaugereadingisverylm, look for a leak in the intakemanifold
or the carburetor.To find this leak,applyheavyoil (gearboxoil, for example)
to the jointbetweenthe engineblockand-theintakemanifold, andto the carbu-
retorioints. Iftheidle speedofthe engine increasesas theheavy oil is
put on a joint,temporarilysealingit, that spot is leaking. In some cases
theleakmaybe sobigthattheoilwillbesuckedinwithoutanychange inengine
speed. A new gasketmy be neededif tightening the boltswill not closethe leak.
If the vacuumgaugefloatsup and dmn slowlyover a rangeof about
4 or 5 inches(lo-12cm), the carburetorprobablyneedsadjustmsnt.If the
rangeis only about2 inches(5 cm)onthe gauge,look for sparkplugsthat
are gappedtoo close.
WATER.INTHE OIL is much the same as oil in the water (seesection9;10),
andindicatesthat the engineblockis crackedorthe headgasketis leaking.
As atest to confimnthe presenceof water in the.oil, dip a few dropsof oil
frm a hot enginewith the dipstickand drop it onto the hot exhaustmanifold.
If it sp+ads and sakes away thereis no problem;if it spitsand sizzlesas
tie waterboilsout, a leak must be suspected.

THE AIR FILTERcan be testedeasilyby remving it, Startthe engine

with the filteron, and then removeit with the enginestillrunning. If the
engineincreasesspeedwithoutthe filter,the filtershouldbe replacedor
cleaned.
COMPRESSION 'l"iST
requiresa.comrmcialcompmssiongauge,whichmeasures
the prWXUre of the air mixturein the cylinders.To make the test,rermvethe
air cleaner. Blockthe throttle'andchoke fully open. Remove all the spark
plugs. Put the ompression gauge in each of the cylinders
while manking tie
enginefor severalturns,ahd recordthe readingfmm each cylinder.The
highestand lowestreadingsshouldbe within20 pounds(1.5KG/d) of each
other,and ea& cylindershouldpush -thegaugeup to at least70 or 75 pounds
(54.25 KG/cr& on the firstrevolution.
 9.20- 9.40

Readings"hat are higherthan specifiedby the manualindicatecarbon

deposits. Lcrwcompression on one cylinderindicatesa leakyor burnedvalve,
If the pressureclimbs10 to 20 pounds(0.7-1.5KG/cm2)on each revolution
and then slipsdown again,'leaking pistonringsshouldbe suspected.This can
be testedby puttinga spoonfulof oil in the cylinderand checkingagain. If
this improvesperformance, the ringsare pmbablywom; if it doesnot, the
valvesare stuckor worn.

If two adjacentcylinders
have lcrwreadings,
the head gasketis probably
burnedoutbetweenthem.

9.30 ClutchTests
SLIPPIHGWJ'K3-I can be foundby parkingthe car with the frontend
againstalargetree,or by connecting the rearendto atreewith a sturdjr
cable. Startthe engineand put the car in its lawestgear;let up the clutch
as tioughto~ve the tree. The engineshouldstallas soon as the pedalcomes
up a little. If the pedalgetsnear the top of its mvement beforethe engine
stalls,it should'beadjusted. If the engineneverstalls,the clutchis
slipping.
9.40 DriveTrainand SteeringTests
To test an axle shaftfor an invisiblecrack,cleanit with gasoline
and wipe it,dry. Hang it up with a pieceof wire or stringand strikeit with
al-r. Solventand oil will be expelledfrom the.crackby the vibrations.
To see whetherthe frontor rearwheelbearingsof a oar are making
noise,put the vehiclein two wheeldriveand driveit. If the noisedoes not
changewhen the car is underpoweror coasting,the frontwheelbearingsneed
work;if the noisedoes change,tie rearwheelsare worn.
To test for a specificdamagedwheelbearing,jack up the suspected
wheel. With the brakeoff and the gearboxin neutrdl,spin the.wheel
by hand
and listenfor a gratingsound.
RALL OR ROKER BEARINGScan be testedafterEIIKY.&and carefulwashing.
Dip the cleanbearingin keroseneor Dieselfuel for twrsry lubrication.
Supportthe innerringwith the fingers,and spin the outerring. It should
turn freelyand coastto a stop. If anotherwashingdoesn'tmve the grit,
the bearingshouldbe replaced.

In checkinga bearing,also look for split,crackedor brokenrings,

b~~ballsor~~ers,orb~~separators. Ifthebearinghas abluish
in the rings or racewayand shouldbe discarded.
colorit has been overheated

EUOCKAMORE%RS can be testedby si-tzting

on tilefenderor bumperover
the suspectedshockabsorber.Jump off, and note whetherthe car risesand
staysup or bounces. If it bouncesthe shockabsorberis probablyworn.

Anothertest is to I?e'lTove
one end of the shockabsorberfrom the
mmt*. Pull the shaftall the way out, snd then pressit in. ,Itshould
go in slowlyand evenly.
 9.40 - 9.70

STEENNG PARTSshouldbe cheokedwi-th the frontendoff the groundon

ajackstandorother support. If the steeriq wheelturnsmore easilythan
when the car is driving,the causeis probablya worn ball jointor steering
knuckle. If steeringis stillhard with the wheelsoff the ground,disconnect
thepitmanarmfxunthedraglink. This will indicatewhetherthe problem
liesbetweenthe steeringwheeland the openedjoint,or beyondthat point
towardthe wheels.
A BENT WHEELwill causebad shinmying,and can easilybe tested. Jack
up the suspected wheel sl,ightly
until;itjust clearsthe ground. Spin the
tire,and lay a rock or brickbesideit on the groundas a-referencepoint.
The tire shouldbethe S~IE distancefrwnthebrickallaroundits &cum-
ference.
9.50 Fuel SystemChecks
THE F'ILLJ%WmuSthave aventin it to preventavacuumfx-ombuilding
up in the fuel tank as fuel is used by the engine. To test the cap, mve it
andattempttoblow throughit. The hole need not be large--even a tiny pin-
hole is adequate,sincethe rate of fuel use is very slaw. With somepollution
controlsystemsthereis a valvein the fueltankcapwhichmaymake it impossi-
ble to blczwthrough. If cap malfunction is suspected,try runningwith the
cap looseto preventvacuumbuild-up.
THE FUEL PUMP
. can be testedwith a pressuregauge,which is often
includedon~ vacuumgauges. Tne gaugeshouldindicate3 to 6 pounds
(0.2-0.4KG/cm21of pressurefor most vehicles. The gaugeshouldbe inserted
bydisconnectingthelinebetweenthefuelpump andthe carburetor,andsub-
stitutingthe gaugefor the carburetor.
Another&eck,whichrequiresno special-equipment, is to seehowmuch
gas thepumpmxes. Disconnect the carburetor
line and let the hose from the
fuel pump squirtinto a bottlewhilecrankingthe enginewith the startermtor.
It shouldbe able to nrlveabouta pint (0.5Liter>in 30 seconds.
9.60 BrakeTests
The simplesttest of the brakesis to run the car and see whetherthe
brakesq able to stop it properly.
If the brakeson one wheelare suspectedof not working,jackup the
wheel,spin it by hand,and applythe braketo see whetherit stops.
9.70 tiimrv Electrical
Tests

systemcan be dividedinto two parts: the primarysystem

The ele&trical
and the ignitionor secondarysystem. The primarysystemincludesall the
lights,horn, battery,generatoror alternatorand fuses.

TESTS. To see if the batteryis completely

BAlT'EXY dead,try to make
asparkacross the terminalswith apiece ofwire or the handlesof a pair of
pliers. Itshouldmakea substantial spark.

: ,,I, ‘,1

,r
 9.70

An excellentbatterytest is to turn on the headlights and disconnect

the centerwireof the sparkcoil so the enginecannotstart. Cnanktheengine
with the startermtor. If tie lightsdim only slightly,the batteryis satis-
factory;if they go out or get very dim, the batterychargeis low or thereare
corrodedconnections.

can also be usedto test the battery. mve

A hydrwrreter the cap from
cellson top of Ihe batteryand stickthe hose intothe liquidin the firstcell
whilethe rubberbulb is compressed.When the hose is in the liquidslowlyre-
leasethe bulb to draw liquidinto the tube. .Whenthe floatin the tube is free
of the bottom,read the specificgravityon the floatitself. Most hydron&ers
compensate for temperat=. The differenoeisr&enough-to be significant in
locatingadefectivecell or dead battery,hmever. If the specificgravity
variesmore than .025or .050betweencells,the batteryshouldbe replaced.
A chartof specificgravityreadingsis providedin section20.14.
GENERATORPROBLEMSare oftenconfusedwith voltageregulator problems.
To differentiatebetweenthe two, star-the engineandsetit atafastidle.
Test the voltageat the batterywith a voltrreter;
on a 12 volt batterythis
chargingvoltageshouldbe 14-15volts. If you have no voltmeter, checkthe
brilliance of ,iheheadlights
with the engineoff and with it runningat a
fast idle. If the li&ts are brighterwith the enginerunning,the generator
is probablyall right.
As anothertest,assumingthat the ammetershowsno chargeto the
battery,rmrovethe wire leadingto tie "Field"terminalon tie voltage
regulator.Run the engineat a fast idle,and mn-entarily connecta piece
of wire fmm tie "Field"terminalon the regulatorto the Y3attery11
terminal
on the generator.If the mter indicatesa charge,the generatoris all
ri&t and the voltageregulatoris at fault.
If the mter stillshowsno charge,the generatoris not producing
powerand the regulatoris probablyall right.
GENERATORTESTSincludevisualinspection for solderdropsaroundthe
casingoverthe armature,indicatingthatthemturehas beenoverheated;
it will probablyhave to be replaced.The connnutatorshouldbe slightly
purple;it shouldbe mth and withoutridges. Slightridgescan be I?lemoved
with sandpaper.The brushesshouldbe free to slidein theirholdersso they
meet the corsnutator
firmly.

ALmi'OR TESTS,for vehiclesequippedwith an alternator insteadof

a generator(see10.53)requirethe use of a carbonpile type mzter. This is
a combinationvolim&er and amur&erusinga specialtype of rheostat'within
the meter case. The connectionsfor the meter vary from car to car, and the
serviceIEKUXI.shouldbe consultedfor the propertestmethod. In this test
the alternatoris not connectedto the voltageregulator, and it is important
to keep enginespeedlow to avoiddamageto the alternator.It is also
essentialto observecurrentpolarityin thesetests,followingthe service
manual,or the diodesin the alternator may'beruined.

VOLTAGEREW0R is most easilytestedby substitution:replacethe

unit in question with an identicalone knownto be in good condition,
either
taken frcm mother vehicleor a new one.
 TO BE TE STEDo

iJUI t&U OF FU SE ON
BATTERY TERM INAL, IF
uul-u Li GHTS, THE
FUSE IS WORK I NG.

TESTING A FIJSE
 9.70

FUSESmay be blown,causingfailureof certainelectrical accessories.

If it is not evidentwhich fuse is blown,make a test lightby armnging a
panellightbulbwitha socketandwireleads. Put one of the wire leadson
each end of the fuse in question,&ile it is stillconnectedin the circuit.
If the bulb lights,the fuse is blown;if tie fuse is in good conditionit
will shortcircuitthe light,and thebulbwillnotshine. (Seesection7.81.)

If it is hot possibleto test a fuse in thismanner,remve it from

its holder. Put one wire from the test lamp on one end of the fuse,and the
otherwire fmmthetestlampto thebattery. Whentheotherendof the fuse
is placedon the 0th~ terminalof the battery,the cement shouldflaw through
tilefuse andlightthe bulb.

my differin some cars. The BritishLand

POLARITYOF THE BATI!ERY
Rover,for example,has a positivegmund and mst kuerican-made vehicleshave
negativegmund. This polaritymust be carefully observed,or the batteryand
possiblythe generatoror voltageregulatorwill be damaged. If the car is
markedfor positiveground,connectthe positivepole of the batteryto the
fmm2 of the car;on negativepolarity,connectthe negativepole of the
batteryto the chassis.

If in dmbtasto the polarityofabattery due to themarkingswearing

off, a potatocan be used to find theplus and minuspoles. Connectwiresto
eachpole ofthebattery,andpushtheotherends intothe cutfaceofhalfa
potato,abouta quarterinch (6 rmn)apart. Bubbleswill form aroundthe nega-
tivewire.
STARTERSWITCH.Thereare twobasic typesof startermitchesin use:
the solenoidtype and the directtype. bst carshave a solenoid, in which
tie key operatesa smallrelay,or solenoid, whichcontrolsthe currenttothe
Car. If this deviceis suspected of beingdefective,it can be bypassedwith
ascrewdriverbladeorthehandlesof apairofpliers andtiemtor should
crank. Similarly, if a directswitchof the Land Rovertype is suspectedof
beingdefective, it can be shortedwiti a screwdriver
blade.
'IKESTARTERMCYIORis oftenthoughttobe atfaultwhenacarwillnot
start,butbeforewo&ingonthe starter,checkto see thatthebatteryis
well-charged.Tumontheheadlights andcrankthe startermtor. Ifthelights
go.out,the batteryis weak or the connections are corrodedbetweenthe battery,
St&r&g switchand starting@or. If the lightsget dim and the rotorturns
very slmly or not at all, the enginemay be overloadingthe startermtor.
See iftheenginecanbecranked:byhand;if~t,suspectheavyoil,tie;ht
bearingsor pistons,or water in the cylinders.If it can be turnedby hand
but not by the startermtor, the motormy have worn bearingsor a bent shaft.

If the lightsti brightduringthe test,but the engineis not being

cranked,thereis an open circuit. Electricity
is not reachingthe starter
n&or. Checkthe starterswitchas indicatedabove. If thesemeasuresfail,
-thestarterriotor
itselfshouldbe examinedfor failure.

'Thestartermotor,sinceit actuallyoperatesonly a shorttime,does

m-t oftenfail. Themstcommncauseofstarterfailuxeis brusheswhich
9.70- 9.80

rmot reachthe connnutator, eitherbecauseof wear or pitting. The brushes

can sometimesbe replacedwithoutdismantling the motor. They must be replaced
with new ones designedfor the motor. If the comnutatoris pitted,it can be
repairedin the sag way as the generatorcommutator.Eitherof thesepmb-
lemswill causesparkingbetweenbrushesand commutator.

9.80 IGNITIONTESTS
NO SPARKcan be causedby eitherthe primaryor ignitioncircuitof the
Car. As a checkof the primaryportionof the sG&ark circuit,'turnon the igni-
tion switchand crankthe engineby hand or by pushingthe car very slowlywhile
in gear. The anarreter
shouldIIy)ve
up and down as the coil is alternately
engaged
and disengaged.
If it doesnot, the problemis usuallya looseor w connection
in
the wiringbetweenthe battery,ignitionswitch,breakerpointsand coil. The
pointsmay be so corrodedor mis-alignedthat theydo not connectproperly.
If the mter doesIlove up and down as the engineis turnedby hand,
the primarycircuitis functioning
and the secondarycircuitsshouldbe tested.
SPARKTZX may be easilyaccomplished by pullingoff a sparkplug wire
and cap and holdingthe end of the wire abouta quarterinch (6 mm) fern the
engineblock. Whentheengineis crankedbythe startermotorthereshouldbe
astrongsparkbetweenthewire andtheblock. If the sparkplug cap is ,covered
by a rubberboot,put a screwdriver insidethe boot and wedge it into the cap
as an extensionof the conductor,thenhold the screwdriver bladeabouta quarter
inch (61run)fromtheengineblo&.
SPARKPlUGSmaybe checkedifthey are suspectedofcausingroughrunning
by remving tie wire to one plug at a timz and seeingwhetherit makesany
difference in the operation.Ifmving awire causesthe engineto run even
worse,the sparkplugwas contributing to engineoperation.Ifrenovingthe
wire does not make any change,thatsparkplugwas not operatingand shouldbe
replacedor cleaned.
A furthertestof a sparkplug is to rzxrxeit from tne engine,being
carefulthat no dirt fallsintieopenhole. Connectits wire,andholdthe
metalbase of tie sparkplugagainsttheen,$neblock. Cranktieengine,and
thereshouldbe a sparkacrossthe electrodes; if thereis not, the plug is
probablyshorted.
SPARKPLUG COLORcan indicatea lot aboutthe conditionof the spark
Checkthe conicalinsulator aroundthe electrxlein the centerof the
!22* Itshouldbe ligntbrown. If it is tihite, the engineis too ilot,tne
m&t&e is too lean,or the heat valueof the sparkplug is too law. Lf it
is dry and black,the fuel is too rich,the engineis misfiring, or the heat
value'ofthe plug is too high. If it is blackand wet, oil is sen.pinginto
the cylinderpast tne pistonringsor valveguides.

THE DISTRIWL'ORmay be easilycheckedin conjunctionwith the coil.

First,checkthe coil and breakerpointsby pullingthe wire fzxrnthe center
te?xlinal
of the distributor.Hold it near the engineblockand crankthe
enghe,which shouldcausearegularpatternof sparks. If it does,a spark
 9.80 - 9.90

is goingto the distributor.11~ pull off one of the outsidewiresand

replacethe centerone. Try the testagainusingthe outsidewire Wnichhad
been connectedto a sparkplug. Again,thereshouldbe sparksfrom the dis-
tributorto the sparkplug.

IGNITIONCABLEsometimes,.@zomes driedout, or the wire insideit may

be broken. Even smallleaksin$Jie~outside insulationmay preventstartingor
properoperation~flhecar. Th‘ee&iest way to look for electrical leaksis
towaitfornightandthencMnkthee.ngine in-thedark,whenescapingsparks
can be seen. As a furthertest,connecta screwdriver's n-&albladeto the
engineblockwith a pieceof wire. The bladenow acts as an extensionof the
pund potential.Move the bladealongthe suspectedignitionwire or around
ttlc:
distributorcap to see if an open sparkcan be produced.
:l'Eiz:
CONDENSERis insidethe distributor, and it is sometimes
hard to
telltihetherit is at faultor -Idle
coil is not workL)gproperly. For this
reasonit is usuallyreplacedwith the pointsas a routinemeasure.
AS a check,disconnectthe condenserand turn on l&e ignition,
but & not
exe.+the engine. Open and closethe breakerpointsby hand,and see whether
a sparkjumpsacrossthe pointgap. If it does,the condensershouldbe sus-
pectea;if thereis no spark,the coilis probablyat fault,
IGNITIONTIMINGcan be checkedwith a vacuumgaue. The highestread-
ing of the gaugeindicatesthe best timing,but to avoidenginespeedfluctua-
tionsit is best to back off on the advanceuntilthe vacuumdropsaboutone
quarterinch (6 mm).
Timingis rrorecomly checkedwith a timinglamp,a smallneon bulb
whichis lit by the ignitionvoltage. This lamp shouldbe connected between
thelJun&rOne sparkplugandthe groundterminalof the battery,and the beam
dir%?-edontietimingn-arks on the flywheelrim. As the engine~LI.U the
flashesof lightwill make the timingmarksappearto standstill. Changing
thetimingbyturningtie distributorwillmskethetimingmarks on the fly-
wheelappearto IIIc>ve
aheador backward. Sometirresit is easierto see the
timingmarksif tiey arewhitenedwithchalkorpaint.
9.90 EihaustTests
lEAkINGCAR.BONMONO~Ecanoeaseriousmatter, andshouldbe remedied
imnediately.To checkthe exhaustsystemfor a leak,squirta smallamountof
oilorkerosene intothe airintakewith theengine running. Ibrk smkewill
~omeoutthe exhaustpipe,andwillindicateany leaks. As anextracheck,
closethe e&au& pipe with the hand ~tarily, imr&iatelyafterinjecting
theoilorkerosene. This will~sultinbackpressurewhichwillmakeleaks
IIKWZevident.

FWST GAS COMR is indicativeof many engineconditions.Blacksmoke

indicatesthe carburetoris set too rich,the inletfor the air filteris
blocked,or the filteris dir@. It can also mean that the valveseatsare
defective,causinglow compression.

Blue-my e&au& colorindicates oil consumption.This coloris m33?e

easilydetectedif.theengineis allawedto warm up first,then idled,and
the accelerator
pedalis then quicklypushedto tie floorand released.
 Whiteexhaustcolorindicates waterin the exhaustsystem,either
from condensation
in the mffler or a loosehead gasket.

HOT EXHAUSTMANIFOLDcan indicatethat the valvetimingis wmng, the

valvesare not seatingcorrectly,the valvespringsare worn or broken,the
manifoldheat valveiG stuck,or the emaust line is partiallyblocked.
10.00 SHOP TECHNIQUES

The earliersectionsof tiismanualhave describedroad procedures ana

such diagnosticand repairwork as couldbe undertakenin the fieldby the
driver. This sectionwill considerinformation for the mchanic, although
the driverand mechanicmay well be the sameperson,and techniques tihich
are
bettersuitedto shopwork than fieldexpedients.

The checklist can be used eitherin the fieldor in the shop,as very
few of them requireany specialequipn-mt.Theseare describedin section8.00.
Oncethe problemhas been located,repairscan be made.

Most or&nary operations are describedin the shopmanualfor each

vehicle,and thereis no need for duplicationhere. Therearemany useful
suggestionswhichare not coveredin the shopmanuals,however,and somebasic
operationswhichare assumedto be understood by the readerof the shopmmual.
Suggestionsin this sectionare intendedto be withinthe scopeof a smll shop
with relativelysimpletools,and to be undertaken by the mechanicwithoutvast
experience.
10.10 GeneralShopHints
Thereare many suggestions
regardingworkingpractice,both for safety
and convenience
in fhe shop:
Do not wear fingerringswhileworking. Tney causeshortcircuitsin
electricalwiring,and can get caughton things,ming the ring or the finger.
If oil is spilledon the floor,cleanit up promptly. Sawdustwill
soak it up, or sand can be used for this purpose.
Spilledgasolineis a firehazard,and shouldbe moved or allawedto
evaporatebeforework continues.
BASICHINTScan be appliedto any of severaloperations
in the shop.
when removinga wheel,gear,or otherpart tiat must be replacedin
the samorientationto a shaftoranothergear,mrkthe matchingpoints
with a dimplemade with a punch. A markingpen can also be used,but be
carefulnottowashoffthemarkings with gasoline.
To identifypartsin storageor mark themwith an orderin whichthey
were rermved,useamarkingpen.
When disasserribling
an unfamiliar
machine,lay out the pieceson the
flooror benchin tie orderthey are rermved. To reassemble,startat the
end and work back. .;

To bend smalltubing,put a sectionof springinsideit to keep it

frorflcollapsing.Tightlypackedsand can also be used.

To repairdentedtubing,fill the bent sectionwith smallballsfrwn

a bearingand drivethm in with a hammr, openingup the dentedsection.
;.

10.10

Beatingon tie threadedportionof a studor bolt with a hammerwill

damagethethreads. Put a nut, or, better,two nuts,at the end of the bolt
and beat on the nut instead.

Similarly,tie end of a shaftwill "rnusMV if it is beaten. For

this reasonthey usuallyare suppliedwith the lathecentersleft in them,so
thatapunchcanbe insertedinthe centermarkandthe mechaniccan-r
the punchinsteadof the shaftend. If the shaftis alreadymushroo~d and
must be repaired,it can be filedor grounddown. If a latheis available,
it can be placedin the latheand turneddown.
A stuckbolt can be rxrovedwith LiquidWrench,a type of penetrating
oil. If the head is damaged,sonxztimesa pipe wrenchwith teethwill hold it.
If a screwdriver
sloth&d is damaged,saw anotherwith a hacksaw. If the
threadsare darnaged,somettis they can be restoredwith a smalltriangular file.

A brokenbolt or stud can be removedwith a bolt extractor.%asy-Outl~

is the most cQmmDnbrand,and has becomea term for the tool itself. A hole
is drilledinto the end of the brokenbolt,and the boit extractoris threaded
into the hole. Sinceit has lefthand threads,it will turn the bolt out when
it has jamnedin the drilledhole.
To I?eTIIDve
astudwithoutdamagingthethreadswithapipewrench,put a
nut on the bolt so that it is flushwith the top of the stud. Drilla srrall
holeatthe crackbetweentheboltandstud,parallelwiththestud. Put a
smsllpin in the hole,lockingthe nut to the stud. It is thenpossibleto turn
the nut with a wrenchand renxxethe stud.(See illustmtion.)
Ifastudisnot jamnedtootightlyit can s-times be renovedwith
nuts. Screwone nut on the studand then add the second. Holdingone nut
-i3~~
with a wrench,turn the otheragainstit untilthey are lockedtogether.Turn
the lawernut to I?eTIIDve
the stud.
To removea rustednut, drillseveralholestiugh one side,-then
split
the nut with a cold chisel.
When cuttinga bolt or otherthreadedrod, put a nut on beforzcutting.
Then turn the nut off aftercutting,and the nut will cleanup the roughend
of the cut bolt.
To renovea gasketin one piece;soak it with varnishrenoverfor
severalminutesbeforetryingto get it off. The mver may be appliedwith
abrushorrag. It is best to use a new gasketwhenevera jointhas been opened
if possible,sinceonce compressedthe gasket cannotadequatelyfill the tiny
holesin the n&al, makinga completeseal.

Whereheat is not a factor,the plasticlid of a coffeecontainermakes

goodgasketmaterial.

To n~asurefor a gasket,put paperover the openingand tap gentlywith

a smallhamnerto mark the holesfor bolts,the outeredge,or any otherfeatures
thatmust be cut. Lift the gasketoff and trim it with a Ia-Lfe
or scissors.

I.,,, ,.

, -,A% ., 1 ,I.
 IO.IO

THREAD NUT ON END OF STUD

DRILL SMALL HOLE HERE AND

INSERT A t IAIL OR DRILL BIT TO
LOCK NUT TO STUD

-- TURN NUT WITH WRENCH TO

-_:
._.. REMOVE STUD
..

STUD TO BE FIEMOVED

TO KEMOVE A STUD
W ITt-IOUT lYb4AGING
THE THREADS
10.10- 10.22

Jackingup a car is easierif tie jack is underthe axle. A bumperjack,

orajackunderthe frameof the car,mustliftthe chassisfirst,then the
springswill liftthe axle.

A part thatwon'tquitefit can oftenbe made to go by heatingthe larger

portionand coolingtie smallerone. A bearingthat can'tfit over a shaft,for
example,can be heatedin boilingwateror a hot ovenwhilethe shaftis cooled
in ice. The expansionwill mke enoughdifference in size to allowfitting.

To pack a bearingwith grease,put some greasein a s&J plasticbag

andthrwinthebearing. Closeoff the end of the bag and kneadit to pack
the g-easebetweenthe ballsor mllers. The samebag may be kept in the shop
and used again,sincelittlegreaseis used each time.

In countrieswith frontierroads,vehiclebodiesusuallyare spiled

beforethe engines. Save the engineson derelictcars and use them to operate
generators,fimepumpsiirrigation pumps,weldingmachines,agricultural
machinery,C~reSSOrs, or any of a hundredothermachines.
10.20 Drivetrain,gearboxes,differentials
10.21 Axles
--
when an axle shaftis broken,it is oftenimpossible to guesswhich
shaftbroke. Put a screwdriver in the oil hole of the differential
to jam,
the gears,the-~try to turn the wheels. 'Thewheelthat tums freelyis the
onewiththe brokenaxle.

To remve an axle shaft--one of tie most conmn shop (andfield)opera-

tionsinthebush--jackupthe endofthe axlewiththebroken shaftso that
the oil will run dowh to the differential.Removethe wheel and brakedrum
and the cap over the end Ff the axle. Unfasten-theaxle andpulloutthe
shaft. If the otherend is stuckinside,it may be possibleto remve the
axle shafton the otherside and push out the brokenportiopwith a smll
diamter rod. Otherwise, the differential
mst be takenapart--ajob best
done in the shop.
10.22 Differentials
Dismantlinga differential
is not hard,but reassembly is sometimes
rare difficult.It is especially
importantto be sure that each part is clean
beforereplacingit, sincethereis no way to flushdirt out once it is all
assembled.
If replacingall or part of a differential,
be sure the gearratiois
the samas theoriginal. On a ToyotaLand Cruiser,for example,the differ
entialmay have aithera 3.70or 4.11reductionratio.

Inrmst4WDcars the fmntandrear differentials are interchangeable.

The rear one gets the mst use, and if it is damagedit may be possibleto
switchwith the frontone.
 10.22- 10.30

A limitedslip differentialdividesthe torqueequallybetweenthe two

wheels,regardlessof the road surface. This reducesslippingon mud or ice
and resultsin greatlyimprovedtraction.This type of differentialneeds
speciallubricant.

10.a3 Wheel Bearings

Assemblingball,rollerorneedlelxaringsif oftenfrustrating because
the ballsor rollersfall out. Use heavygreaseto hold them in placeduring
assembly.

Installinga rolleror ball bearingshouldbe done carefully, so that

strainis not put on the sidesof tie races. If the bearingis to fit over a
shaft,pressit on witi the innerring;if the bearingis to fit intoa hole;
pressonly on the outerring. Donotbeaton the bearingwith ahamer,which
will damageit. Use a woodendriftor a softn&let if it is necessaryto 1
beat the bearingintoplace. It is sometimes possibleto use heat to help
seat a bearing,as describedin section10.10.
10.24 UniversalJoints
Beforeroving a universaljoint,mark its relationship
to the two
shaftsso that everyGing can be masse&led in the samzway.
To get a U-jointapartis not difficultif thingsare done in the right
order. Washthe jointcarefully,andremvetheclipsholdingthebearing
cups into the yokes. Supportthe jointand tap on the flangeend yoke to drive
thebearingthroughthe splineshaftyoke. Pull thisbearingout,beingcareful.
not to spillthe bearingsfrom the cup. Repeatthisoperationfor the opposite
side,and take the splinedshaftyoke off. Abrass orwccddriftcanthen be
used to driveout the otherbearingcups.
To get the U-jointback together:assemblethe needlesin the cups,
usinggreasetoholdthminplace. Put the spiderjournalintothe flange
y&e, put the bearingunderthe end of the spiderjournaland tap it into
position. Put the'retaining clip in positionat tie end of the cup to hold it.
Put the next bearingcup underthe end of the spiderjournaloppositethe
installedbearingand tap it intoposition. Replacethe clip. New put the
cups ontheotherends of the joumal,andinstalltheclips. Ifthereis a
dust coverover the joint,replaceit.

On SOJE jointsit is possibleto put one bearingcup into eachyoke on

the bench,then fit the spiderinto it.
10.30 Fuel System
A leakygas tank can oftenbe fixedwith LiquidSteelepoxywi+but
remvingthe+~ fmnthe vehicle. The areaaroundtheleak shouldbe clean
anddry. .

Soapwillmakeatemporarypatchinaleakingtank.
 :,:...: .
,. )( <; , .

10.30 - 10.31

A leak can alsobe solderedor welded,but this operationis very risky

becauseof the explosivegasolinevapor. The tank shouldbe removedfromthe
car and washedcarefully with soapywater,insideand out. Fill the tank to
the top with waterto driveout the f-s. It may be possibleto weld the
tank with the waterinsideif the wateris drainedto belowthe levelof the leak,
whichshouldbe at.the top of the tank.

To solderthe tank,sandpaperall aroundthe leak to cleanit, and

applysolderingflux. Heat the tankwith a torchuntilthe solderwill melt
on the tank,not sparelyfm the heat of the torch. Flow solderover the leak,
and allowit to cool slowly.
If the carburetor
is roved it is a good idea to coverthe o&ing
so that loosematerialdoes not fall into the intakemanifoldand cylinderti.
Carburetor adjustmentcan be accomplishedwith the vacuumgauge. Ad-
just the main jet by runningthe engineat 1500 to 2000RPM, screwthe needle
valvein untilthe enginestartsto falter,then adjustit outwarduntilthe
highestvacuumis obtained. If thereis an idle jet on the carburetor, adjust
*while lihecaris runningatafastidle. Screwthe valvein untilthe engine
falters,and then out to tie highestvacuumreadingas above.
The carburetorcanbecleanedwithany ofanumberofcomrcial
preparations,of whichGwM>utis the author'schoice. Lacquerthinneris an
acceptablesubstitute.
10.31 Adjustingthe Choke
On carswith manualchokecontrols,no adjustment is necessary.The
chokebutton,when pulledout on the dashboard, operatesa cablewhichpullsthe
chokeplate in the carburetorto reducethe air supply. To checkit, remove
the air cleanerand have a helperoperatethe buttonwhile observingthe plate
insidethebarrelofthecarburetor. It shouldmove from fullyopen to fully
closed.
An autocratic
chokeis s-what mre complex. To checkit, mve the air
to the floorwiti the enginecold. The choke
cleanerand pressthe accelerator
plateshouldcloseover the carburetorbarrel. Whenthe engineis startedthe
ch&eplate shouldopengraduallyuntil fullyomed.
Do not put oil on the linkagefor the choke. Jointsshouldbe cleaned
with a c-r&al solventsuch as Gumout,or witi gaso1i.n~.
Thereare two basictypesof automaticchoke,both operatedby engine
heat. To adjustthe typewhich is locatedbehinda roundcoverplateon the
sideof the carburetor,the coveritselfis turned. With the enginecold,
loosenthe retainingscrews,rotatethe coverone notchin the desireddirec-
tion--leaneror richer+-and tighten-thecover.

The secondtypeof autmtic chokeis set into a depression in the

intakemanifold. With the enginecold,removethe coverholdingthe choke
controlinplace andgently~vethecontrolmedhanism. It will be marked
 10.31 - 10.42

to indicatewhichway to adjustfor rich or leanmixture. Loosenthe lock-

nut, changethe adjustment,
tightenthe lo&ut and replacethe controlin
the manifold.
On Sony oldercars the automaticchokeis operatedby a spiralheat
coil in the acceleratorlinkageto the carburetor.This coil turnsacamwhich
holdsthe chokevalveclosed. As engineheat warmsthe metal coil it slowly
turnsthe cam to disengageit from the chokeplatelever.

10.40 Brakes
Cleanlinessis especiallyimportantwiti tie brakingsystem,and dirt
in the systemis a frequentcauseof trouble. Beforeworkingon any part of
the brakelines,cylinders, mastercylinder:etc.,cleanit very carefully.
Partsremovedfrom the systemshouldbe washedin alcoholor brakefluid,not
in gasolineor kerosene. If an air compressoris available,a blastof air will
oftencleanthe partswell withoutcontamination.
A small-diameterplastictube can be used to siphonbrakefluidfrom
a five galloncan to a smallercontainerfor use. The tasteof brakefluid
is very disagreeableand difficultto overcome,so it is best to siphoncare-
fully.
10.41 Adjustingthe Brakes
When the ,pedai
goes downnearlyto the floorbeforethe brakesstop the
oar,they shouldbe adjusted.It shouldneverbe necessaryto pump the brakes.
Some 4WD vehicleshave self-adjusting
brakes. To adjustthis type
drivethe car slowlybackwardand applythe brakepedalfirnily severaltimes.
Then go forwardandcheckopemtion. The excesspedaltravelshouldhave been
eliminated.
On othervehiclesthe brakesare adjustedmanually. They use a cam
whichforcestheends ofthebrake shoesapartwhenturned. To adjustthe
brakes,jack up a wheeland spin it by hand as thoughgoingforward. Turn the
adjusting nut or starwheeluntilthe shoemovesinto contactwith the drum
and stopsthe wheelor dragsit. Fkessthe brakepedalsharplyto centerthe
shoesin-thedrum. Then back off on the adjustrrkent
untilthe shoeno longer
rubs on the drum.Repeatthis operation on eachwheel.
With eitherthe self-adjusting
or manuallyadjustedtype,if the pedal
stillgoes downtoo far,orifthe shoecannotbe adjustedtoreachthe drum,
new liningsor new drumsare needed.

Disc brakesdo not requireadjuswnt but additional

brakefluidmay
be neededtokeep the reservoirfullasthe pads becomewornthin.

10.42 Bleedingthe Brakes

Brakefluidis quitethick,and the bleedingoperationmust be carried

out aftertie lineshave been openedso that air can be removedfrom the
system. Ifthebralcepedalfeelsspongy,thereis probablyairinthe line,and
bleedingshouldovezxzneti problem.
lo'.42- 10.43

In bleedingtie brakes,startwith the wheelhavingthe longestline to

the mastercylinder,and work aroundto the shortestone. If the vehiclehas
powerassistedbrakes,.theengineshouldrat be operatedwhilebleedingthe
brakes,and the reservevaculrmshouldbe removedby applyingthe brakesseveral
timesbeforestartingbleeding.

Two peopleare neededfor the bleedingoperation.Put aboutan inch

(2.5an) of brakefluidin the bottomof a snal.1 glassjar, and put a pieceof
smalldiameterrubberor plastictubinginto the fluid. Put the otherend of
the tube over the bleedingnippleon thewheel. It shouldbe a tightfit over
the roundedportionof the nipple. Loosenthenipplewithawrench. Have the
assistantslowlyp~thebrakepedaltoexpeltheairfromthebrakelines and
the bleedingtube. Pump the brakepedalslowlyuntilthereaxe no bubblescoming
out of the tube,refillingthe brakefluidreservoir on the mastercylinderif
necessary.When rrc) nore bubblesappear,tightenthe bleedingnippleand mve
the tube. Repeattie operationon eachwheel.

Nevermix typesof brakefluid. Use only the type specified

by the
vehiclemanufacturer.

In some vehicles,
hydraulicclutchesmust be bled in conjunction
with
the brakes. The shopmanualwill indicatewhetherthis is necessary.
10.43 ReliningtieBrakes
A rivetedliningshouldbe replacedwhen the headsof the rivetsare
nearlyexposed;a bondedliningshouldbe replacedwhen thereis &out l/16 of
an inch (1.5nm) of liningleft. Son&in-esa car operatedin sandwill have
badlyscoredbrakes,causedby sandgettingbetweenthedrumsandthelinings.
Inthis casebo'chtheliningandthe drumwillhavetobe replaced.
To rxove brakeshoesfor relining,renovethe drum by takingoff the
wheel,iwvi.ng the drvmretainingscrewsandpullingoffthe drum. Unhook
the springswhichreturnthe brakeshoesto the center,pryingthemoff with a
big screwdriver.Ma& the springsso they can be replacedcorrectly.mve
the springholdingtie shoe againstthe backingplate (if any). Spreadthe
shoesapartat the top and remxe them. The springholdingthe bottomends
togethercan then be removed.
Ifthebralcedrumsarebadlyworn,the shoesmay get stuckhagroove.
It may be necessaryto slackthe shoeadjustmsnt
in orderto back the shoesout
of the grcovebeforethe drum can be renxxed.

If new shoescannotreachworn drums,it is possibleto obtainovep

size linings. Anothertrickis to put a collaron the adjusmt whichspaces
the Shoesapart,usinga shortpieceof pipe.

Iftherubberparts of abrake cylinderare damaged,it is possibleto

get a cylinderrebuilding kit ratherthan replacethe entirecylinder. It
is much easierto put tie rubberpartsin placeif they are lubricated
with
b&e fluid.

After relining,a brakemay drag if it is not possibleto back off the

adjustmmtenoughto keep tzleshoeoff the drum. If this is suspected, drive
the car and then feel the wheelat the centerfor heat. Alternatively, jack
up tie wheel and try to spin it; it shouldrotatefreely.
 10.43 - 10.52

DISC BRAKESaxe more easilyhtained than drumbrakes. tie pads,one

on each sideof the revolvingdisc,applypressureto stop the car. Although
designsvary scxnewhat,
the pads are generallyreplacedby one of the two basic
mthods. On one typethe pads are held in placeby a heavywire retainer;on
theothertypethe~~talhousingaroundthepadsmustbe removed. Thebrake
pedalmustnotbepmssedwhile the pads are beingreplacedorthepressure
pistonswill be forcedout and it will be neces&ry to bleedtne system. Xo
adjusmt is usuallyrequiredon discbrakesalthoughit may be necessaryto
add brakefluidto compensate for pad wear.
10.44 TheHandBreke
The hand brakeshouldbe kept in good conditionso that it can be used
to stopthe oar in an emergency.It is less subjectto suddenfailurethan
the hydraulicbrake. Usuallythehandbrakeuses acable arrangmnttopull
the brakesshoesin the wheels. Sam cars,such as the Land Rover,have a drum
brakeon the driveshaft,separatefrom the wheelbrakesystem.
Repairsto thehandbrake are usuallylimitedtoadjustingthe fme
rmvvt of the lever,sincethe liningsrarelywear. Tensionin a cable
to removeslack. See also
type brakeis usuallyadjustedwith a turnbuckle
section10.41.
10.50 Electrical
Repairs
10.51 Battery
Batteryacidwill ruin clothingor car upholstery.If it is spilled,
neutralize
it with mnia or bakingsoda,and wash with liberalamxnts of
water.
A dead batterycan be chargedwith the car'sgeneratoror with a
sepamte batterycharger.A very satisfactory batterychargercan be built
withasmallgas engineandacar generator, and the costofopenationis
much lowerthan for the vehicle'slargeengine.
It is not necessaryto rcrrove
the batteryfrom the car to chargeit.
When connecting the charger,however,it is essentialthattheproperpolarityI
be observed:the positivechargerwire must be mnnected to the positivepost
of the battery,and the negativechargerwire to the negativebatterypost.
As aquickcheckofwhetherthe batteryis charging,look insidethe
fillerholesfor smallbubblesof hydrogengas releasedby the chargingpro-
cess. This gas is the reasonwhy a batteryshouldonly be chargedin a well
ventilatedarea.
In coldweathera batterywill not take a chargewell, and belaw 5
degrees'Fahrenheit
(-15degreesCentigrade) it becomesvery hard to chargea
battery.

10.52 VoltageRegulator

A batterythat needswater frequently

may be receivingan overcharge
throughthe voltageregulator,assumingmat it is not leaking. The voltage
regulator,as most shopmanualswill indicatesis virtuallyimpossibleto repair
10.52 - 10.53

withoutelectronictestingequipment.Some adjuswnts can be made as described

be&m, but usuallythe best answerto voltageregulatorproblemsis a new regula-
tor.

As a firstcheck,disconnect
the batteryand hold down each relay.
The contactsshouldclosefirmlywith a very smallspaceleft betweenthe ama-
ture and the coil core.

To adjustthe closingvoltage,connectthe batteryand put a DC volt-

meterbetweenthe "Gen"and "Gnd"terminalson the relay. Raisethe engine
speeduntilthe cutoutrelaycloses,and note the voltage. If it is not as
indicatedin the shopmanual,it can be adjusted.To raisethe closingvolt-
age,bend tie relayarmaturespringpost to stretchthe spring. To lowerthe
closingvoltage,bend the post down to loosenthe spring.
10.53 GeneratorRepairs

Most difficultieswith generators

are causedby overloading or by
foreignmatterinsidethe generator housing, Overloading may resultin enough
heat in the generatorto causedamage,but this is not a comm problez If
the outputof the generatoris not enoughto keep the batterycharged,and
if it is knownthat the voltageregulatoris in good condition, the generator
can be adjusted. The shopmanualwill provideinstructions on thismatter,
whichusuallyinvolvesrovingthe thirdbrushin the directionofirotation
of the commutator.
If sand or grit gets into the generator,
extensivedamagemay be done
to the comnutator.The best soluticmis to take the armatureout of the genera-
tor and munt it in a latieto turn dcm the conmutator.If no latheis avail-
able,one end of the shaftcan be held in the chuckof an electricdrill. If
no powertoolsare available, leavethe armaturein placearidput a pieceof
fine sandpaperbetweenoneofthebrushesandthe damagedccmmtator. Turn
the generatorshaftbyoperatingthe engineatlcw speed,and the sandpaper
will cleanthe roughspotsfmm the comnutator.
When installingnew brushes,whichmy be necessarywhen the generator
doesnot indicateany output,put sandpaperaroundthe comutatorwith the
grit side facingoutward,againstthe brushes. Hxe the comutatorback and
forthslowlyby hand,and the sandpaper will fit the brushesto the curveof
the conunutator
semts.
Many cars use an alternator
insteadof a generatorto provideelectricity.
The basicappearance and connectionsare the same,but an alternator is generally
shorterand of largerdiameterthan a generator.An alternator generatesal-tee
natingcurrent(A.C.)which is then changedto the directcurrent(DC.1 needed
for the batteryby a groupof diodes. Thesediodes,lookinglike very small
wkd. cans are delicateand easilydamagedby reversedpolarity. In service,
hmever, an alternator oftenlastslongerthan a generator, and it has the
advantageof providingchargingcurmntatlaw enginespeed.
 10.54 - 10.55
10.54 tightSystemRepairs
Troublein the ligntingsystemis usua/lly
indicatedby fail- of
the bulbsto shine. Lquallystraightforward,
!thesolutionto tne problem
is usuallyreplacw& of tne affectedbulb. I

One suggestionfor electricalwork underthe dashboard:the modern

vehicle is so crowdedwith wiring undertnis area that it is a good idea to
disconnect the batterybeforestartingwork. This will eliminatethe
possibility of blowingfusesor causingotherdamageby shortingterminals
with a screwdriveror pliers.
An ailn-entof the ligntingsystemthat can causea greatdeal of
confusion and yet is very easy to find is the resultof shortcircuiting
of wiresto the frameof the vehicle. If no othercausecrm be foundfor
blownfuses,or for lightsworkingin the wrong combinations (suchas the
dome lightcomingon with the headlights), checkfor this possibility.
The mDst corxmonspot for such troubleis where the wiresgo tht-cugh body
panels. For example,checkthe hole wherewires go tmugh the back of
the vehicleto the tail lightsto see whetherthe edge of tilesheetmetal
has cut throughthe insulation on the wire. Similarproblemscanbe caused
by a shortcircuiton a terminalblock or a wire connector, possibly
resultingfrom saltwater,corrosion, or a bit of metalthat must be removed.
I

10.55 wtion Repairs

Thereare severaleMrents in the ignitionsystem,any one of which
may need repair. In some cases,mxe than one elementwill need work,
n&ing it very difficultto locatethe problem.
SPARKPLUGSmust followthe recorrpIlendations
of the shop manual.
Five threadsizesare in ooxruxon
use: 7/8 inch,l/2 inch,18 mn., 14 mm.,
and 10 nm. The measm-t is the outerdiameteracrossthe threads. Using
thesebasichole six!s,a vast varietyof sparkplug designsis available.
The lawerend of the.shel1shoul.dbe evenwith the innerwall of the engine
cylinderhead. If the plug is too long,it will run hot. If it is too short
it will be fouledby e&au& gas fornved in the pocket. The lengthof the
insulator tip belowthe insulatorseat gasketdetermines the rate of heat
flow from the centerelectrodeto the coolingwaterin the engine,and
thereforesets the "heatrange"of the sparkplug.
Sparkplugs shouldbe adjustedto the srrallestgap recorded by
the shopmsnual,so that as theywear the gapwillincreaseuntilit reaches
the JMxirmmallowedin the specifications. As an example,if a gap of
between,032and .036inches(0.8nm. and 0.9 mm.) is specifiedby the
manual,set the gap to .032inches(0.8mm.).
To set the gap, bend only the side electrode.The centerone will
breakeasilyif any attemptis made to bend it. Bend the electrodedown
towardthe centeruntilthe feelergauge,set for the propergap, just
fits betweenthe two electrodes.New sparkplugs shouldbe checkedfor
propergap, sincethey are XUUV@ ,setcorrectlyby the rranufacturer.
 When workingwith the sparkplugsor the distributor, it is useful
to rrrark
the wiresso they can be returnedto the properplugs. If they do
beconescrambled, theymust be rearrangedaccordingto the firingorderof
the engine. This is usuallymarkedon the engineblock. On the 2.5 liter
Land Roverengine,for example,the firingorderis moldedinto the engine
blockcasting:l-3-4-2. This ,meansthdt the frontcylinder, numberone,
firesfirst. Then thethirdone backfromthe fro&,-thefourth,andthe
second,in that order.

To replacea sparkplug afterservice,screwit fingertightinto the

cylinderhead untilit mets the copperring gasket. Tightenwith a torque
wrenchif avail&le to the tensionspecifiedin the shopmanA. If no torque
wrenchis available,it can be improvised
as shownin section14.50.
BREAKERPOINTSare insidethe distributor.Unlike sparkplugs,they
shouldbe set to the high end of the recommended
range,sincethe gaps decrease
with wear.
The pointsshouldseparateat or near the TDC (topdead center)mark
on the flywheel,in accordancewith the shopmanual. If they open too early,
or beforeTDC, the enginewill not developfullpowerand may kick backwhen
cranked. If they open too late,therewill be only a sluggishresponseto
openingthe throttleandthe enginewill be underpowered.
The timingcan be set with the enginestoppedor running. To set
timingwith the enginestopped,take the distributor cap off so the points
are visible. Referenceis made to tie timingmarkson the flywheel, turning
the distributorhousingso that the pointsopen at the correcttimingmarkas
describedintheshopmanual. At the same t& it is necessaryto set the
gap betweenthe points. Most carsprovidea notchin the pointframeinto
whicha screwdrivercan be insertedas a leverto move the fixedbreaker
point. Loosenthe screwholdingthepcintfran~inplaceandadjustthe gap
witithepointsfullyopen. The feelergauge,set to the correctgap
thicknessas showninthe shopmsnual,shouldfitsnuglyinbetweenthe
points. Nowrecheckthetiming,sincetie two adjus-tments interact.

Axroreaccuraten&hodis touse atiming light,whichis inserted

inthecircuittotheNumberOne sparkplug. Disconnectandblockthe
vacuumadvance-hibe.The engineis thenstarted,atidle speed,andthe
timinglightis usedto illuminatethe markson the flywheel.As the
distributoris turnedslightlyone way or the other,the timingmarkswill
appearto mve forwardor backward. On some cars thesetimingmarksare
veryhard to see, and a dab of whitepaintor chalkwill greatlyimprove
visibility.

TEE IGNITIONCOILrarelyneedsrepaiqandwhen it does the only

practicalthingto do is replaceit. The coil shouldbe replacedwith an
identicalone if possible. If it is necessaryto use a replacement of
anothertype,besure thatitis correctlywired.The primsrywiresare
usuallymarkedas to polarity,and the tlplust' sideof the coilmust be
connectedto the ltplustt
side of the car's wiring. It it is installed
b;aclaJardtherewillbelow~erandmisfir~athi~engine speeds.
”

10.55- 10.56

THE IGNITIONWIRINGis oftenan unsuspected sourceof t&uble.

Unlikelow voltagewiring,the wiresto the sparkplugscan "leak"
electricity.Wet wiringwill oftenstop an engine;if the sparkplugs
and the wiresare driedwith a softrag -theproblemmay be solved. If
the wiresare oldand driedout,theremay be smallcracksfromwhich
pawei:is leakingto the engineblockor othermetallocatednearby. To
checkfor this possibility,park the car in the dark and crankthe engine,
lookingunderthe hood for sparks. A type of spraylacqueris available
whichwill tempomily solveleaksin the wires; otherwisethey should
be replaced.

THE CONLENSEXinsidethe distributoris usuallychangedwhen new

breakerpointsare installed.The condensershouldbe the type specified
by the manufacturer,sincethe wrongtypewill affectenginepower. If
the condenseris too small,the movingarm of the breakerwill developa
depositand the fixedportionwill have a crater. If the condenseris too
large,the reversewill be true: acrater in the movingarmand a deposit
on the fixedportionof the breaker.
THE IGNITIONCIRCUITis basicallyvery simple,and can be traced
withlittledifficultywhentheelements are understood.Fromthe battery,
the powergoes throughthe ignitionswitchto the "plus"side of the coil.
side of tie coil is attachedto the frameof the car. (On cars
The '?nir~us~~
with positivegrounding, however,this is reversed.The only such vehicle
in cxgmm use is the band Rover,on whichthe "plus"sideof the battery
is attachedto the frame.) This connection to the frm of the car fmm the
coil's'Pnir~'~ side is nmde throughthe breakerpoints,which act as a
switch. When the pints are closed,the currentfl~s -throughthe coil,
and when the pointsopen,the currentstops.
In the high-voltagecircuit,thereareevenfewerparts. The high
voltageis producedby the buildupand collapseof the powerin the spark
coil;from thereit flowsto the centerof the distributor.Insidethe
dicstributor
thereis a rovingswitch,the rotor,whichconnectsthe center
wiretoeachoftheoutsidewires inturnas the rotor-. The perthen
flowsfromthe coil-Wcu.ghtherotorandthrou&awiretoasparkplug,
whereit jumpsacrossthe gap to the fram?of the engine.

10.56 StarterRepairs

As indicatedin 9.70,the starterdoesnot oftenfail. Most repairs

are identicalto thosefor the generator.
Intheeventthatthe starter,engaging gearorengineis jmd,the
startermay be ov+rheated in tryingto turn..In extra2 casesthe windings
on the armaturemay be damagedby the heat. This conditionis best detected
byreplacingthearmaturu:.Adamaged arm&urewindingcannotbe readily
repaired,and a new unit is generallyused.
The wiresconnectingsepmts of the fieldwinding,arrangedaround
the insideof the cylindrical
case,can alsobe damagedby heat or by stones
and otherforeignmatter. They can be rejoinedand tapedsecurely.

The startercan be bench-tested

for briefperiodsby connecting
it
to asuitablebattery.

:,’
,’

10.60- 10.61

10.60 Repairsto tires,alignment,

steering,springs,etc.

10.61 SteeringRepairs
Problemswith steeringare oftenthe resultof many smalladjustmznts
needingonly minorwork;theirsum,however,is enoughto make steering
difficult.Perhapsthe rest connoncomplaint with steeringon fourwheel
drivevehiclesis shimny,whichrraybe causedby loosepartsor by tireswhich
are out of balance. Since4wL,vehicleson frontierroadsare rarelydriven
at high speed,tire balancecan oftenbe ruledout.
S&y can oftenbe correctedby goingsysterraticdllythroughthe
steeringsystemlookingfor looseconnections.Afrequentproblemis
looseness betweenthe steeringbox and the chassis,but the same sortof
looseness anywherein the systemcan causeshinmy. In the event&&this
doesnot solvethe problem,and tire balanceis satisfactory, an easy
solutionis to purchasea steeringdamper. This is adevice verymuchlike
a shockabsorberwhichis attachedto the tie rod, and whichworksmiracles
for old 4WD cars.
WHEELALIGNMENTis very difficultto adjustproperlywithoutspecial
equipmt rarelyfoundin a snailshop. SOIE guidancecan occasionally be
hadfrompatternsoftirewear, but on frontierroadsthe tiresare usually
rupturedbeforethey are worn enoughtoLshowany pattern. For the sane
reason,however,thereis not usuallymuch need for concernwith alimt
on roadswhere speedis low. The wheelsusuallydo not need alignmentunless
thereis collisiondamageor a similarmajorproblem.
Threefactorsare involvedin tire alimt: CASTERin a 2WD
vehicle,is the inclination from verticalof the kingpin,comparedwith the
road. The vehiclehavingball jointsinsteadof akingpinrneasures caster
by the anglethat the ball jointsare tiltedto frontor rear. Tilt to the
frontis regardedas negativecaster;to the rear is positive. CAMBER,the
secondfactor,is the angleat whichthe wheel is tiltedto the side,that
is, the anglebetweenthe centerline of the wheeland vertical.The third
factor,and the most importantas far as tirewear is concerned, is TO&IN.
This is the differencebetweenthe~s -tat the frontandattheback
of the tires,from the centerof one fronttire to the centerof the other.

TOE-INADJUSTMENT can be managedwithoutcomplicated equip-t, but

it shouldbe done carefully, sinceit is the greatestwear factor. Jack
up the frontend of the vehicleand supportit securely.Spin the tiresby
handandmake a-line aroundtheroad surfaceby holdingthe chalk
againstthe turningtire. Use a nail to scribea verynarrowline inthis
chalk,holdingthenailfirmly in ablockofwoodresting on the floorso
it cannotshift. Drop a plumbbob or use a big carpenter's squareto trens-
fer the rrarkat the frontof the tire to the floor,and then do the same at
the rearofthetire. Withouttouchingthe steeringor mxing the wheels,
do the sane for-theotherfronttire. i"leasUre the distancebetweenthe
twofrontmarks andthe two rearmarks. The difference is the toe-in.This
shouldbe adjustedin accordance with the shopmanualby lengthening or
shorteningthe tie rods.
i: ,.,, +yi ,‘;“,, .,‘> :
yy,.<.y; ,, ., ‘.’ ,, ‘. ‘; ‘_(‘, ,

“”

10.61
Lihonoteson steeringsystems:

Ball jointsin the steeringrods can becomerustedto the point

wherethe ball slipsout of the socket. In tis conditionthe car cannot
be steered,althoughtemporaryrepairscan be made with a pieceof heavy
wire. When checkingthe steeringsystem,try to move the ball jointsto
be sure of theircondition.
Somepartsof the steeringsystemare interchangeable betweenleft-
hand and right-handdrivecars. Someare not. The steeringrod rim from
the steeringwheelto the gearbox,for example,is not the sa1~2on both right-
hand and left-handdrivebandRovers,and if the wrongrod is used the car
will steerin reverse-- goingto the rightwhen the wheel is turnedto the
left.
 10.62
10.62 TiresandWheels
Remval of the wheelfmm the car is describedin section7.60.

I PLACE PLANK ON TIRE

P WITH END OF PLANK
JUST CLEAR OF WHF !=I

DRLVE CAR UP PLANK

TO BREAK BEAD

03 TURN
REPEAT
TIRE
AS
AND
OFTEN
AS NECESSARY

TO FREE TIRE FROM WHEEL

 10.62

To get the tire off the rim usinghand tools,firstbe surethat

all the air is out. The easiestway is to remDvethe core from the valve.
Then free the tire from the steelwheelwiY& a heavyhannrer, or in em
casesby layingthe tire on the ground,placinga plankon the tire,and
drivinga carontotheplankto forcethe tire downand away fromthe steel
wheel. When the tire is free on both sides,standon one portionof the
tire so that it will fit into the depressionat the centerof the wheel.
Pull the tire off the oppositesidewith a tire iron,then work it off the
wheelall the way around. With one side of the tire free,the tube can be
pulledout for repairs. If necessary, the othersideof the tire can be
rwxwed in the same. way.
Same largetiresare mxnted on splitrims. This type of wheel is
made of two similarpieces,boltedtogether. To remxe the tire,deflate
it and rerrovethe boltsholdingthe sidestogether.The sideswill then
come apart,andthetire canbe renxxed. When puttingthis type of wheel
together,be surethe tire is not pinchedbetweenthe halves. Thereis
usuallya protectorflap betweenthe tube and the wheel to help eliminate
this problem.
TUBE PATCHINGis not a difficultjob once the leak has been found.
To locatethe leak,inflatethe tube and s*rge it in a tub of water.
Bubbleswill indicatethe locationof the leak. The tub need not be big
enoughto hold the entireinflatedtube,sinceone portioncan be done at
at*. A pond or brookcan also be used for this purpose. If no leak
canbe found,checktobe surethe valveis holdingair. Put a short
pieceof hose over the valveand put the otherend in a jar of water. If
bubblescome out of tie hose,air is leakingthroughthe tire valve.
Thereare two principaltypesof tube patches: hot and cold. The
coldpatch doesnot hold as well as the hot one, but in some areasit is
mxe easilyobtained. It consistsof a srmllpieceof rubberand some glue
with which to attachit over tie hole. To use this type of patch,clean
the areaaroundtheleakcarefully. Apply the cementto the area aroundthe
leakandto the patch. I&the cmtdry,andthenputanotiercoatof
cementonthepatchandpress it inplace. Work out the bubblesby rolling
thepatchwithabottleoraroundstickinthe s-manner-as abakermaking
pie crust.
Ahotpatchneeds smwhatnvnvnvnvnvnvnvnvnvnv
specializedequipmant,butthetools
=x&expensive andtheresults arebetterthanwiti acoldpatch. Scrub
the areaaroundtheleakwitiawirebrushorwiththe smallscraperpro-
videdwiti the patchkit. Peel off the white coveron one sideof the patchand
laythepatchagainsttheleakwithits n&&backing facingoutward. Clamp
tiepatchinplacewiththe smallclampprovidedwiththekit,andsetfire
to-thepatchwithamatch. Tneheatvulcanizesthe rubberto the tube,
malcingapermsnentpatch.AfterallowingtocooJ.,re~~~~ve the clamp.

Tubelessths are not oftenused on 4WD vehicles. If such a tire

is pressedsidewaysby a largerock or some otherobstruction,or if it is
pinchedbetweenthe logs of a bridge,it is likelyto come free fromthe
wheelandleakair. Smallleaksintubelessttis canberepairedwithplug
patchessold for the purpose,smtinres withoutren~vingthe tire from the
wheel. Intheeventofalargerpuncture,however,thetiremustbe discarded.
,^” j

10.62

The author,facedwith the lackof a vehiclewhen no ,tires were

available,has %ewrP largerips in tire sidewallsusingheavywire. The
wire,about 8 gauge,is insertedlike staplesthroughthe sidewallfrom
the insideofthetire. The outsideends are foldedover to securethe
wire. A tire boot or a pieceof old innertube shouldbe placedinside
the tireat the pointof repairto preventthewirefromdamagingthe
inflatedtube. This type of repaircannotbe recomnended for high-speed
tl?avel,
but it is a satisfactorysalvagemethodfor low speeds. It can
oftenbe used to restoreto servicea tire with a lot of usefultread
whichhas been rippedby stones.

Old innertubesshouldneverbe discarded, no matterhow badly

damaged. They can alwaysbe cut up to make tire patches,gaskets,or
replacementsfor smallsprings.
REASSEMBLINGTHE TIRE on the wheel is not any harderthan getting
it off. Wire brushany rust or scllle off the rim,and if thereis time
or need this is a goodtime to paintthe rim. Applya mixtureof brake
fluidand graphiteto the bead of the tire -- the portionthatwill touch
the steelwheel. This makes it easierto get on and easierto renovethe
next time.
Jam the wheelinto one sideof the tire opening,tippingthe wheel
sothatthe droppedcenterportionisagainstthebeadofthetire. The
tixe ironscan then be used to pull the rest of the bead aroundthe wheel.
Insertthe tube,lubricating it with soapywater,get the valvethrough
the hole in the wheel,and be surethat the tubewill not be pinched
betweenthe tire and the wheel. Then leverone sideof the remaining bead
of the tire into the smallercenterpart of the wheelso that the rest of
the tire can be leveredinto the wheel. The tire shouldthen be centered
on i%e wheel and the tube inflateduntilthe tire "pops"onto the rims.
Then reducepressurein the tube to that specified by the manufacturer.
There are machinesavailablewhichwill accomplishthe removaland
replacementof tiresand tubesin a rratterof seconds. SOREare manual,
othersuse airpower. In a shopwheretire &anging is a frequenttask,
thesetoolsare a veryworthwhileinvestment.3x1~mdels cost under
$100,and save vast aTzy)unts
of tin-e
and work.
To seat a TUBELESSTIRE on the wheel for inflating,tie a rope
aroundthe tire treadlike a belt,and wind it up with a tire ironor a
big screwdriver.The bead will spreadapartand touchthe wheel,making
it possibleto inflatethe tire. It is almxt impossible to inflatea
tubelesstirewithahandorfootpump. An air con4xessor or a small
pump usingair from the vehicle'scylinderis a necessitywith this type
of tire.
TIRESWITH V-LUGSshouldhave the lugs pointingforwardat the
top of the wheel. This providesthe best tractionand makes the tiresself-
cleaning.The sparetire on a vehicleof this type,if it is to be sub-
stitutedfor a dmagedtire for a substantialperiod,nmy need to be
reversedon its wheel.
 10.62- 10.63

TO MOUNTTHE WHEELon the car, set it on the studsand put on the

lug nuts fingertight. Thesenuts must be pulledup tightor theywill
work off and ruin the studs,possibly-
droppingthe tire in the process.
To avoidwarpingtie wheelwhen the nuts are tightened,move to a nut
oppositethe last one tightenedratherthan goingaroundthe wheel in
order. See diagramin section7.60.

IUJTATINGTIRESis sometimes
reco~dedbymsnufacturers,buton
frontierroadsis of littlevaluesincethe tireswill be rupturedbefore
the time comesfor rotation.

In addition,tire rotationschemesinvolvethe sparetire,and

vehicleson frontierroadsusuallyrequireseveralsparetires. On roads
wheretire rotationis possible,the followingis the usualorder: right
frontto rightrear,rightrear to spare,spareto left front,left front
to left rear,and leftrear to rightfront. The easiestm&hod for camy-
ing out the switchis to mark each tirewith chalkto indicatewhereit is
to be mounted,then jack up the entirecar and switchtires.
TIRE BALANCING can contribute
to front-endshinnny,but frontier
roadsare usuallyroughenoughto offsetany advantage of balancing.If
balancingis to be done,it is most easilyaccomplished with a tool made
for the purpose. If none is available, cave the wheelon the car, jack
it up, and spin it by hand. Markthebottomwithachalkmarkwhenit
ConEsto rest. Spin it severalWre t*s, each timemarkingthe lowest
pointwith chalk. It it consistently stopsat the sm spot,it can be
ass-d that this is the heavyside,and the tire shouldbe weightedon
the otherside. Attacha wheelweighton the insideand outsideof the
wheelat the top, counterbalancing tie off-centerweightof the wheel
andtire.
Ralancingbythismethodmayresultin Sony improvemzntintire
balance,but it is a poor substitute
for a balancinglevel.
10.63 Repairsto Springs
To remwe a brokenleaf-typespring,jackthe chassisuntilthe
tims a-e clearof the ground. Ren-ove the nuts fi?om
the U-boltswhich
hold the springto the axle,and the big boltsholdingthe ends of the
springto the chassis. The springcan then be removed. To take the
springsapart,I?eMIve the tie boltwhichgoes thr~gh the centerof the
leaves,and they will separate.
To reassemble,put the leavestogetherwith the centertie bolt,and
put the springin positionunderthe car. Fastenthe springto the axle
with tie U-bolts,and connectone end of the springto the chassis. To get
the otherend to line up with the holesin the shackleor the chassis,it
may be necessaryto put a jack underthe axle and raiseor lowerit,
flexingthe spring. Leavethe end boltsslightlyloose,drivethe car
back and fortha bit to seat the springs,and then tightenthe end bolts
securely.This will preventunduewear on the bushingswhich hold the spring
in place.
10.63- 10.70

COIL SPRINGSare not oftenfoundon 4WD vehiclesintendedfor

roughservice. To remxe a springof this type for replacement,first ,
take off the shockabsorberif it is insidethe coil. Then raisethe
chassisso the wheelhangsfree,unboltthe springand removeit. Where
mil springsare used on the frontend of a vehicle,it will also be
necessaryto removea con-trclarm or stabilizer.
10.64 Repairsto ShockAbsorbers
Shockabsorbers, once damaged,cannotbe repairedand must be
replaced. If oil leaksfrom a shockabsorber,for example,it shouldbe
replaced.The sam is true if the shaftis bent or thereis otherdamage.
To replacea shockabsorber,simplyunboltit and take it off.
Put the new one on in its place,usingnew rubberbushingsif possible.
On sa cars the shockabsorbersare held in placeby studsand big cotter
pins,but the principleis the same.
This is an easy job that makesa big difference
in comfort.
10.70 coolingsystemRepairs
THE FANBELTis eas.ilyremDvedbylooseningthe generatormounting
support,swingingthe generator towardthe engineblock,and slippingthe
fan belt off and aroundthe bladesof the fan. Replaceit by reversing
this process,tightening so thereis aboutl/2 inch (1 cm.) of movement
betweenthe pulleys.

It is necessaryto use a pry bar of some sort to pull the generator

away from the engineblockwhen tightening the fan belt. If a new belt
squeakswhen the engineis started,applybelt dressingor soap as a
lubricant.The new fan belt may stretchslightly,and shouldbe checked
for tightnessaftertwo or threehoursof engineoperatingtime.
LEAKSin the coolingsystemcan be tracedby white depositsaround
hose jointsor in the radiatorcore. In hoses,tightening the clampsmay
curetheleak. In the radiatoritself,thereare c-r&al stop-leak
preparationswhichwillblocksmallholes andfixtheprcblem. Ifthecar
must be used whilewateris leaking,loosenthe radiatorcap to lowerthe
pressureinthe coolingsystem. Checkthe water levelfrequently.

If the mdiator has a leaktoo largefor stop-leak preparxtions to

fix, the usualremedyis to solderthe hole. The leakmust firstbe
located;often it is aroundthe jointof the hose connection tube and the
radiatorbody. Drainthe radiatorto allowit to be heated. Cleanthe
area carefullywith sandpaper, steelwool or a wire brush,and heat it
with a blowtorchor a largesoldering iron. When hot enough,flow solder
onto the radiatorto coverthe leak,and allowit to coolbeforefilling
with water.
 10.70- 10.81

10.71 WaterPump Repairs

Difficulty with the waterpump is generallylimitedto failureof

thebearinginthepump. This maybe so severethdttie impellerrubs
againstthe insideof the pump housing,causinga shrillsqueaking noise.
The bearingcannotusuallybe replaced,so the wholepump must be replaced.
To mve the pump for examination,drainthe coolingsystemthroughthe
plug at the bottomof the radiator,take the fan belt off the pump pulley,
andunboltthepump. On mxt enginesthe fan is rrounted on the frontof
the pump shaft,and must be removedto get the pump out of the space
betweenthe radiatorand engineblock.
The pump can be dismantledfor evidenceof bearingfailure. A new
pump is installedby reversingthe removalprocess,usinga new gasket
betweenthepump andengineblocktopreventleaking. The gasketmaybe
sealedwith a corrpnercialcompoundif available.

10.80 ExhaustSystemRepairs
MUFFLERLEAKSmustbe fixedpromptly,notoriLybecause of the
annoyanceof the noise,but becauseof the poisonouscarbonmxoxide which
escapesfrom the mufflerand may get into the cab of the vehicle. A s&l
hole can be fixedby cleaningwith sandpaperand appplyingPlasticSteelor
asimilarhigh-t~ratureepoxyco~und. For a largerhole, cleanthe
area and put on a patchmade from a tin can, sealingit witi PlasticSteel
andsecuringitwithwire. Self-tapping screwscan also be used to secure
the patchto themufflerifthemufflerbodyis not badlyrusted.
Remxingatailpipe orrrncfflerwhichis badlyrustedis more a
matterof controlled destructionthan removal. Jack up the chassisto get
as~~spacebetweenthe~axleandthebody as possible. Then find
the jointwheredisassembly istobemade, andtake it apart: oftenthis
will involvea cold chiseland a'tir to cut off tie damagedpart of the
system.
If a replac-t muffleror pipe is not available, it is sometimes
possibleto make a substitute
by weldingpartsof an exhaustsystemfrom
anotiertype of vehicletogether. It is also possibleto buy flexible
exhaustline,whichcanbe bent to fit any desired&ape.

10.81 EmissionControlRepairs
~recentyearsmanycountrieshavebecome awareofthegr&ng
problemof pollutionofthe a-sphere causedby cars,and arenowrequiring
certainemissioncontrolsto reduceemissions.If not properlyadjustedand
maintained,-they
can greatlyreducefueleconomy.

The PVC (positive

crankcaseventilation)valvedrawsfurres from the
crankcaseinto the carburetorforburning intheengine. It is usuallya
lnetalC#inder,aboutthumb-size,connectedbyahose from-thecrankweor
mcker am coverto tzhecarburetor.To test,mve the end from the engine,
run thepgine slowly,and feel for a s-Q-ongvacuumat the free end of the
hotie.MhenthePVCvalve is sh&en,-thereshouldbe acliclcingnoiselike
a loosemarbleinsideit. If it is defectiveit shouldbe replaced.Most
manufac-hx~2rsspecifyreplacexm2nteveryixoyears. Somztimesthe PVCvalve
can be restoredby carefulcleaningwith a strongsolventlike lacquerthinner
or Cunxxtif no replacementis available.The hosesmust also be clearand
clean.
10.81- 10.91

The air cleanermay have a smallfilterto cleanair beforeit

entersthe crankcaseas part of the PVC system. Metalmesh filterscan
be cleanedin gasoline;fibertype filtersmust be replaced.This type of
filteris usuallya smallplasticdevicelocatedinsidethe air cleaner,
coveringthe endofahoseto the crankcase.

10.90 EhgineRepairs
kst frontiervehiclesfall apartbeforethe enginebecomesold
enoughto need extensivework,whichlimitsthe munt of enginework
neededin a typicalsmallshop. The springsbreak,framessplit,and
axle shaftsare broken,but usuallythe engineand gear-train
donotwear
oyt.
Precisetuningof the engine,and exactadjusmts for fuel
economy,are usuallysecondaryto keepingthe vehiclerunning.
In some cases,takingthe engineApartwill requiresollbespecial
tools. There axe,however,many jobsthat can be done in a srKilshop
with standardtools.

10.91 Valves
Valvesmust seattightlyto seal the cylinders,and failureto do so
will causemajor difficulties.Valvesare made to seatproperl!y
by grinding
themagainsttheengineblockwithan abrasiveccmpound.
 Special <ool can be used tc
compress the valve springs,
making it easier to remove
the keys holding the valve
in place. (Illustration
above.)

Method of adjusting valve

tappet clearance with
feeler gauge to measure
space between valve and
rocker arm. (Illustration
at right.)

One manufacturer's
Q cylinder head bolt
c tightening order.
Similar "inside-out
14 arrangement is used
on other engines.
(Illustration at
left.)
12 6 6 10

I
Q
C Q
0 e e
I

Illustrations courtesy
of Land Raver
10.91

The valvesare locatedunderthe cylinderhead,whichmust be

rwmved for grinding.To removethe valve,compressthe valvespringand
rwmve the two smallsegmentsthathold the springin place. Take out the
valvefromtheheadand inspectforwarping,burningorpitting.Put the
valvesin a numberedholderSO they can be returnedto the sarre
places.

Pl~easmall~untofgrindingc~undwhe~ the edgeof the

valvemets the engineblock. Rotatethe valvearounduntila cleanring
showswheretheedgewill seal. This is rrr0St easilydone with a tool
consistingof a stickwith a rubbersuctioncup on the end. The suction
cup is stuckto the flat faceof the valveand the stickis then rotated
backandforthbetweenthepakns ofthehandstoturnthe valveandgrind
it. When the valveseatswell,mve all the compoundcarefully,since
any residuewill causerapidenginewear.

Compressthe springsand put the smallretainersback in place,

and adjustthe tappetsaccordingto tie shopmanual,and the job is done.
To adjustthe valvetappets,next engineshave screwadjustimts
on the end of the rockerarm. To gain accessto the adjustment,
I-WIDV~the
reekerarm coverwhich is boltedto the top of the engine. Turn the engine
by hand untilthe valveto be adjustedis fullyextendedfrom the engine
block. Thereshouldbe al&tle.spacebetweenthe endof the valveandthe
end of,therockerarm. Loosentheretainingnutthatholdsthe adjustment
szt-ew.Inserta feelergaugeof propersizebetweenthe end of the valve
andtherockerarm. Turn the screwuntilthe feelergaugecan justbe roved
in the gap. Holdingthe adjus~tscrewinplace, tighten-the retaining
nut. Adjusteachvdlveinthisway.
.’ ’

IO,91

PUT SPRING IN VISE. CLOSE VISE.

/WRAP SPRING WITH WIRE TO

-BENCH VISE

TO SECURE VALVE +RING

10.91

One rr&hodof ampressingthe valvespringsis to squeezethem in

a benchvise and securethem with two piecesof wire wrappedaroundthe
coils. When the keys have been put back in place,the wire can be cut
and removed.

In a shopwherevalvegrindingis done frequently, the purchaseof

a valveremovaland installationtoolmay be worthwhile,This is a large
clamprckembljng a C-clampwhichfits aroundthe cylinderhead to pressthe
springsdown.

10.92 EhgineRawal
Somtirnes when a vehicleis out of servicebecauseof majorengine
work,it is expedientto replacethe enginewith one from a wreck. If all
vehiclesin the fleetare of the sametype,this processis made even easier.
The processof ren'ovingan engineis largelydevotedto disconnecting con-
trols,coolinghoses,and fuel connections, and is not particularly
difficult..
Startby takingoff the hood;it may also be necessaryto take off
the fendersor radiatorgrilleon som cars. Wve the batterylinesto
the startermotorandthegroundlinefrom-thebatteryif it attachesto
the engine block. Removethe air cleanerif it is separatelylocated.
Drainthe radiatorand disconnect its hosesfrom the engineblock. Take
off the fan to avoiddamagingthe radiator.Unboltthe exhaustmanifold
frmntheexhaustpipe. Removeheaterhoses,if any. Disconnect the fuel
line,accelerator linkage,chokelinkage,wiresfram the generator, isition
wires,oilpressuregaugewire,radiator-the mter wire. Lifttheengine
slightlywith a hoistand disconnect it from the clutchor gearboxhousing.
In sorxz casesit is easierto takethe clutchout with the engine. Unbolt '
tie enginemunts and lift out the engine,
Replacingthe engineis a matterof reversing
all the abovesteps.
10.93 Miscellaneous
E&he Repairs
REPLACINGPISTONRINGSis generallydone as part of a generalovep
haulofanenginewhichrrcight~soincludegrindingvalvesandnewbearings.
The cylinderheadmustbemvedandthe oil pantakenoff. Unboltthelower
ends of the pistoncrankingarms from the crankshaft and push the pistonsout
the top of the block .working on one at a tinleto keep them in order. mve
the old ringsand cleanthe groovesin the pistonwalls. To put on the new
rings,startwith the bottomone first. Usingthin stripssuch as piecesof
tin cans or feelergaugebladesto keep the ringsfromgoinginto the wrong
grooves,expandtherings 'guidetheminto the correctgrooves. Lacking
a specially made ring compassingtool,a worm-typehose clampcan be used
to squeezethe ~?ings and get them back into tie cylinderbore. The rings
rrarst
be compressed uniformlyaroundthe outsideedge or theywill bind and
breakwhen an attemptis made to push the pistonback'intothe block. When
the p.istonis in placethe crankarm can be boltedon the crankshaft underthe
engine,=placingthebearingsifneeded.
 10.93- 10.94

REPIKING BEARINGSin an engineis not difficult, and can oftenbe

donewithoutremDving the enginefromthe car. Sinceeachengineis
different,it is best to referto the shopmual for the procedure.In
general,it involvestakingoff the oil pan to exposethe crankshaft and
the crankingarms that connectthe pistonsto the crankshaft.The en& 0.F
thesecrankingarms are unboltedand new bearingsput in place,and naV
bearingsare also slippedin aroundthe crankshaft where it is nxxntedto
the engineblock.

After replacingbearings,it is best to run the engineslowlyfor

severalhours,usingpowerfrom anothersource,to %un in" the new
bearings.This is readilydoneby turningthe newlyrepairedenginewith
ano-ther
car, lettingaturningwheelonthe powercar touchandturna
wheelon the repairedcar to crankthe engine. It can also be doneby
towingthe car,although-this canbecometedious.
KNOCKINGis the resultofimproperburningoffuelinthecylinders.
Inprimitiveareaswheregasolineis ofpoorquality,knockingisacon-mon
problem. It is indicatedby a soundlike that of loosetiles rolling
aroundin the enginewhen a load is applied,such as climbinga hill. If
the gradeof gasolineis suspected, a bettergradeof fuel can be triedas
anexperiment. If no betterfuel is available, the ignitiontimingshould
be slightlyretardeduntilknockingis eliminated.Somecars includean
adjustmenton the distributorwhichcan be turnedto make minorchangesin
timingwitioutloosening the entiredistributor.
On an old enginewherewear causesloose-fittingparts,knocking
can be the resultof worn crankshaftbearingsor pistonsthat are loose
inthecylinders. Ekarings,as indicatedabove, canbe renewedifthe
engineis dismantled.The reboringof cylindersand installation of
cylinderlinersleevesor oversizepistonsis generallya job for a well-
equippedoverhaulshop.
CRANKCASEOIL is savedin many partsof the worldfor use in
latrinesto help reduceodor.
10.94 ~vingandReplacin~CylinderHead

To grindvalvesor replacepiston ringsit is necessaryto remove

tie cylinderhead -- theupperpart oftheenginewhichcovers the endsof
the cylinders..Firstdisconnectthesparkplugwires. Rernovethe rocker
am coverfrom the top of the engine. Remxe the nuts holdingthe cylinder
headinplace. Liftthehead vertically to get it off the studsintheblock.
To replacethe head,be surethe cylindersand the matingsurfaces
are clean. Inserta new gasket,withoutany gasketQQIIIpouIIcz,
over the studs
intheengineblock. Placethe cylinderhead over the studsand put the
nuts on finger-tight.The shopmanualwill indicatethe propersequence
of tighteningthe nuts and the correcttorque. If no shopmanualis available,
tightentie nuts at the centerof the head first,workingoutwardtowardthe
ends. Consultthe torquetablein section20.10for approximate tightness
required.
10.95

10.95 RemovingCarbon

If testsindicatethe presenceof carbondepositsin the engine,

reeve the cylinderas describedin 10.94. Scrapethe carbonfrom the
cylinderhead and the tops of the pistons. Be sure to remwe all loose
carbonanddirtbeforereassembly.The valvesshouldalsobe grwndas
part of this operation.
 11.00 - 11.10
11.00 Body Repairs

Repairsto tie body of a vehicleare usuallyfor the sakeof appear-

ance,ratherthanfunction.Recognizingthemdestequipmantatmy small
shops,somemanufacturers have attachedfendersand doorswith bolts,rather
thanwelding,sothattiey canbe mmvedforrepairs. Whenbodypanels
are flat,as is the casewith tie Toyotaand the land Rover,it is possible
to lay a damagedpanelon the garagefloorand beat it out rmre or less flat
with a mallet. One of the principaladvantages of havingseveralvehicles
of the sang type is that bolted-onpanelsof this type can be exchanged,
or takenfrom derelicts.
WINDOWGLASScannotbe repairedifbmken,butacrack canbe stopped
beforeit spreadsand affectsthe entirepane. To do this,chucka piece
of small-diamtermppertubingin anelectricdrillanddip the endof
'itin valvegrindingcompound.Usinglightpressureon the drill,cut
throughthe firstlayerof the glass. Sincewindshieldsare laminated,
this
will usuallystop the crackfmn sp=ading.
To replacewindawglassinacar, it must usuallybe set in with a
rubberstripof soma sort. In som casesa specialtool is neededto put
this striptogether;usuallythe tool is illustratedin the shopmanual,
and it may be possibleto improvisesoothing similar. A m-t help in
gettingglassinto a rubbergasketis to use dishwashingliquidsoap as
a lubricant.Neveruse oiltolubricate rubberparts.
Glassor plasticpanelsmay be fastenedinton-&al trackslides
usingan adhesive,such as siliconeglue. Many4WDvehiclesuse sliding
win&ws of this type,ratherthan the roll-uptype foundin sedans.

ROOF DENTSin a car can oftenbe rerrmedby pushingan ice-pickor

simi.larpointedtooll%bm~theheadlinerinside the cab andpushingthe
dentout. Some 4WD carshave no interiortrim in the cab ceiling,making
this trickunnecessary.
XL.10 ChassisRepairs
If damageto the chassisis suspectedbut cannotbe seen,treasure
thechassisandcomparethemms uremnts with the shopmanual. If no
Dimensions are available,masurethechassisdiagonally, andcompare
with the oppositerrmsurement.Fmme straightening is not usuallypossible
in the smll shop,but in some casesit may be possibleto use another
vehicleas a sourceof powerfor this type of operation.The damagedcar
canbeparkedagainstatree andanothervehicleusedtopushthe frame
into line,or the damagedchassismi@& be cabledto a tree and anothercar
used to pull on it.

A framethat is obviouslybmken is actuallyeasierto fix than

one,thatisonly slightlyout of line. Overloading a pickuptruck,for
eaxmple,willoftenbreak-thechassisbehindthecab. This typeofbreak
cau be m&red if a welderis available by jackingthe brokensection
untilit is linedup with the chassisand weldingpatchesinto it. The
patchesmay be sectionsof the chassisof a derelictvehicle,or any other
available material. If no welderis available,
the patchescan be bolted
in place,but a weldedjointis a greatdeal stronger.
 To weld a splitin a frame,or a crack,open the crackup with a
grinderor chiselso that it is an open V shape. This will allowthe
welderto reachthe insideof the metal,ratherthannrer?ely layinga bead
on the surface. It is also a good idea to drilla smallhole at the end
of the crackto keep it from spreading.
12.00 A Shop Building

Whilethis treatiseis primarilyconcernedwith repairsand operation

of 4WD vehicles,a few wordson repairfacilitiesmightbe in orderfor the
personwho must organizehis own repairfacilities.If mre than occasional
serviceis undertaken, a smallgarageand workshopis practicallya necessity.
A roofedarea is a greatadvantagein a rainyclimate,and also provides
shadefromthe sun.
The buildingshouldbe as comfortableas possiblefor the workmen.
In a coldclimate,it shouldbe heatedif at all possible,sinceit is very
difficultto performoperationswith smallpartsif the hanusare coldand
stiff. In the tropics,leavethe upperwalls of the buildingopen on all
four sidesfor ventilation
and to providenaturallight.

A largepart of the buildingshouldbe devotedto parts storage.

In most placesthe shopwill be its a sourceof supplyfor most items.
Salvagedpartsmust be categorized and savedfor futureuse, and new parts
must also be protectedfrom dirt,rain,theft,and otherhazards. Partsshould
be storedin an orderlymannerso thatthey can be foundwhen needed. In
generalit is a good ideato keep any part,no matterhow badly it is damaged,
if the supplyproblemis difficult.Oftenit will developthat the need is
so urgentthat it becarnespracticalto repairthe brokenpart and use it
again. Alternatively, even a badlysmashedpart may be used as raw materials
for the forge,as a weldedpatch,or for some otherpurpose.
If severalvehiclesmust be caredfor, it is a greatadvantageto
have a two-cargarage. Gne vehiclecan then be put in for extendedservice
operations, and anothercan be broughtinsidefor a quickjob like an oil
changeor a new sparkplug. It is also very convenient to be able to put
vehiclessideby sideto exchangepartsas a mans of testing,or to use
batteryjumpercables.
In planningthe sizeof the shop,rememberthat otherpeoplerray
bringin vehiclesfor repairin the future. Thesemy be largerthan your
ownc!aJ?s.Spacemay also be needed,dependingon the type of opera-&n,
for repairsto bicycles,sewingmachines,typewriters, phonographs,clocks,
and othermechanicaldevices.
A shopwhereheavywork is contemplated shouldhave an overhead
hoist insidethe buildingif this can possiblybe arranged. 1% will save
hoursof work and mney in the long run, althoughthe costof the hoist
and tracki5 considerable.A goodhoistcan be builtby puttinga sturdy
log into the buildingover the repairareawhen the garageis beingbuilt.
Any type of hoist can thenbe suspendedfrom the log. If no hoist can be
arrangedinthe building,anearbytreemightservethe purpose.

As ner for the hoist,if a differential chainhoist is not

available,it may be convenient
to use a winch. The winchcablecan be
threadedthrougha pulleyabovethe engineto be lifted,makinga very
satisfactoryhoist. If no winch is availablepahoistcan be made by an
inventivewelderusingan old axle shaftas the drum for the rope and
weldinga largecrank-tothe endwhich canbe turnedbyhand.
12.00

Electricpoweris a mt assetin a shop,makingit possibleto

use a wide varietyof powertools. If a generatoris to be providedas
part of the shop operation,be surethat it is near enoughto be convenient
and far enoughaway to reducenoise. Avery convenient~ementis a
generator on a trailer. 'Thetrailercan be parkedoutsidethe shop as a
sourceof electricpower,and when poweris neededfor work on the road
the trailercan be tcwedto the site.

A greasepit is a real necessiw in a shop unlessthereis an ovee

head hoistfor the cars. Sincesucha lift is very rarelyfoundin a small
shop,a pit is much more c-n. If the pit is locatedin the sideof a
hill,with one end open,lightwill be admittedand accesswill be simpli-
fied. The pit shouldhave concretesidesto supportthe car, but a dirt
bottomto soak up spilledoil and gasoline.The top of the pit can be
coveredwith planksset into a recessif the spaceis neededat other
t.im?s
. If possiblethe pit shouldbe ventilated, sincegasolinevapors
are heavierthan air and will sinkto the bottomof the pit.
To jack up a car which is parkedover the pit, put a sturdyplank
acrossthe pit and use it as a supportfor the jack.
Degceasing is a difficultjob in a smallshop,sincethe n-ost
practicaldegreasing solventis gasoline, which createsa high fir?e
haqard.
One solutionis to put a tub of gasolinein a separatebuilding. Non-
flarraMble
degreasers are available,buttheyarenotomuronlyfoundin
frontierareas.
Shopmechanicsand theirclothingwill also have to be cleaned.
Whiiegasolinecan be used for thispurpose,it is verydryingto the skin.
Thereare severalexcellentcleaningcompounds thatwill cleanthehands
withoutdamagingtheskin. Boraxois perhapsthebestofthe granular
cleaners,andDifis anexcellentcreamtypecleanser.
The waterlesstype of hand cleaner,such as Dif, is excellentto
can-yon the mad. After changinga tire or makingsomeotherroadside
repair the drivercan cleanhis handswithDifandwipethe greaseand
dirt off with a rag. The resultsare surprisinglygood.
If thereis no supplyof waterin the shop,and if thereis any
rainfallinthe area,buildguttersonthe rcofandleadtiemto adrum.
An excellenthot water supplycan be arrangedby lacingold gardenhose
backandforthacross the roofofthebuilding inahotclimate. Even
in mderate sunshinethiswill produceveryhot waterby noon.

In the shop,a tool cabinetor pegboardwill be foundmire con-

venientthana toolbox. A handyarrangeman-t is to put toolson hangers
when they are not in use. The insidesof the dcorscan be used for addi-
tionaltool storagespace. The toolsshouldbe locatedas near as possible
to the work area.

Anothernecessityin a shop is a workbench.WhileSCXW partswill

be repairedon the vehicle,many smallerunitswill be removedand put on
theben& for service. It is impractical to servicetheseunitson the
floor,and a benchis a real need. It doesn't need to be big or fancy;
severalplankssecurelyfastenedtogetherwill servethe purpose,.
 12.00

Fuel storagemust be locatedseparatelyfrom the shop for

safety reasons.
13.00- 13.10

13.00 DIESELENGINES
Dieselenginesare offeredas an alternative to gasolineenginesin
sorre4WD vehicles, notablythe Land Roverand the Unixog. A Dieselengine
can be expectedto operateover a far longerperiodthan a gasolineengine;
doublethe gas engine'slife is a realisticfigure. A Dieselengineis,
therefore, a good inveslxntin caseswhereroadsare good enoughto reduce
wear on body parts. Otherwise,onbadroads,thebody andrunninggear
will be worn out longbeforethe engine.

The Dieselengineuses the heat of compressionto ignitethe fuel,

and has no electrical
ignitionsystem. The enginecannotbe drcwnedout
whilewading,andtherearenopoints, coil,sparkplugsordistributorto
malfunction.Sinceabout60 per cent of the vehiclefailuresin fleet
operationare the resultof electrical problems,the use of Dieselengines
can make a substantial
contribution to improvingusefultima of vehicles.

Dieselfuel is generallyless expensivethan gasoline,and the engine

will -travel
fartheron a givenquantityof Dieselfuelthan a gas enginegoes
onthe sama ~untofgasoline. The Dieselfuelhas a higherignition
temperature,andthedangerof fire is greatlyreduced.
The drawbadcs
of Dieselpowerare higherinitialcost,the need for
Dieselfuel,and mxhanicxl trainingthat is sonxawhat
differentfrom that
usedby gasolineenginemechanics.
13.10 DieselCheckList
In section8.00of this book a checklist is presentedfor use with
gasolineengines. Certainitemsare peculiarto the Dieselengine,however,
and a briefresm of theseis presented below:
FAILURETO START. Check-Wttthereis sufficient fuel. Be surethe
fuel line is not blockedby a bubbleof air; Dieselfuel is thickand the
fuel linemust be bled in the sameway as a brakeline if the supplyis
interrupted.Be sue the correctgradeof fuel is beingused. If these
simpleremdies do not get the enginestarted,checkfor poor compression,
a defectivefuelpump,or blockednozzles.
Hard startingcan also be due to cold weather. In some Dieselcars
provisionis made for introducinga nxxe volatilefuel to the cylinders,
perhapspropaneor butane. A similararrangement can be improvisedby
dippinga rag in gasolineand drapingit over the air cleaneras a starting
aidinvery coldweather. Ramve the rag as soonas theengine starts.
IRREGULARRUNNINGis causedby two principalfactors: insufficient
compression
and poor fuel delivery.
Insufficient
compressioncan be tracedto scoredor worn cylinders,
worn pistonrings,a damagedpiston,stuckvalves,brokenvalvesprings,
or insufficientvalvestem clearance.Poor compressionis indicatedby
reducedcrankingeffort,and by smokecomingout of the crankcasebreather.
 13.10- 13.20

Poor fuel deliverymay be due to a chokedinjectornozzle,stuck

needlevalve,injectorspringincorrectly adjusted,leakageof fuel from
the pipe line,malfunctioningfuelpump,air in the fuel line,a partly
blockedfuel filter,brokenfuel line,or poorlyadjustedinjection timing.

INEMma FIRIhGcan be causedby any one of a long listof

things: chokedinjectionvalve,dirt on the injection valveseat,partly
chokedfuel filter,fuel leakagebetweenpump and cylinder,stickyinjector
valve,brokenvalvespringin fuel pump plunger,faultyor worn fuelpump
plunger,shortageof fuel supplyto pump,brokenpump tappetroller,
incorrectinjectiontiming,inletor exhaustvalvestuckopen,brokenor
crackedvalve,brokenvalvespring,air block in the fuel line,fuel
leakageon the pump or injectionvalves,or a distorted fuel injectionvalve.
MSS OF POWERin a Dieselengineis usuallydue to troublein the
fuel systemif it comeson suddenly.Checkthe injectors,fuel lines,
fuelpump and fuel filter.
If loss of powerco11y3s
ab0u-t:
gradually,checkfor loss of compression
due to worn cylinders,pistonsor rings,defectivevalves,a crackedpiston,
or leaksat tie injectorjointsor cylinderhead. Thisproblemcan also be
causedby excessivecarbondeposits.
timingcan also causeloss of power. If the
Incorrectinjection
engineruns slow,timingshouldbe checked.
Loss of powermay also be due to excessivefrictionin the engine.
This couldbe the resultof a lubricatingsystemfailure,partlyseized
pistonorbearing,bentrodorcrankshaft. A simplecheckfor excessive
frictionis to open the decompression
valveand crankby hand; on an engine
-&at dotsnot have a decompression
valve,rermvethe injectorsto let the
cylindersmove withoutcompression.
KNOCKINGin aDieselengineis similarto that in a gasolineengine.
It may be causedby injectiontimingthat is too far advanced;idlingspeed
too law, sladmess in the journal,big end or smallend bearings;incorrect
valvetiming,causingthe open valvesto strikethe pistonsat the top of
theirstrokes;looseflywheelkey; sloppypistons,due to excessivecylinder
wear;or -Eheuse of a poor gradeof fuel.
13.20 DIESELENGINETESTS

Many problemsin the Dieselenginecan be localizedby examination

of the exhaustgas. Blue smokein the exhaustindicatesdirt in the injector.
A smky exhaustcan indicateinjectortroubleor fuel injectionthat is
retat-dedtoomuch.Blacksmokeindicates an over-richfuel supply,possibly
the resultof the air filterbeingpartlyblocked.

Fuel injectiontroublesare perhapsthe mst commn form of Diesel

malfunction.Such tmuble may be indicated by loss of power,irregular
&g or knocking,poor acceleration, smokyexhaustor failureto operate
at sll. TO locatethe defectivecylinder,disconnect fuelto each injector
in turn;when a2 faultycylinderis disconnected -the=will be no change
in operation, but a good cylinderwill causethe engineto lose powerwhen
it is disconnected,When the faultycylinderhas been found,the causecan
usuallybe tracedto a pluggedor damagedinjectornozzle,damagedor bloked
fuelpipe line,or a blockedfilterin the injectionpump.
,
,. __

13.20- 13.30

The injectorcan be testedby connectingits fuel supplywith the

nozzlein the open air. The sprayshouldbe symxtrical,finelyatomized,
and the valveshouldmake a llgruntingl'
noise. Ifthestreamisirregular
or one-sided, the nozzleis plugged. Othernozzletroublesincludedirt
betweenthe nozzlevalveand the seat,nozzlevalvestuckin the guide,a
crackednozzlebody,brokennozzlevalvecontrolspring,or incorrectspring
compression.
13.30 DIESELREPAIRS
Most repairsto Dieselenginesare similarto thosefor gasoline
engines. The principaldifferencesare causedby the lack of an electrical
ignitionsysxemand the mch highercoqxessionin the Dieselengine.
Becauseof the high compression,
pistonringsmust be examinedwith som
Care.
Ratherthantiming-theignition,as is the case with -thegasoline
engine,the fuel injection must be timadon tie Dieselengine. This should
be done carefullyinaccordancewiththe shopmanual,sinceadvancingthe
timingas littleas one de e increases thebearingloadingbyabout
60 pounds/ir~~ T 1 and doesnot materially
(4.2Kg./crn. affecthorsepower.
Most engineshave the fuel injection5 to 7 degreesbefomeTIE. Retarding
injectiontimingresultsin SJK@ exhaust,mises fuel consumption, and
encouragescarbondepositsin the engine.
As is the casewithagasolineengine,aDieselengine Whichhas
been takenapartand reassembled
shouldbe Vun in" with an electricn-&or
or sameothersourceof pmer for severalhours.
 14.00- 14.20

14.00 TOOLSAND EQUIPMENT

There is littlesensetobuyingtools that the mxhanic doesnot

know how to use, yet it is a lot cheaperto have the righttool for thejob
than to.have to improvise.For thesereasonsthe selection of the right
toolsfor the car and for the shop is of considerable importance.

Ifthereis anythingworsethannothavingthe righttool,it is

havingapoorlymadetcol-thatbreaksorbends. Buyonlyreputablebrands
of -tools:althoughthey costmm. than cheapones in the firstplace,
theywill outlastthe cheaptoolsmany timesover.

14.10 Toolsfor the Car

A smallcollection of goodtoolsis a necessityin the car in most
frontierareaswherethe drivermust be his mn nx&mnic. Some 4WD cars
CXXEwith a factory-suppliedtool roll,adequatefor mst roadsidework.
Othersdo not, and the drivermust providehis own tools. This section
presentsa list of thosetoolswhichshouldbe in the car, subjectto
speciallocalneedsand problems.

A good pocketknifeis perhapsthe firstrequisite,

and shouldbe
in the pocketandnot in the toolbox.
The rest of the toolsshouldbe carriedin a waterproofcontainer
such as an amnunitionbcxifthereis anyproblemof rusting: handor
engineopemted tire pwnp;tire pressuregauge;hammr; cold chisel;locking
pliers;ice pick, screwdriver; long-nosepliers;set of wrenches;lug
wrench;tire irons;jumpercables;Phillipshead screwdriver; flashlight;
tube patches;fan belt;fmm type jack,eitherscrewor hydraulicoperated;
axe; blackplastictape;balingwire;piecesof innertube rubber;a
iF1s BoxI'
of assortednuts,bolts,washers,cotte‘f pins,bits of :Lre,
l sandpaper; rags;some smaJldiameterclearplastictubing;a cor&iner
to &ry water for the radiator;and a mat -t!o
lie on.

Otherusefulitemsare a blockto hold the wheelswhen jacking or

if-brakes fail,andsom sturdyplankstouse inn-mdingbridges,
makin%awinchcableandhor,~v~-treebranches ormcks,andsimilar
purposes.
14.20 Shop Tools

What toolsareneeded in-theshopwilldependlargelyupon the type

ofwo33ctobeundertaken. The nmst valuabletool in any size shop is the
vehiclelsmaintenance
manual,whichusuallycostsabout$5-$6,and is worth
mu& mm. othertoolsshouldincludethe following, presentedin no
particularorder:

Feelergauge;half-inchdrivesocketwrenchset; 10 and 12 inch

(25 and 30 cm.) adjustable
wrenches;tire irons;propane t-or& or blow-torch;
a dr.i& electricif possible,and a sel&ctionof bits;hand or electric
grindstone; remvers for brokenbolts;wire
drillshmpening jig; %asy-Outtt
cutter&;bolt cutters;lockingpliers;longnose pliers;half inch (15 nrm.1
reamr;ice pick; jacksandfloorstands;ablockand tackle;fine andcoarse
 ‘,

,. : (,.

14.20- 14.31

files;a hand or pcmeroperatedwire brush;solderingiron,eitherelectric

or heatedby a torch;varioushamrms; 12 inch (30 cm.)pipe wrench;grease
gun;metricwrenchesif needed;batieryhydrometer; clearplastictubing;
hacksaw;set of taps and dies;a gear pullerset;markingpens;a soft-face
body n&let; aircraftshearsor tin snips;and a sturdybend vise.

If electricity is available,an electric,dril.l

shouldbe considered
a necessity.The quarterinch (6 mm.1 varietyis of littlevaluefor heavy
work,and a 3/8 inch (10 mn.) or half inch (12rmn.1drillis much better.
In additionto drilling,an electricdrillcan operatemany accessories such
as grinders,wire brush&, ream-, etc.
l&ep an oily rag in a closedjar for use as a tool wiper,and clean
allthetools that have been usedatthe endof the day beforeputting
them away.
14.30 LuxuryToolsand Equipment
For a shoptiat is anticipatingenginetuningwork, extensive brake
systemrepairs,or otherspecialized jobs,thereare additionaltools
available that will ieducethe amountof work needed. Dependingon the job,
any of the following mightbe valuable:

Compression gauge;timinglight;vacuumgauge,valveseatingtool;
cylinderhoningtool;valvelifter;pistonring expander;piston gxoove
cutterand cleaner;pistonring compressor; distributor
brush;spark-testing
screwdriverwith a neon lightin the handle;b&e cylindersurfacinghone;
valveseat refacer;valverefacer;valveseat reamer;valvegrinder;clutch
aligningtool;hand irrrpact
tool;toque wrench;body-worksetsof mallets
and foms of variousshapesfor bu@ng out dents;dentpuller.
Whereelectricity
is available, a wholerangeof toolsis openedup.
Amngthemre usefulare abattery &arger, drillpress,grinder,mer
hacksaw,impactwrench,airmmpressor,lathe,tire-changingmachine, and
electrichoist. Electricityalsom&es iitpossibleto have electriclighting
in the shop,Whichallowswork at any timewithoutdependingon sunlight.
The availability
of electrici+ymakes -theuse of electronictest
equipn-mtpossible.Mahy test instruments are available, althoughthey are
beyondthe levelof technology anticipatedby thisbook. Perhapsthe most
usefularethe dwell-tachomter for adjustingthe ignitionsystem,the volt-
meterandthetiming light. Both the voltmterandtiminglightare avail-
able in versionswhichdo not requireoutsideelectricpower.
14.31 A Generator

If no Commially availableelectricity is providedin the area,

a smallgeneratoris usuallya worthtihileinvesQm-&. Theseunitsrange
from&lone-cylinder gasoline poweredmachines uptohuge Dieselsintended
for continuous heavy-duty
operation.For frequentservice,a generator
poweredby aDieselengine will servemuch longerfharla.gastpowe@dgener
ator. Diesel-powered generators
can be obtainedin sizesas smallas the
Lister3 KW sets. ~IIEIU.
genemtorsthatcanbemuWedonthe engineof a
car ars also available.An&her usefulcombination is a generatorthat can
be used to provideweldingpower.
 14.32- 14.42

14.32 Compressed
Air in the Shop

An air cmpressoris a usefulaccessory, but is not of primary

importance inasmllshop. The Thgine-Ai39type of air pump,which is
insertedin the sparkplug hole of an engine,servesadequately for tire
work and is very inexpensive.
When designing
a largeshopto handlemany vehicles,an air CXXI+
pressorshouldbe included. It simplifies tire work,and can be used to
operatetire chmging machinesand impactwrenches. If thereis no elec-
tricity,the compressorcan be poweredby a smallgasolineor Dieselengine
of its own. If electricityis availableat certaintin-mof day, a large
tank on the compressor
will hold an adequatesupplyof air for many jobs
when poweris off,
14.40 Welders
There are two basictypesof welding: gas and electric. Each of
theseis discussedseparately below:
14.41 Gas Welders
The heat for gas weldingis genemted by bwming acetylenegas with
oxygen. This type of torchis portable,excellentfor cuttingrretals,and
relativelyinexpensive.One problemin some areasis the matterof obtaining
tie necessarygases.
14.42 ElectricArc Welders
Electricweldingis somewhateasierto do than gas welding,although
cuttingis not as readilyaccomplished.There arethreebasictypesof
electricwelders:
The resistivetype is usuallycheapand not intendedfor continuous
or heavy-dutywork.It consistsof a largeresistorwhich drawscurrent
~~thearc,andisreallylittlerro~~acoilofni~~wi~in :
serieswith the weldingtool.

The transformer
type of welderoperateswhereconventionalAC pawer
is available,eitherfrom powerlinesor from a generator.It reducesline
voltage,inczeasingi& availablecurrent.
The generatortypeisdrivenbya srrallengine andcanbe usedany-
where. Anexcellentweldercanbemade frama surplustiaftgenerator;
theseunitsaxe availableup to about600 mperes, far mre than will be
neededfor ordinar?y
weldingwork. Ageneratorofthis Qpe canbe powered
byausedVolkswagenengine ora similarpcwersource.

If no professional
guidanceis availablefor inslzmction
in welding,
probablythebestansweris agoodbookonthe subjectand alargepile of
Scmpmetalwithwhichto practice.
 ’ I.,
,‘>.

14.50

14.50 Toolsto Make

The LIEU ShOp ImuStoftendependon ingenuity

to solveproblems
wherespecialized equipnmt cannotbepmcured. Many itemscanbe impm-
visedor locallybuilt,savingnrmeyon the purchasepriceand timeon the
job for whichthey are designed.
kinfod.ngmds, used to strengtienconcrete structures,
are an
excellent buildingmterial for many purposes. Tlley
can be weldedeasily,
and can be used to make towingrings,hooks,hoopsfor canvastrucktops,
jack stands,and protective coversfor steeringgearor universaljoints.

,,L
 14.50

METAL PANCOLD TRUCK HOOD) OR

CLAY FIRE PIT I N EARTH

H/EATER
BLOWER -

HOM.EMADE FORGE
An excellentforgecanbemadewiththeheaterblowerfmnacar.
Theb~rshouldbea,mangedtoblowa&amxl fire,whichwillheat
netal forbending.

,.:
.,
 14.50

SINGLE PIN HINGE

G CHAIN

PIPE TO
BRAC TEND FORCE
OF
JACK

I..
J
HYDRAULIC JACK

HOMEMADE HOIST

A shop hoistcan be improvisedfmm a pulleyin a tree,usinga

winchor a car for the sourceof power. Alternatively,a liftinghoistmn
be mde with two lengthsof steelbeam or heavy timbem hingedat one end,
andahydrmlic jackbetweenthem. When-thejack is raised,the upper
beamwill rise,liftingthe engineor transmission frm the ~32.
 Oh.--LIFT JACK To FORCE
n TI RE AWAY FROM
WHEEL

TRIPOD TYPE
+UMPER JACK
r3

PAIN OVER
BUMPER HOOK

BOARD OR PI PE
TO ANCHOR CHAI

HOMEMADE TIRE REMOVER

k?lzim-arig canbemadewitiatripodtypeofbumper jack.

h’t the Jackonthetire andputapieceofchainoverthe jackhookand
thru>ughtliecenterhole of the wheel. Put a crosspiece
throughthe chain
loop on the otherside of the wheel,andwhen'thejack is %aised~tit will
fonzethe tripodlegsc&n andbr-eaktiebeadof the tire &ay fromthe
wheel.
 A torquewrenchis neededfor certainjobs,su& as replacingthe
cylinderhead. Gne can be improvised easilyif the principleis understood.
A torqueof 50 poundfeet,for example,means a 50 poundpull on the wrench,
one foot alongthe handlefrom the nut or bolt. It couldalsobe a 25 pound
pull at a distanceof two feet,a 12-l/2poundpull on a four foot long
wrench,etc. Similarmeasuresapplyfor the Metricsystem.
To improvisethe torquewren&place a springweightscaleon the
wrenchhandle. Pull on the scaleuntilit registersthe correctforcefor
the distancefrom the work. If necessaryon largenuts and boltsa piece
of pipe canbeusedtoextendthewrenchhan~e.
Some commercial.
garageshave partsdegreasers,butfor the small
shopthis is not usuallypossible.Towash smallparts,replacethe
bottomofatincanwithawire screen. Put the partsinthe can,anddunk
it up and down in a slightlylargercan filledwith gasolirle
or othersolvent.
Plasticsoap containers suchas thoseused for dishwashingsoap are
excellentfor dispensingoil, belt dressing,cuttingoil, batterywater,
and otherliquidsin the shop.
de TestEquipment
14.51- Homama
A HEAD GAslETTESTERcan be made by .solderinga tire valveinto the
bottomofasparkplug afterrzovingthe cersmicpart. This canbe used
to pump air into a cylinderto see whetherit leaksintothe moling water
oroutthe edge oftheheadgasket.
CXLDDER MAMINER consistsof a smallinstrumz&panelbulb soldered
to wiresso that it can be connectedto the car'sbatteryand loweredinto
the cylinderthroughthesparkplughole.
Homemadeapparatusfor brakebleedingand otheroperations
will be
foundin the appropriate
sections.
 15.00- 15.20

15.00 Vl3iICLE
MODIFICATIONS

Thereare many ways in whicha standardvehiclecan be slightly

alteredto make it IME usefulundercertainconditions.In sm cases
theseare aocon@ishedwith standardaccessories availablefrom the manu-
facturer;in othercasesthe ownermust carrythem out himself.

15.10 StorageFacilities
,A oartopcarrierprovidesusefuladditional load space,but it
must be very sturdysinceit will probablybe betatenby branchesor bent
when the car is rolledover. A rooftoprack shouldnot be overloaded,
sinceit will make the car top-heavy.
The Land Roverhas a spaceunderthe centerseat for a powertake-
off. If it is not beingused for thispurpose,a.tool box can be installed.
The spacebehindthe seat in a pickuptruckis excellentfor carry-
ing a shotgun,rifle,axe or shovel. If a gun is to be carriedin a dirty
place,coverthe end of the barrelwith Scotchtapeto keep it clean.
Cleatscan be boltedor weldedto the outsideof a pickuptruck
bodytoattachropes holdingtheloadinto the truck. Similarly, rings
or cleatscan be put insidethe body of a stationwagonor carryalltype
vehiclewithwhichto securethe load.
Retteruse can be made of a vehicleif palletsare made up for
specializedpurposes.Thesemightbe designedf0r.agenerator, welder,
waterpump,or otherequipment, whichwouldbe put on or off the truck
when needed.
Alitterforasic3corinjuredperson canbe conveniently arranged
in many stationwagonand carryalltype vehiclesby placingit amoss the
seatsandrestingthefrontonthe dashboar&
15.20 F3odyModifications
In anareawhere vehiclesareoften stuckandmustbe pulledfree,
weld towingeyes to the frontand rear of each vehicle'schassisrather
than overloadthe springshackles.oro-&r body parts.

Towingeyesmaybemadebybending aUofreinfomingmdand
weldingboth ends to the chassis.

A smalllamp can be aged underthe hood,makingenginework on

the mad at nightmuch easier. A portablelamp,with clipsto attachit
to thebattery,is alsoveryuseful.

Onvehicleshavingaplug in the clutchhousingwhichmustbe

installedbeforeenteringdeep water,such as the LandPqver,take the
storagebm&et off the Ix>ttamof the car and put it on the da&boar&
Thenthe drivercan see whetherthe plug is in the bracketor in the"
clutchhousing.

In areaswherewater lies on the surfaceand splasheson the car's

i&t&n system,make a sheet-metal splashguardunderthe engineto keep
waterfi?omtheroadf~gettingonthewires.
 : -_
_- 15.20

If water in the gas is a frequentproblem,fit a smallvalveto the

bottomofthe fueltank. The water,beingheavier,will sink to the bottom
and can be drainedoff.

If the fuel supplyis unreliable,

it may be usefulto replacea short
sectionof the fuel linewith clearplastictubingso that the fuel supply
can be observedin case of enginetrouble. The tubingmust be kept away from
hot partsof the engine.
An oil coolercan be made from the coilsof a discardedrefrigerator
or air conditioner.
A car'sfootpedalsoftenbecomevery slipperyif they are wet. To
reducethis problem,take off the rubberpads and use a welderto make a
roughbead on the pedalsurfaces.Alternatively, coat the metal surface
with epoxyadhesiveand sprinklea generousamDuntof sandon it.

If universaljointsare not coveredby the manufacturer,

covers
shouldbe made for cars usedin sandyor muddyareas. Use a plasticbag
tapedin place.
 16.00

16.00 PAR!TSANDSUPPLIES
Thereis onlyathinlinebetweentools and partsandsuppliesin
many instances,but in generalthe term "partsand suppliesl'
indicates
itemswhich are used up in the courseof makingrepairsand must be replaced.

Suppliesin the shop shouldinclude16 or 14 gaugegalvanizedwire;

usuallycalledbalingwire; LiquidSteel;piecesof innertube;sandpaper;
steelwool;plastictape;hot tire patches;battery* water;LiquidWrench
penetrating oil; tire chains;wire rope;U-bolts;fan belts;brakefluid;
gear oil; engineoil; anti-freezeif needed;replacementbulbs;tire valve
cores;brakelinings;springleaves;sparkplugs;ignitionparts;Gmut
oxrburetor cleaner;valvegrindingcompound;Formagasket; rivets;gasket
cementand gasketpaper;p1astic.bag.s; cotterpins;hose clamps;and a vast
assorbnent of nuts,bolts,washers,etc.
SILpplies
in the oar need not be so extensive,but shouldincludea
can of g,c;lsoli.ne,
fan belt,distributor points,cap, condenser,rotorarm,
sparkplugs,plastictape,fuses,bulbs,fuel pump diapm, radiator
hose,plasticbags,hand cleaner,rags,brake fluid,innertube rubber,
balingwire, a can of engineoil, a chamoisto filtergasoline,several
jacksof varioustypes,as many sparetiresas may be needed,suppliesfor
fixingflat tireswith eitherhot or coldpatches,and a flashlight.
In areaswhen roadsare remotefrom 15vilizedcommunities, it may
alsobe advisableto carrya few cans of bakedbeans,Spam,etc.,for
unexpected nightson the road. In addition,a five galloncan of water
may be a necessity.
17.00 STORAGEFACILITIES

The chiefconsumablesused in a shop of any size includegasoline

or Dieselfuel,engineoil, water,grease,brakefluidand gear oil. FaCh
presentsits own storageproblem.

Fngineandgearoil aremuchdheaperifpurchasedbythe drum,rather

ihXlinsmdllcanS. It is thenmore convenient
to put the oil into gallon
(4 liter)cans readyfor use in the shop.
The storageof oil is not a greathazard,sinceit is not likelyto
unlessexposedto anopenflame.
bwcll
17.10 Fuel Storage

Becauseof the fire and explosionhazard,it is best to keep

gasolinein a separatebuildingor shed. Fuel is usuallypurchasedin
55 gallon(200liter)steeldrums,and if many suchdrumsmust be handled
it is convenienttogetorbuilda srralldolly for-them.The gasolinecan
be pumpeddirectlyfrom the drums,or put into five gallon(20 liter)cans
for easierportability.Gasolineshouldnot be storedfor greatperiods
of time,sincethe volatileelementsthatmake enginestartingeasy tend
to evaporate.Intransferring gasolinefromone containerto another,if
thereisnopump asiphoncanbe used. Use clearplastictubingso that
the gas can be seen throughthe hose,and the mechanicwill not have to
drinkthe gas.
Sometimes when buyinggasolineor Dieselfuel fawn a strangerit
is advisableto test the contentents
of the drum. Inserta faucetin the
bunghole of the drumandturnthe drumso that the faucetis at the
lawestpoint. Open the faucetand draina quart (liter)into a clearglass
jar, then inspectthe jar for wateror dirt.
 18.00- 18.ll
18.00 PREVENTIvEM0EENANCE
The;?artsof the carwhiohnxxtoftenare damagedinroughservice
are the drivetrainandrunninggear. Preventivemaintenance cando a
lot to extendthe lifeof theseparts,and of otherpartsof the vehicle
as well.
Periodicserviceof the car is usuallyoutlinedin the shopmanual
or the owner'shandbook. This serviceis intendedto avoidtroubleby
replacingequipment whichwearsout,or replenishing suppliesof oil or
greasewhichareusedup innormalservice. Tobe sure thatnothingon
this list is overlooked, make a wall chartfor the shop,on whichthe
~nechaniccan checkoff each item as it is completed.In difficult
serviceconditions, use the numberof enginehoursas a guideto s=%ce,
ratherthan the milestravelled.A car stuckin a swamp,for example,may
be run for hourswithoutmovingat all. Enginehourmetersbasedonengine
revolutions or on a simpleclockare availablefor n-ostvehicles.
18.10 Greasing
The trendon modernvehiclesis away from frequentgreasing.Many
partsof some cars are lubricated
for the life of the vehicle,and do not
need to be greasedat all. Checkto see whethertier=are greasenipples
on universaljoints,the splinesectionsof the driveshafts,jointsin
the clutchor brakepedallirkage,or the steeringlinkage. The shopmanual
will indicatewheregreaseis necessary.

Greasingcanbe donewithacartridgetype greasegunoraconven-

tionalgreasegun, or with a oompressed air greaser. A cartridgeis very
tidy,but oxts quitea bit more thanbulk grease. A conventional grease
gunisloadedbyhand, andis the usualtype foundinthe smallshop. In
a big shop it ITBYbe e~nomical to use a greaserpoweredby compressed air.

Regardless
of theltoolused,forceenoughnew greaseintothe nipple
topushasmallanxxntofoldgrease from-thejoint.

If a car is used in deepwater,it is a good idea to greaseit as

soonas possibleafterward.

To greasewheelbearings,removethe sn&l cap at the centerof the

wheel. Ive the cotterpin and locknut. Removethe adjusting nut. Pull
off wheeland bearing,protecting the bearingfrom dirt. Wash in kerosene
andinspectcarefullyfordamageorwear. Packwith grease(see10.10)and
replace. Turntheadjustingnutfinger~~t.and~e~.that thereis no
wheels-y, then securewith the locknutand cotterpin.
18.l.l Lubrication

Same vehicleshave lubrication

pointsin inmnvenientor unlikely
places. Checkthe owner'smanualto be sure that none of them are missed,
sincea dry jointorbearingwillbe ruined.

Two basictypesof oil are needed:engineoil and gear oil. The

~oil,usedinthecrankcase,is usuallySAE 30 or40. Gearoilmay
be SAE 80, 90, 120, or even higherviscosities.The higherthe SAE
number,thethickertheoil.
 18.11- 18.12

LBAIA\I~~G
l?E CRMiKCASLis not a difficultjob,but it must be done
carefully.Run the engineto get the oil hot, or performthis operation
rightafterthe car has returnedfrom a trip. Stoptie engine,hold a
pail underthe oil pan drainplug,and removethe plug. Oil will pour
out;when it stops,put the plug back in. Somemechanicslike to flush
the crankcase with Dieselfuel or kerosene,but do not run the enginefor'
more than a few secondswith this lubricant.At certainintervalsthe
oil filtermust be roved and replaced,and then the crankcaseshould‘be
filledwith a new supplyof the propertype oil.
Oil is generally addedto the crenkcaseeitherthrougha tube on
the side of the engineor by roving the breathercap or a solidcap on
the rockerarm cover. Levelin the crankcaseis measurewith a dipstick
in atube enteringtheengineblocknearthe crankcase.
Replacingtie filterinvolvesthe one-pieceunit or the housingand
innerdisposable filter,dependingon the type usedon the particular vehicle.
Wherethe whole unit is replaced,a new gasketshouldbe used each time,and
the filtershouldbe turnedonly by hand to avoidbendingits can with excess
pressure.
In cold weatherwherethe chokeis used a lot, changethe oil r~~re
oftenthan the rm3nuaL
indicates,sincetne excessgas will draininto the
cr&ccase and dilutethe oil. Lvery1000miles (1500Km.> is a goodminimum.
Wneneverthe oil is changed,cleanand re-oilthe crankcaseoil
filterbreathercap, if the enginehas one. This my be necessaryn-ore
oftenin dustyor sandyareas. Serviceon the air filterwill be indicated
in the awner'srnsnual.
GEM OIL must be replenished at specifiedintervals, and on occasion
the gearbox,steeringbox,knucklejointhousings,differentials and transfer
casemust be drainedand cleaned. Gear oil is thick,and it is somtimes
" difficultto get it intothe housings, One solutionis to use a longpiece
of clearplastictubing.with a funnelin the top. Hold one end in the filler
hole,and pour the oil into the funnel,lettingit run into the gearhousing.
Fill untiloil reties the bottomof the fillerno1e.
OTHERPOINTSthatneed periodicoilingare the distributor,
generator, and startermotor. Oil shouldnot be put in the door locks,
sinceitwillg+mup tne cylinders; use fine,graphite‘lubricantinstead.
Oil can also be appliedto door hinges,hood hinges,tailgatesand other
JlmGrlg
parts.
18.12 Tune-UpProcedure

A "tune-up"isintendedto restorevariableadjusmts in the

engineto as near idealconditions as possible. Thiswill restorelost
powerand make the enginerun as well as possiblewithoutany majorrepairs.
The,, ?3 no specialintervalat whicha tune-upshoul"dbe perfomd; it is
judgedIIDE by necessity.A good intervalmightbe 2500miles (4000Km.),
if thereis no need soonerthan t&at.

First,i bL.actthe battery,engineoil, radiatorwater and fan belt.

Cleanor replacetileair cleanerand the fuel fi3ter.
 18.12- 18.14

For the actualtune-upopemtion, firstadjustthe dis-ixibutor

pointsand lubricatethe cam and pivot. Checktie ignitiontimingwith
a timinglightif possible.Adjustthe valveclearance.Test cylinder
con4mession.Check,cleanand gap the sparkplugs. Adjustthe carburetor
usinga vacuumgaugeif possible,then road test the car.

18.13 RadiatorFlush
The radiatorshouldbe flushedperiodically with cleanwater. In
areaswherethe mdiator water is not clean,this operationshouldbe done
everyfew mn-i%s;otilerwise
an annualflushwill serve.
An especially effective way to flushthe coolingsystemis to
disconnectthe heaterinlethose at the blockand let it serveas a drain.
Remve the radiatorcap and let waterflow out there,too. Set the heater
to Idot.Connectthe watersupplyhose to the heaterinletconnection which
was clearedwhen the hose was removedin the firststep. Waterwill flow
tiugh the engineblockand the radiatorin reverse,cleaningthe inside
passages.
Commercialproductsare availableto flushthe radiator,and
instructimsare suppliedon the cans of this product.
After flushingthe radiatorand block,add a can of rust inhibitor
to tie new supplyof water. An inhibitoris includedin most anti-freeze
solutions, where theseare requiredbecauseof law temperatures.
18.14 $scellaneousMaintenance
Wheregasolineis of poor qualityor storedcrudely,the fuel filter
cup on the car'sfuelpump shouldbe cleanedweekly. On carswith fuel
filter installedix the tubingbetweenthe fuelpump and carburetor,or as
a part of the carburetor,
it is son&in-esnecessaryto replacethe filter
element. Such a filteris not intendedto be cleanedor restored.
The air filtershouldbe cleanedas oftenas needed. In dustyor
sandyconditions thismay be everyday; it shouldbe done at leastevery
2000miles (3000Km.) even undergood conditions.
On some cars the aircleaneris inash&Llowr~talpanontopof
the carburetor, and consistsof a circularpaper-corefilterelement. This
elementshouldbe replaced,but can be washedin gasolineas a temporexy
measureuntila new one is.available.When replacing tie metal container,
turn the securingnut only gently;if it is pulledtoo tightthe carburetor
can be distorted.The secondtype of air cleaneruses an oil bath ~JIa
verticalmtal can, andhas no disposable element. This type shouldbe
washedcleanin a solventand new oil added. Usuallythe SEIIE viscosity
as tie crankcaseoilis recormendedby the shopmanual.

TO find itemsthatwill need attention,periodicallystart:.tthe

frontof the car and checkeveryaccessiblenut or bolt-headfor tightiess.
Acheck of this typewill indicatewhatpartsareworkinglooseandneed
attentionbeforemjor troubledevelops.
18.14- 18.21

Fill the batterywith distilled water if it is available.Sometimes

distilled water is availablefrommedicalinstitutitions, whereit is used
for many purposes. It it is not available,
use rainwater.The watershould
reachthe ring at the bottomof the fillertube in each cell. Most batteries
have six cellsproducing12 volts.

Deadinsectscanbe roved fromthe frontofthe car usingtwo

tablespoons
of bakingsoda in a quartof water.

Windshieldwiperbladescan be cleanedwith a rag dampenedwith

householdammnia.

18.15 Cold WeatherOperation

l-iot
weatherdoesnot affecta car as adverselyas coldweatherdoes.
Startingis the most difficultproblemin cold weaiher,becausethe battery
is weakenedby the cold and the engineoil is +Lickened.Very coldweather
oan reducethe batterycapacityt3 as littleas 'half of the warm weather
paw=-
In very cold climatesit is connonto use heatersfor the radiator
or tie oil systemto n-&e it easierto crankthe engine. Oilmanworking
on the NorthSlopeof Alaskausuallyleaveenginesrunningall the tima,
whetherthey are in use or not, ratherthan try to startthem cold.
Tiresbecomehard in coldweather,and oftendevelopflat spots
on the bottomwhen parked,especially
if the vehicleis heavilyloaded.
They will regaintheirelasticityaftera few milesof driving.
Brakefluidshouldbe changedonce a year in very cold climates,
sinceit absorbsmG&ure and its viscosityincreasesin the cold.
18.20 PeriodicChecks
Sorreroutinechecksmust be perfomd at certainintervals.If .';
one personis responsiblefor thesechecks,they are more certainto be :
carriedout ti. if they are leftto any of severaldrivers. In cases
wheremany peopleuse the can-ecar, it is oftenusefulto providea short
checklist to be filledout at the end of a trip. This shouldinclude
placesfor the driver'scmts on brakingefficiency,how tie engine
runs,whetherthe steeringis operating properly,etc.
A shop inspectionrecordshouldincludethe date and oar identi-
fication,the conditionof each sparkplug,compression readingsfor each
cylinder, batterycondition,msasul?ed
with a hydrometer,and any necess@y
noteson the clutchpedal,crankcaseoil level,air cleaner,transmission
oil, oil pressure,electricalwiring,fan belt tension,oil leaks,water
leaks,andtire inflatia.

18.2l CheckPoints
Checkpointsarethosepartsofthe cartbatshouldbeexamined
periodically
to see hm much servicelifeis le.ft.
i;
18.21- 18.30

The brusheson the generatormust be replaced,for example,or they

will damagethe cOnmultator
when theywear out and allowthe springsto
pressagainstthe armature.

The universaljointsshouldbe examinedand shakenvigorously

to
findany loosebearingsor missingneedles. Splinejointsin the drive
shaftshouldbe testedin the sameway.

Jack up the frontwheelsperiodically and shakeeach fronttire,

holdingit at top and bottom. If it is loose,the frontwheelbearings
need adjus~t.
Steeringtie rod ball jointsshouldbe shakento be surethey fit
tightly. Removethe rubberbootcoveringthe jointandbe sure thereis
g.iidcwe
imade. If not, repackit with grease.
‘.,Checkoil levelin the steeringgearbox,in the axle jointsfor
the steeringknucklein the frontaxle,in the differentialsand the
transmissiongearboms.
Park the car on a clean,levelconcretepad. Leaveit overnigilc,
and next day look for oil spotsindicatingleaks. The leak is directly
over the 'spotin most cases,unlessthe oilhas rundownacasing. The
san~testcanbe improvedbyusi.ngbrownwMppingpaperontheground
underthe oar.
Test the shockabsorbers(seesection9.40)and be sure the rubber
bushingsare in good condition.
Checkthe batteryterminalsfor corrosion,
and keep the top of
thebatterydryandclean. Corrosionlimitscurrentflow,resulting
insl~cr&cing;moistureleaks powerfromthe battery,discharging it.
The sparkplugsshouldbe roved and examinedat leastevery4000
miles (6000Km.),and replacedevery12,000miles (19,000&IL).

Tire rotationhas been discussedin section10.62. In general.

tiereis littleadvantageto tire rotationon frontierroads. It is
best to placethe tireswith the leastwear on the frontwheels,since
ablmoutonthe frontendis r~~redifficultto cantrol-thanat'the rear.
Tireswhich are in gcod conditionbut have been worn bald can be retreaded,
whichcandoubletire*leage. In most oaseson frontierroads,however,
the cashgwillbe damagedbeforethe tireisworn.
Tire pressureshouldbe checkedby eye everyday, and with a
pressuregaugeif,thereis any reasonto suspectlow pressure. The
frontierroad usuallydoes not have nailsor br-oknbottleson it to
causea slow leak;tiresare a double-oenothing proposition:either
serviceable
or blown.

,18.30 DailyChecks
Wherea vehicleis used.every day,oertainpointsshouldbe checked
everymorningbefore.
the car is put into service.

:_
.“.

‘!_’
,/‘._$ .
 Checkthe engineoil, brakefluid,and radiatorwater. All three
are subjectto damge andrupture,andabroken oil line,brake line,or
mdiatok>hose will put the car out of operation.Engineoil levelis masured
with a dipstickinto the crankcase.Brakefluidlevelis checkedinsidethe
fillercap on top of the reservoir, usuallylocatedon the mastercylinder.
Radiatorwater is checkedinsidethe radiatorfillercap.

l&mine the underframefor brokenshockabsorbers

or munts, broken
springs,or loosepartsin the steeringgear.

Checkthe fuel filtercup on carshavingthis type of filterfor

wateror dirt. If thereis waterin the gas, take off the cup and cleanit.
The cup is usuallylocatedunderthe fuel pump.
In a hot climate,checkthe batterywaterdaily. See 18.14.
Be sure that the vehiclehas a sparetire in useablecondition.
In many areasit will be necessaryto carryseveralsparetires. In the
author'sexperience it was standardto carrysix sparetires,in addition
to the four on the vehicle,on certaintrips.

Checkto see tit the necessarytoolsand suppliesare in the car.

If extragas or watercans are provided,be sure that they are full.
 19.00

19.00 SELECTING
A VEHICLE
The purchaseof a new vehicleunderfrontierconditions is usually
dictatedby a majorbreakdown, collision,
or loss due to submrging,theft,
or someothercause. On occasiona decisionmay be rrade to buy a new
vehicleas an additionto existingfacilities,or as a replacemntfor an-
othercar.
To determinewhetherit is econoticallypracticalto buy a new
vehicle,take the operatingand overheadcost and add the cost of the drop
in resaleor salvagevalueduringthe rest of the v&iclefs expectedlife.
If the totalis greaterthan the operatingand fixedchargesof a new car,
it is economicalto buy a new vehicle.

If severalvehiclesare ownedor minttied jointly,it is usually

preferable to replacethem on a rotatingbasis,ratherthan all at once.
If the averagevehiclelife is tie years,one thirdof the fleetshould
be replacedeachyear. This will balancetheloadon the maintenance shop
betterthan if all vehiclesare replacedat once.
If one or rare vehiclesare of the samemnufactureand thereis
no compellingreasonto change,it is best to buy mre cars of the sag
m&e. Partscan be switchedfor testingor to restorea vehicleto
serviceand ~~~chanics
will not have to learna new car'sproblems. The
greatadvantageof standardizationon one make of vehicleis the reduction
inthe numberofspare partswhichmustbekeptin stock. Whereparts
facilitiesare rem&e, this resultsin a substantial saving,and increased
reliability.
In decidingwhat kind of car to get as a firstvehicle,look at
what is beingusedby otherpeoplein the area. If severalcars of one
type are inuse in the area,it is likelythat the experienceofother
driversshouldbe followed.. An Mrtant consideration is partsavail-
ability;evena~~diocrevehiclewithavailablepartsisbetterthana
greatvehiclethat is down for lackof parts.
Also with the need for partsin mind, selecta vehiclewith as few
re@zeable maintenance changes-aspossible.-An oil bath air cleaner
Eqtis no new paperfilterelement. A cup-typefuelfiltercan be cleaned
and re-used,where an in-linetype is discardedaridreplaced. Oversizeradiator,
clutch,brakes,shockabsorbersand otherccmponents reducethe need for re-
placementof nkaohanicalparts.
An excellentway to extendthe valueof a vehicleis with one or
mm trailers,as describedin section6.80. Anotherinexpensive alternative
is a two-wheelminibikefor one personand a smallload. Many of these
vehicleshave very Xat lcw-pressure
tiresthat will supportthe bike on
very softgroundor snow.
In considering
what vehicleto buy, checkthe availability of fuel
suitedto each vehicle. Don't get a vehiclewith a ,highcompression
engine,requi.+gpremiumgasoline, ifonlypoorgas is available.Nest
4W1)
vehicleenginescan be tunedto run withoutknockingon low octane
gasoline.

:+::,. :‘

,:
 In cansiderkgthe advisabilityof gettinga 4X4 truckas compared
to two wheel drive,it will be foundthat the cost of 4WD is higher. In
many partsof the world,however,it is necessaryto pay this premiumif
the caristobeuseful onthelocalroads.

Many4WDvehiclemanufacturers do not changemodelsvery often.

In contrastto the annualchangesmade on many passengersedans,the Jeep
and Land Roverhave rarelychangedtheirbasicdesigns. This tendsto
reducedepreciation samewhat.

19.10 Vehiclel)pesand Sizes

Threebasicdecisions must be made beforebuyinga new vkcle,
althoughif the vehicleis a replacement for an existingone, it may be
only a matterof duplicatingthe same features. First,what type of
vehiclewouldbe most useful? The choicesincludea passengercar,
pickuptruck,carryall,dumptruck,stakebody,tanktruck,andagreat
many mre. Second,what capacityis needed? Small4WD vehiclesrange
in capacityfrom about500 pounds(225Kg.) upward,and the largertwo-
axle truckscan qrry severaltons (2500Kg.). The matterof capacityis
relatedto thethirddecision, that of terraincapability.A conventional
two wheeldrivecar cannotbe expectedto negotiateterrainthatcanbe
trsveledby a 4WD vehicle. If greaterload capacityis needed,perhapsa
largetruckwith two rear axlesand paweron all six wheelswill be
required. If largecapacityis neededbut roadsare not particularly
difficult,aconventionaltruckwithtwopoweredrearaxles andanun-
poweredfrontaxle mightservethe need at substantially less cost.
Amng 4WD vehiclesthereare threegene&l classes. The smallest
has developedfrom the U.S. Army Jeep of WorldWar II, and now includes
the Scout,Blazer,Jinmy,Bronco,Jeep,Land Cruiserand the small
Land RDverbody styles. Somewhatlargerthanthesearethepickup trucks
and carryalls,availablefrom a wide varietyof mailufacturers such as
Chevrolet,Ford,Jeep,International Harvester, Dodge,Land Rover,etc.
Larger4WD vehiclesincludethe DodgePowerWagonseries,the forward-
controlLand Rover,and largerPords,Chevrolets s\ldInternationals.
Wi-thjnthe.mmsllestof thesesizeclasseswill be foundtwo types
of vehicles. SORE are primarilyintendedasrecreation&vehicles,
includingthe Scout,Bronco,Blazerand UniversalJeep. They are
excellentfor carryingpersonnelor lightloadsat reaso,-ablecost,but
despitewhat the manufacturersmay say they are not inten:ded
for the
stx~~~~ustype of servicefor whichthe land Rover,Toyota,or Jeey tru.&s
are prepared.The lattertypesof vehiclesare available with pickupor
carqwll body styles,and will carrysubstantial loadsacross&scour-aging
terrain.

Pickuptrucksare generallyavailablein a much wider varietyof

engines,gear ratios, and weightcapacities
than the more specialized
smallervehicles. The pickuptruckmanufacturers are preparedtoadapt
theirbasicvehiclesto suit the specificneeds of many differentpur-
chasers,and in the processcan custombuildan excellenttruckfor frontier
roadsat reasonable cost. Wi-thsuchbuilders as FordandGNCthere are so
many optionsavailablefrom the factorythat it is difficultto get them all
intoamanual.
 19.lO

Pickuptrucksneed not be limitedto the conventionalpickup-style

b@Y. They are also available
with stakebodies, Mhichare excellentfor
carryingrelatively light,bulkyloads. Astake body is entirelyabove
the tires,however,whichmeansthat the load must be liftedhigh onto
the body,and it makesthe vehicletopheavy. Stakebodiesoftensuffer
darmgeearlyintheircareeras the sidesgetbentandbrokenby shifting
loads.
Anotherbody optionworthconsidering is the double-cabpickup,
Theseare availablefrommst rrajor manufactumrs,anti make it possibleto
carrysix peoplein the cab and stillhave a largeload spaceat the rear.

Carryallsare builton a pickuptruckfrm, but have a body like a

largestationwagon. Oftenoverlooked, they offermany advantagesas 4WD
vehicles.They carrysubstantial loads,and are easilyconvertedfrom
carryingpoepleto cargo,or a combinationof both.
Beforelookinginto the largerweightclassesof trucks,be sure
that the localbridgesor ferriescan carrythem. In frontierareas
theselargertrucksare oftennot economicallypracticalfor the local
residents,andtierefore the roadsarenotpreparedforthem.
It may also be difficultto get partsfor a largertruckunless
othersare in use in the area.
In general,if the roadswill supportalargervehicleand funds
a~ availablefor its purchaseand maintenance, it is betterto get a
truckthat is somewhatlargerthan needed,ratherthan an undersized one.
This will reducethe tendencytcrward
overloading the truck,and will
providea reserveof powerwhen stuck. In areaswhere fuel must be
truckedin, for example,a smalltryckwill use rrr>stof its cargogetting
back to home base. A largertruckwill use more fuel,but not in propor-
tionto themuch greaterload capacity.The cargocapacityincreases
fasterthan the gas consumption. L

Forwardcontrolvehicles',.are
thosewith the cab abovethe engine.
Land Rovermakes sz truck,and Jeep has producedone in the past.
Largertrucksare availablein this configurationfrom almxstany
manufacxrer.
A forwardcantrolvehicleis generallysomewhatharderto service
tilan
a vehiclewith a conventional hood over the engine. This is
especiallytrue with smallervehicles,where the engineis difficultto
reach;largetrucksoftenhave ahingedcab that eliminates this problem.
Thereis also apsychologicaldifferencebe~~drivingaforwardcontrol
vehicleandaconventionalone. Thereis no engineout in frontfor prc-
tection. Altix~ughvisibilityon bridgesand otherhazardsis greatly
improved,tie drivergets a feelingof greaterexposureto road hazards.
.
Aslightvariationanthis styleis the Volkswagen truck,which
puts tie driveratthe frontandthe engineat the rear. Thoughthe
engineis not readilyaccessible,
this stylehas been very successful.
19.20

19.20 VehicleModifications
Most manufacturers
offera long list of options,includingan
oversizeradiator,heavyduty clutch,oversizespringsand shockabsorbers,
lockingfrontwheelhubs,oversizebattery,extralights,radio,heavyduty
air cleaner,tcwinghooks,trailerhitches,and a greatmany more. Also
availableon somevehiclesare such luxuriesas powerbrakes,air condi-
tioners,oversizeheaters,and fancytrim for the cab.
In some areasspecificaccessories
may be considered
necessities.
Thesemight includea frontwinch,towinghitches,push plateon the front
b-r, front-endskidplate,oil cooler,or oversizeradiatorand oil
cooler. Otherusefuloptionsare a lockingrear differential,
auxiliary
fueltank,heavyduty clutchand helpersprings.

Many of theseoptionsare surprisinglyinexpensive.Heavyduty

springsand shockabsorbers, for example,add only at $30 to the cost
of the car;alocking differentialmaybeabout$50 more than the regular
equipment.Depending on localconditions,they may beworthmuchmore than
this in actualservice.
Some accessoriesare of littlevalueon a frontierroad. Air
conditioning,for example,is very comfortablein a tropicalclimatebut
presentsso many maintenanceproblemsthat it is usuallyout of the
question.Perhapsthe most uselessoptionon a 4WD vehicleis an automatic
transmission,whichoffersthe driverlittlecontrolover his vehicle.

In planningtihatoptionsto buy on a new car, rememberthatmany

accessoriescan be takenfrom one vehicleand put on another. Thus their
valueis not lostwhen an old car is sold or scrapped.
Inwoodedorjungle areas,it is best to avoidequipmentthat
projectsfrom the vehiclesuch as mirrors,antennas,
and extralights.
Thesewill soonbe brokenoff by branchesand vines. The sane is true
in anas where vehiclesoftencapsize.
Arrcngthe optionslistedfor pickuptrucksand recreational
vehiclesby many manufacturersis a canvastop. Whilethis type of
coveris less expensivethan the usualnu3taltop, it is a poor investment.
Thecanvasis soonripped,exposingpeople andloadstorain anddust,and
the coveris oftendamagedat high speedsby wind.
A rear bumperwill oftenget snaggedon bushes,es+cially if it
curvesaroundthe sideof the vehicle. More usefulis the step type of
rearbumperavailable on son-e
pickuptruckswhich is set insidethe side
wallsof the body. The frontbumpercanbe greatlyimprovedbyextending
it into a pusherplate,eitherwith a heavyplankor steelplate.
Tires are anotheroptionto be carefullyconsidered.The larger
tire sizesprovidegreaterclearance underthe vehicle,but tiresare
expensiveandtheywearquickly. In soft ground,wide tiresprovidea
larger-tractionarea,and high flotationtiresare availablewhichwill
carrya loadedtruckacrossloosesand.
 19.20

Seat beltsare intendedby the manufacturerto provideprotection

for tie driverand passengers in the eventof a collision.Underfrontier
conditions theremay be no othervehicleswith whichto collide,but the
seatbelt is stillan excellentdevice. It keepsthe driverfromhitting
his head againstthe cab roof,and letshim devotehis atttiltionto driving.
Wnerecab doorsare removedas insuranceagainstdrowning,seatbeltskeep
peoplefrom fallingout of the cab.
A car that is to be used for stationary
work, such as driving
equipmentthrougha powertakeoff,shouldhave an oil coolerand an over
sizeradiatorand fan. This will compensate for-thecoolingthatwouldbe
obtainedby forwardm&ion.

Lockinghubs for the frontwheelsof 4WD cars disconnect the wheels

fromthe ends of the driveshafts. This reducesdragbecausethe front
differentialdoesnot need to turnwhen the car is in two wheel drive.
It improvesgas m&age, reducestirewear, and reduceswear on the front
drivetrain. In an areawith some good roadswhere4WD is not alwaysin
service,it is a worthwhileoption.
Where an oil bath air cleaneris offeredas an optioninsteadof
a replaceablepapercleaner,it is a worthwhile purchase.Anoil bath
type air cleanerworksbetterthan the paper filter,and it can easilybe
cleanedin the shopwithouthavingto buy any new parts.
19.30 - 19.33

19.30 VehicleComparisons

Sincevehicl?specifications changefromyear to year in many raes,

it is difficultto keep abreastof changesamongmany manufacturers. When
a basicvehicletype has been decidedupon,the prospective buyershould
visitthe dealersand obtainrecentdata so that he can decideon options
and accessories.
The data presentedbelowis intendedto providesome generalco--&
on eachmanufacturer.Vehiclesare listedin alphabeticalorder.

19.31. Chevrolet
Chevroletmakesthe Blazerrecreationalvehicle,4W.Dpickuptrucks,
and a completelineof largertrucks. Althoughseveralattempswere made
to obtaininformationfrom the manufacturer
for this VITA book,no data
was suppliedby Chevrolet.The trucksare similarto the GMC line,however,
andthe Blazeris similarto theGMCJ*.
19.32 Dodge
Dodgehas anexcellentreputationam~ngtruckusers,andthe Power
Wagonseriesis a completeline of 4WD vehicles.Theserangefrom pickup
trucksup to the largermilitlary-iype
PowerWagonused in many frontier
-. The latterhas no frillswhatever,but is designedfor the most
ruggedsort of service. In comparisonwith somepickuptrucklines,
relativelyfew optionsare offeredon th& largePowerWagon. The manufac-
turerhas concentratedon buildingin thoseruggedfeatureswhichare
likelyto be neededin extremeservice. Body stylesincludepickuptypes
andastakebody.
Dodgealsomakestie Lnchzrger,a 4WD vehiclepatternedon the
Blazer/J- conceptof usingproventruckcomponents to builda recrea-
tional-type
utilityvehicle.
lhe companyalsomakesacompleteline of 2WD trucksandlarger
6x4 trucks.

19.33 Ford
--
Ford trucksare builtin severalcountries, and partsare widely
available.The companyoffersa completeline of pickuptrucksand larger
vehicles, with perhapsmore.optionsthan any othermanufacturer.Ford'also
buildsthe Brono~,a recreational tvpe vehiclesuitablefor carryingfour
or fivepeopleor a lightload. The Broncocomeswith a choiceof a pickup
body or a stationwagontype cover.
The pickupsand largertrucks~XI-Ewith so many engineoptions,
transmissionoptions,body stylesand axle ratiosthat a vehiclecan be
virtuallycustombuiltwithregular factorycomponents.

An interestingaccessoryon some Ford pickupsis an Onan gasoline

poweredgeneratormountedunderthe hood. Originally intendedfor use
withcampzingequimtorby contractors, it is very usefulfor providing
powerto tools for work in the field.
'.
 19.32

DODGE RAMCHARGER is a relatively new entry in the 4WD vehicle field, built
by the manufacturer of the Power Wagon line of,heavy duty trucks. Like several
other companies, Dodge uses proven truck components to assemble the Ram-
charger. It is illustrated with a soft top, and is available in other configurations.
A similar vehicle is produced by the same parent company, Chrysler Corpor-
ation, under the name Plvmouth Trailduster.

4WD FORD PICKUP TRUCK is representative of a very wide variety of trucks

available from Ford, Chevrolet, International, Dodge and other manufacturers.
With a great number of engine, power tr’ain and body options available, these
trucks can be virtually “custom built” with stock factory parts. The same
manufacturers also produce larger 4WD trucks for heavier loads.
i9.34
19.35

THE GMC JIMMY is essentially the same as the Chevrolet Blazer, and both
vehicles are based on modified pickup truck frames. This type of vehicle, similar
to the Dodge Ramcharger and Plymouth Trailduster, is widely used for recrea-
tional purposes, combining highway and off-road transportation.

THE INTERNATIONAL TRAVELALL offers more style and comfort than the
usual 4WD personnel carrier. It is an adaptation of a pickup truck frame with an
oversize station wagon type body. A similar vehicle is available from Chevrolet,
and a mot-e rugged station wagon type vehicle is made by Toyota. They are well
suited to a ccmbination of off-road and highway travel, but with the exception of
the Toyota are not generally usod under extremely difficult conditions.
 19.34- 19.36

19.34 GMC, the GeneralMotorsCorporation

GMC, the GeneralPkkorsCorporation,producespi&up trucksana a

recreationalvehiclecalledthe Ji.mry.All are virtuallyidentical with
the Chevroletline. The Jimnyis a compositevehi:lemade up from con-
ventionalpickupparts. A pickuptruckcab, withotixt;ox~of the fancy
trim,is joinedto a shortenedpickuptruckbody box.

The pricesof the GMC line are a bit hi&er than for many similar
vehicles,tbou& thereis littledifference from the Chevrolettrucks.

In comparison with sm othermanufacturers, the GMC shoimanual

is not particularly explicit.It is evidentlyintendedfor trained
personnel, and the novicemay have some difficulties.

19.35 Internatiorii
International
HarvesterCompanyhas producedthe International line
of trucksfor many years,and is one of the few manufacturerslimitingits
.prcduction
to this type of vehicle. International offersa full line of
pickupizucks,largertrucks,carryalls, and the Scoutrecreationalvehicle.
Althoughthe Scoutis not intendedfor heavy duty service,-t&epickupsdo
well underseverecond$.tions. A doublecab is availablea an optionwhere
severalpeoplemust be transported.
Internationalhas alarge groupof enginesfromwhichto choose,and
load capacitycan be obtainedin kst any range.

The L-rternational
carryall,tennedthelkavelallby the company,is
one of the few vehiclescombiningattractiveappearanceand comfortwith
the abilityto negotiatedifficult terrain. Althoughnotintendedforthe
sdme type of roughserviceas heaviervehicles,it is an excellentcar for
transportingpersonnel ~nmarginalroads.
19.36 Jeep
Jeep vehicleshave been producedby severalmanufacturers over the
years,and the Jeep of WorldWar II was the forerunnerof many current4WD
vehicles.At thiswritingi1975)the Jeep is producedby a divisionof
Amzzkan Motors. The companyoffersa largevarietyof 4WD vehicles,
rangingfrom the UniversalJeepwhichis the descendant of the Pxq vehicle
up to the plushyJeep stationwagonwith air conditioning and powerbrakes.
Jeep has standardized
on a few engines,msking,iteasierfor dealers
to stockpcwts.
The UniversalJeep has been aroundfor so long -thatmany small
manufacmrs are makingbodiesand accessories for it. It is often
possibleto get partsfor the Jeep from junk piles,sincedesignshave
not changedradically over the years. The Jeep,in its many body styles,
has been the standardvehiclewhereUnitedStatesinfluencehas entereda
country,and it will be foundall over the world.
 **,~Ypmm.. .I U~7~rmLmrn-em,i-r- ,1... .-s,!. .I* -*,yb, r I--;. - _

on the military vehicle of World War 11, is one

of the most widely accepted 4WD vehicles. Many manufacturers have produced
the Jeep, but the basic design is little changed over the years. Although limited
in size, it is capable of working in very difficult conditions. Parts are available
all over the world. The same manufacturer also produces larger truck and

LAND ROVER has been the standard 4WD vehicle-in-many par’

over an extended number of -years, resulting in widespread distribution and
ready availability of parts tind service. The I.-and Rover is available in 88 and
108 inch wheelbase chassis sizes, as well as a larger forward-control model.
Bodies include pickup trucks, soft or hard top, and the station wagon body which
is illustrated above on the 108 inch frame,
 19.37- 19.39

19.x LandRover
Land Roveris the Britishequivalent of the Jeep,and in much the
same fashionwill be foundin partsof the world underBritishinfluence.
Enjoyingperhapsthe bestworld-wide reputation as a 4WD vehicle,the band
Roverhas recentlyfacedincreasing competition from Japaneseand other
vehicles.The Iand Roverlsreputation and tie wide availabilityof parts
make it an excellentchoicein many partsof the world. The car is
specifically designedfor ruggedservice , and offersast no comforts
or luxuries.The oasicbody stylesare builton wheelbases of 88 and 109
inches,and includestationwagons,pickuptrucks,open cabs and canvas
tous. The firm alsobuildsthe forwardcontrolLand Rover,a largetruck
u&t-gmany- parts fnm the 109 inch vehicle.
Becauseof the many uses for whichthe Land Roveris intended,
many optionsm offered. Theseeven includea completefire engine.

One criticismof the Land Roverstationwagonis its topheavyccn-

struction,which resultsin a tendencyto capsize. This is also true of
the forwardcontrolvehicle,wherethe loadbody is placedabovethe large
tires. The pickupbody is mxe stable,carryingthe loadbetweenthe wheels.
The Land Rovershopmanualis probablythe best on the market,
describingeven the most cxxr@e??
repairsin a step-by-step
mannerthat
makesit possiblefor an amateurto completethe job.
19.38 Plymouth
The Plynrxthdivisionof ChryslerCorporation, whichhad not pro-
ducedtruckssincejustbeforeWorldWar II,.hasrecentlyintrodutid a
line of 4Wl2utilityvehicles. The cars are identicalto the DcdgeRamcharger
line,and use provenDodgepickuptruckcomponents.The resultis a series
of sturdyrecreational-typevehicleswith nxxt of the defectsalreadyworked
out.
19.39 Toyota
Toyota,a Japanesemanufacturer, is a relativelynew entryon the
4WD market. Severalbbdy stylesand wheelbasesare available, and trim
and luxuriesare minimizedin favorof ruggedconstruction and performance.
The Toyotahas largerengineoptionsthanmany of its competitors, and
heavierconstruction.Althoughthe designis similarto many =creational
vehicles,the constructionplacesthis ca~7iria sturdiercategory.
The Toyotacomeswith a surpisingly good tool set, indicative
of
the rnanufacturerls
attentionto detaila:ldconsideration for frontier
conditions, and the owner'shandbookis very completeand well illustrated.
Althoughmany manufacturers are orientedtcywardthe tropics,Toyotahas
made specialprovisionfor frigidconditons.The shopmanualin English
,hasbeen traixslatedfrom the Japaneseand includesSOIE odd phrases,but
is cc~rehensiveand assumeslittlepreviousknowledge.Extensiverepairs
dorequiremx-e specialtoolsU2answ vehicles.
TOYOTA LAND CRUISER, shown here with a hard top body, is typical of the
heavy-duty class of smaller 4WD vehicles. Made in Japan, the Land Cruiser
offers relatively few engine and drive train options but a wide assortment of
azcessories is available. The Land Cruiser is available in several body config-
urations, and is principally suited to carrying personnel or small loads over ex-
tremely difficult terrain.
 I

19.40- 19.41

19.40 UninDg

'Utig, producedbykrcedes-Benzin Germany,is differentfrcmthe

othervehiclesdescribedinthisbook. It is more expensivethanothers
of its size,but it is an exceedinglyversati& vehicle. Thereare so many
body and equimt optionsthat it is impossible to fistthem all. Amng
thebcdytypes areahardor softcab,pickuptruck,doublecab pickup
truck,dw truck,or cab andchassis. Equipment 'includes
a frontloader,
frontbucket,grader,bulldozerblade,self-loading c.craper,
excavator,
earthdrill,ditchdigger,loadingcrane,milk carryingbody,brickloader,
qressor, road sweeper,concretepump,rotaryhoe, plow,road scarifier
and gradercombination, snow ply, gravelspreader,rotarysnow blower,
icebreaker,andmanymore.
The r3ul.tof all theseoptionsis a vehiclethat is much m3re than
a truck. Althoughthe cost is higher-than a conventionaltruck,it is a
' lot lawerthan the cost of a truckplus a bulldozer,for example. The
average4WD truckis not intendedfor pushinga bulldozer, but the U&g
has gearbaw with up to 20 forwardand 8 reversespeeds. At the lowest
speedthe vehiclegoes about 80 yards (75n&ers) per hour;top speedis
about5C miles (80 Km.)per hour. For traction,the Utig has differential
loclcsonbo~axles.
The Unimog,becauseof its IIKXXintricateand complexmachinery,
is rroredifficultto servicethan a conventional
4WD vehicle. On the other
hand,it can be expectedto performeasilywherea Land Roveror Jeep could
mly m3ve.
19.41 volJcswi3gen
Volkswagen dcesnot make a 4WD vehicle,but it is probablythe most
ubiquitouscar in the world and one of themost economicaland versatile.
-It offersnrobilitywith low capitaloutlayand low maintenance costs.
Becauseof its lightweight,it can oftenbe used in areaswhere o-iher 2WD
vehiclescouldnot travel. In placeswheremuch of -thetravelwill be on
semiGmprovedr6ads, -~~only.asrrallarnountofftheroad,-theVolkswagen
may offeran economical meansof transporation.

The VW pi&up truckis avaLlablewith eithersingleor doublecab,

andaminibus cab is also available.Even -thebeetletype of VW sedan
can be used-insome areas,sinceit is lightenoughto be n-ovedby the
passengersIfit gets stuck.

The VW trucksand van h&e smallengines,and shouldnot be over

loaded. They tend to get hung up on the flat pan bottom,but the sama
bottomservesthem verywell &ile fordingstreams. Aside from overloading,
probablythe chiefdifficulty is QgginglY the smallengine..The engine
shouldbe operatedat high speedto avoidoverheating and damage,and the
manufactureradvisesthat the cruisingspeedis also the top speed.

?.

,”
 ..

20.00 :

20.00 HISCELIJNECUS F@MULAS

..'
Althoughnot oftenneeded,thereare severalformulasthat are of
occasionalvalueto themxhanic.

Enginedisplacement
in cubicinches= (enginebore in inches)*X 0.7854
Xengine strokein inchesX the numberof cylinders

Weighton the rear axlesmay be computedusingthis formula:

WB-D
R=W -m--u-
WB
whereR is the weighton the rear wheels
W is the weightof the load
WB is tne vehiclewheelbase
D is the distancefrom the centerof the load to the centerof
the rear axle

A formulafor pulleyratios: SD=sd

where S is tieRI'Mofthedrivenpulley
Dis the cliameterofthe drivenpulley
s is the RPM of the drivingpulley
dis the drivingpulleydian&er
The sam formulacan also be usedwith gears,or with chain-drive
sprockets.

20.10 (IIimTs
AND MEAsuRms
ts j.nuse that a comparison
Thereare so many measurxnen tableis
oftenneededto determine fuel tank capacities,radiatorcapacities,
etc.

1 U.S. Gallon= 8.33poundsq 231 cubicinches= 0.133cubicfeet

1 ImperiaiGaIlon= 10.26pounds= 2.77cubicinches= 0.16 cubicfeet
1 ImperialGallon= 1.2 U.S. gallons
1 cubicFoot of water = 62.5pounds= 7.48U.S. galions
i4KI!ERMEAsuREMENTs
1 U.S. gallon= 1quart= lpint=

Pounds 8.338 2.084 1.042

OUXSS 133.527 33.381 16.690
3782.03 945.507 472.753
Cubicinches 231 57.75 28.875
Cubicfeet 0.1337 0.0334 0.0167
Fluidounces 128 32 16
Ml. or CC 3782.03 945.507 472.753
Ikters 3.782 0.945 0.472
 3.. ,._
20.10

TORQUEVALUEFOR NUTSANi BOLTS

Thread PoundInches PoundFeet

Diamter Min. ma- Min. Max.
lf4inch 96 132 8 Ill
5/16 144 192 12 16
3/8 336 420 28 35
7/16 600 684 50 57
l/2 804 960 65 80

9/16 1320 1560 110 130

5/8 1656 1896 140 175
3/4 3300 3720 275 310
7/8 4321, 5100 360 425
1hCh 6000 7200 500 600
BATTERYELECTROLYTE
SPECIFICGRAVITY

TempeMtureF. Full Charge Full Discharge

110 1.264 1.094

100 1.268 1.098
80 1.276 1.106
70 1.280 l.llO
60 1.284 1.114
40 1.294 1.122

COMPAlUSONOFCENTIGF@DEbND
F/&iREiiIT
SCALES

c. F.
- c. F.
- c.
- F.
-
-40 -40 30 86 100 212
-30. -22 40 104 110 230
-20 -4 50 122 120 248
-10 14 60 140 130 266
0 32 70 158 140 284
10 50 80 176 150 302
20 68 90 194 160 320
20.10

- 210

’ 2m

,~-FIGURE 1
190

100

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION 170

The chart in Figure 1 is useful for 100

uick conversion from degrees Celsius
9 Centigrade) to degrees Fahrenheit and
vice versa. Although the chart is fast IS0

and handy, you must use the equations

below if your answer must be accurate 140
to within one degree.
130
Equations:

Degrees Celsius = 5/9 x (Degrees I20

Fahrenheit -32)
I\0
Degrees.Fahrenheit = 1.8 x (Degrees
Celsius) +32

Example:

This example may help to clarify the

use of the equations; 72F equals how
many degrees Celsius?

72F = 5/9 (Degrees F -32)

72F = 5/9 (72 -32)

72F = 5/9 (40) 60

72F = 22.2C 40

Notice that the chart reads 22C, an ?oo

error of about 0.2C.
20

10

-P

-20

-80

40
 20.10
‘O-Y--
WEIGHT CONVERSION
FIGURE 5
The chart in Figure 5 converts pounds 9
and ounces to kilograms and grams or 4
vice versa. For weights greater than
ten pounds, or more accurate resul ,A,
use the tables (Figure 4) or conversion
g
equations. See "Length Conversion,"
Figure 2, for an example of the use of
the tables.

On the chart, notice that there are

sixteen divisions for each pound to
represent ounces. There are 100 divi-
sions only in the first kilogram, and
each division represents ten grams.
The chart is accurate to about plus
or minus tb'entygrams,

Equations:

1 ounce = 28.35 grams

1 pound = 0.4536 kilograms
1 gram = 0.03527 ounce
1 kg. = 2.205 pounds

FIGURE4 KILOQRAMSINTOPOIJNDS n.
(1 k. = 2.20463lb.)

I
2.20 4.41 6.61 8.82 li.02 24
24.25 26.46 28.66’ 30.86 33.071 35.27
2kO51 46.30 48.50 50.71’ 52.91 55.121 57.32
44.09.
2
66.141 68.34 70.551 72.751 74.96 77.16
92.59, 97.00 99.21 8
88.19, 90.39, 114.64h16.85,119.05
110.23-112.44 94.801 121 25
132.281134.48136.69:138.89141.10 143130
K&.32,156.53 158.73/160.94163.14 165.35
176.371178.58180.78!182.98185.19 187.39 3
198.42;200.62;202.83I 205.03 207.241209.44

POUNDS INTO KILOGRAMS

(1 lb. = 0.45359 kg.)

0 0.454 0.907 1.361 1 814 2 268 2 722 3 175 3 629 4 082

!I 9.072
4536 4.990
9,525 5.443
9.979 10.433
5.897 10.886 iSO4 7:257 7:711 8:165, 8:618
6:350 11.340
30 13.608 14.061 14.515 14.969 15.422 11.793 12.24712.701~13.154
15.876 16.329 16.78317.23717.6!M
40 18.144 1H.697 19.051119.504 19.958 20.412 20.865 21.31921.772122.226
60 22,680 23.133 23.687:24.040 24.494 24.948 25.401 26.65526.308!26.762 /
‘10
60 31.751
27.216 27.669
32.205 28.123’ SH.576,29.03029.484 29.937 30.391’30.844(31.298
32~65!~,33.112~33~566
80 36.7dll37.19.,,
c~,37.6481 34.019 34.473 31.927i35.38035.834
JR.102 38.h55
w) 40.R23~41.277i41.730;
36.2871 42.184~42.638~43.091 39.009 43.998~44.462,44.808
39.46339.916(40.370
43.545;

0
 20.10

LENGTH CONVERSION

The chart in Figure 3 is useful

for quick conversion from meters and
centimeters to feet and inches, or
vice versa. For more accurate results FIGURE 1
and for distances greater than 3 meters, Equations:
use either the tables in Figure 2 or
the equations. 1 inch = 2.54cm
1 foot = 30.48cm
The chart in Figure 3 has metric divi- = 0.3048m
sions of one centimeter to three meters, 1 yard = 91.44cm
and English units in inches and feet = 0.9144m
to ten feet. It is accurate to about 1 mile = 1.6C7km
plus or minus one centimeter. = 5280 feet
lcm = (I.3937 inches
Example: lm = 39.37 inches
= 3.28 feet
An example will explain how to use lkm = 0.62137 miles
the tables. Suppose you wish to find = 1000 meters
how many inches are equal to 66cm. On
the "Centimeters into Inches” table look .
down the'leftmost'column to 6Ocm and then
right to the column headed 6cm. This
gives the result, 25.984 inches.

bCHEI3 INTO CENTIMETERS FIGURE 2

(1 in. = 2.539977cm.)

imbml 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 S 1 6 1 7 1 2 1 0

t.bTlMlWERS XNTO INCMNS

(I cm. = 0.3937 in.)

inch- 0.2B4 0.787 1.181 1.676 1.069 2.362 2.766 3.150 3.543
3.037 4.331 4.724 5.118 6.512 6.906 6.299 6.693 7.O87 7.480
7.874 8.268 8.6Ul 9.055 Da449 9.843 10.236 10.63011.02411.417
11.811I2.205 12.50812.09213.38613.78014.17314.56714.06116.354
K-748 16.14216.53616.82017.32317.71718.11018.50418.89819.291
19.6852O.MB 2Q.472 21.65422.04722.44122.83623.228
23.622 24.016 Zi.409 25.60126.08426.37826.772~27.165
27.650 27.BS3 28.346 29.62829.02130.31530.708,31.102
31.40631.89932.283 33.46533.85834.252/34.64635.039
35.433 36.827 36.220 37.40237.79638.38B,38.683[38.076
20.10

CONVERSION
TABLES

Unitsof Length
3.Mile = 1760Yards = 5280 Feet
1 Kilometer = 1000Meters = 0.6214Mile
1Mile = 1.607Kilmeters
1Foot = 0.3048Meter
1 Meter = 3.2808Feet = 39.37Inches
1 Inch = 2.54Centimeters
1 Centimeter = 0.3937Inch

Unitsof Area
1SquaEMile = 640Acres = 2.5899SquareKilometers
1Square Kilameter = l,OOO,OOOSq. Meters= 0.3861SquareMile
lAcl32 = 43,560SquareFeet
1Square Foot = 144 squareInches = 0.0929Squwe Meter
lSqW?eInC$h = 6.452SquareCentimzters
1 SquareMeter = 10.764SquareFeet
1Square centiJn&er = 0.155SquareInch

Unitsof Volme
1Cubic Foot = 1728 CubicInches = 7.48U.S. Gallons
CubicInchesX 16.387 = CubicCentimters (cc or cm31
1.0 BritishImpe?ialGallon= 1.2 U.S. Gallons
1.0 CubicMeter = 35.314CubicFeet = 264.2U.S. Gallons
1.0 Liter = 0.2642U.S. Gallons
= 1000CubicCentimeters

Unitsof Weight

1.0 Met&c Ten = 1000 Kilograms = 2204.6Pounds

1.0 Kilogram = 1000Grams = 2.2046Pounds

1.0 ShortTon = 2000Pounds

 2O.iO

CONVERSION
TAEKES

unitsof Pressure
1.0 Poundper squareinch = 144 Poundper squarefoot
1.0 Poundper squareinch q 27.7 Inchesof Water*
1.0 Poundper squareinch = 2.31 Feet of Water*
1.0 Poundper squareinch = 2.042Inchesof Mercury*
1.0 Atmosphere = 14.7 Poundsper squareinch (PSI)
1.0 Atmosphere = 33.95Feet of Water*
1.0 Foot of Water = 0.433PSI = 62.355Poundsper squarefoot
1.0 Kilogrampersquarecentimeter= 14.223Poundsper squareinch
B
1.0 Poundper squareinch = 0.0703filogrm per squarecentimter
"at 62 degreesFahrenheit(16.6degreesCelsius)

unitsof Power
1.0 Horsepower(English)
1.6 Horsepower(English)
1.0 Horsepower(Eng;lish)
1.0 Kilowatt(IQ?)
= 1000Watt
1.0 Horsepower(English)
'1.0MetricHorsepbr~
1.0 MetricHorsepower
= 746 Watt = 0.746Kilowatt(XW)
= 550 Foot poundsper second
= 33,000Foot poundsper minute
= 1.34 Horsepower(HP)English
= 1.0139MetricHorsepower&he&L-vapeur)
= 75 Meter X Kilograro/Second
= 0.736Kilowatt = 736 Watt
 21.OQ
21.00 DEFINITIONS
AD INDEX

This sectionis intendedto provideboth a briefdefinition of many

automotiveterms and an indexby whichtheymay be locatedin the text of
the book. In additionto such itemsas axles,tires,carburetors and other
partsof the vehicle,the indexalso coverssuch dri.ving
hazardsas mud,
snow,and log bridges.
In each entry,the briefdefinition
followsthe name of the item,
and specificreferencesfollowthe definition.
Accelerator.The foot-operated
pedalwhich controlsthe carburetor
and
the speedof the engine. Stuck,1.08,7.90.
Air Cleaner. Filteron top of the carburetor
to removedirt from air used
in the engine. Changing,18.14;locatingdefect,8.12;maintenance, 18.14;
oil bath type, 18.14519.20;testing,9.20.
Air compr?essor.
&chine to produceair underpressurefor inflatingtires,etc.
In shop,14.32;operatesgreasegun, 18.10.
Air Filter. See Air Cleaner.
Aiig,rmmt,
Wheel. Adjustmantof the frontwheelsfor best steeringand least .
tirewear. Adjusting,10.61.
Alternator.Electricgeneratorto rechargebattery,10.53. Tests,9.70.
Anmster. Dashboardgaugeindicatingbattery
chargeor discharge.
Afterfording,3.08;for testinggenerator,9:70;for testingvoltage
regulator,
9.70;testingignitionsystem,9.80.
Anchor. For winch,6.41.
Anti-Freeze.Alcoholsolutionused in radiatorto preventfreezing.
Absenceof, 7.70;flushingradiator,18.13;coolingsystem- see also
Radiator.
At?Illatm.tivingpartofanelectrical device;mostcxlrrPrronlyrefersto
rotatingpart of a rotoror generator.Starter,10.56;testinggenerator,
9.70. See also Generator;Starter.
y Axle. Shafttransmittingpowerfrom differential
to wheel. Bent, 8.32,8.35;
broken,1.03;cracktest,9.40;findingbroken,10.21;noises,8.80;removing
shaft,10.21;testing,9.40;weightforrrnila,
20.00. See also Differential;
DriveTrain.
Axle Bearing. See also Ball Bearing;Bearing;PollerBearing;Wheel Bearing.

Backfiring.
Poppingor explodingsoundscomingthroughthe carburetor
or
exhaustsystem. Causes,8.61. See also Carburetor;
Timing;Valves.

BackingPlate. The metal.

circlebehindeachwheel on whichthe brakecylinders
am munted, Noises,8.80. See also BrakeSystem.
 21.00

BallEIearing.Friction-duction deviceconsistingof two cylinders

with
ballsbetweenthem,used on axles,gearboxes,etc. Assembling, 10.23;
l!P=m, 10.10;testing,9.40;used to repairtubing,10.10.

Ball Joint. Ballandsocketjoint,similartoahumanhip joint,inthe

steeringlinkage. Fieldrepair,7.30;inspection,
10.61; greasing,18.10;
periodicinspectian,18.21;repairing,
10.61;testing,9.40.

Em3h - And othernoises,8.80.

Battery. Rectangular
plasticbox containingleadplatesand acid to store
energy,makingelectrici~by chemicalactian. Basicprinciple,2.05;
charging,10.51;cleaningterminals, 7.80; corrodedterminals,7.81;
dailyinspection,18.30;dead,7.81;frozen,to thaw,7.81;in coldweather,
18.15;jumpercables,7.81;locatingdefects,8.14;maintenance, 18.14;
periodicinspecticn,18.21;polarity,9.70;specificgravitychart,20.10;
testing,9.70. See also Electrical
System.
Bearing, Priction-reducing
devicetoreducewearonmovingparts.Assembling,
10.23;greasing,10.10,18.10;installing,10.10;installing
on shaft,10.23;
packing,10.10;replacingengine,10.93;waterpump,10.71. See also Ball
Bearing,Edler Bearing.
Block. To stopwheel,3.04. I
Blockand Tackle. Pulleysand rope arrangedto multiplypullingforce.
For extricatingcar, 4.00;with winch,6.44.

BoatAnchor. For use witi winch,6.41.

Body. Outermetal shellof the car. Repairs,11.00.
Bolt. Fastenerconsisting
of a threadedshankand a head with provisim for
turningby wrench,screwdriver,
etc. l%rrowing'l, 6.83;cutting,10.10;
stuck,10.10.
BowlineKnot. To tie, 6.12.
BrakeD&n. Heavymetalpie-plateshapedcastingmunted on klheel
lugsunder
rims,againsttichbrake liningsrubto slowtkrecar. Badlyworn,10.43;
broken,7.40.
RrdceFluid. Hydratiicfluidused in the brake system. Bleeding,10.42;
thee level,18.30;dailyinspection, 18.30;in oold mather, 18.15;
siphoning,10.40;substitute,7.40.

Brake,Hand. The man= 1 (or occasionally

foot-operated)
parkingbraketo hold
anunattendedtxr. @iusting, 10.44;repairing, 10.44.
BrakeLine. Tubingconnecting
partsof the lx&e system'through
which
hydraulicfltidflows. Ekdcen,7.40;leaking,7.40.
21.00

BrakeLining. Replaceable fibercoverfor the brakeshoeswhichrubs against

the :!side of the brakedrum. Oversize,10.43;replacing,10.43.
Brakes. Stoppingmechanismfor the car. -Adjusting,
10.41;bleeding,10.42;
Causeof spinningcar, 3.04;dragging,7.40;efficientoperation,3.00;
failure,1.09;hand,10.44;hold spinningwheel,4.01;locatingdefect,8.40;
operationon snowor mud, 3.04;parking,10.44;preliminaryexamination,
2.01;
pumping,1.09;rebuilding, 10.43;relining,10.43;removingrubberpedalpad,
2.03;repabs, 10.40;stoppingon m,ldor snow,3.00;testing,9.50;trailer,
6.81;while fording,3.08.
BrakeShoes. See also BrakeLinings.
BreakerPoints. Switchinsidethe distributorwhichcontrolselectricity
flowingto the ignitioncoil. Adjusting,10.55;testing,9.80. See also
Distributor;IgnitionSystem.
BreatherCap. Screen-filledmetal cover,usuallyabout2 - 3 inches(5 - 7 cm>
in diameter,on top of the valvecover. Cleaning,18.11.
Bridge. Buildingwith winch,6.40;convoyoperationover, 3.02;crossing,3.06;
estimatingtire track,2.01;extricationfrom,4.04;log, 3.06;repairing,
3.06;winctig out of, 6.51.
Brushes. Rectangularcarbonblocksconducting
electricity
to or ftmmthe
camrmtatorof a rrotor
or generator,Inspection
of generator,18.21;replacing
generator,10.53.
Cab. Part of the veklicle
wherethe driverand passengers
ride. Introduction
to, 2.03.
Cable. Rope made of wire strands. Anchoring,6.41;forceof broken,6.42;
jumper,7.81;snarledon winch,6.43;winch,6.34. See also Chain;Rope;
Tow Rope;Winch.
Camber. Definition,
10.61.
capsizing.Tippingthe vehicleoff its wheels,3.07. Restarting
after,7 JO;
Salvagewith winch,6.61.
Carbon. Blackgranularmaterialsometimesdepositedin the cylinderas a
resultof inccunplete
burningof fuel. Compressiontest for, 9.20;in Diesel
engine,13.10;removing,10.95.
Carburetor.Castmetalhousingmountedon the intakemanifoldwherefuel and
air are mixed. Adjustingwith vacuumgauge,10.30;basicprinciple,
2.05;
chokeadjustment, 10.31;vacuumtest, 9.20.

carryall. Selecting,
19.10.
caster. Definition,
10.61. See also Steering.
 21.00

Centigrade.Comparison
with Fahrenheit,
20.10.

chain. Joiningpieces,6.21;on tow cable,6.21;repairing,6.23;storage,

6.22;towing,6.20;trailersafety,6.81.
Chains,Tire. Fittingon tire, 3.03;in md or snow,4.0l;repairing,
6.23;tire,
3.03;ytsvyion,3201;V-Bar.,3.03.

Charger,Battery. Homemade,10.51.
Chassis. Metal frameupon whichthe vehicleis built. Alignment,11.10;
basicprinciple,2.05;broken,1I.10;damaged,8.32;load distribution,
2.02;repairs,11.10.

CheckLists. See all of Section8.00.

Chevrolet.19.31.
Chock. See also Block.
Choke. Circularmetalplatein the air barrelof the carburetor
to reduce
air flow for startingthe engine. Adjustment,
8.13,10.31;causes"flooding",
8.12;locatingdefects,8.13. See also Carburetor.
Cleaner. For hands,12.00.
Clutch. Foot-operateddevicefor disconnecting
powerbetweenengineand
gearlmx. Bleedinghydraulic,
10.42;doubleclutching,2.04;dragging,7.20;
drivingwith inoperative,
7.20;greasing,18.10;housingplug,15.20;locating
defects,8.52;operation,2.04;purposeof, 2.04;remving rubberpedalpad,
2.03;slipping,7.20;testing,9.30;while fording,3.08. See alsoDrive
Train;Transmission
Cold Weather. Maintenance,
18.15.
Color. Of Exhaust,9.90.
Comnutator.Ring of metal segmentsarounda rotor or generatorarmature,
each piececonnectedto a coil of'thearmaturewindings. Starter,10.56;
testinggenerator,9.70. See also Brushes;Generator; Starter.
Qmpression, Squeezing forceon fuel vaporexertedwhen a pistonrisesin
the cylinderand the valvesare closed. Dieselengine,13.00,13.10;
low, 8.62;testing,9.10,9.20,18.12. See also Piston;PistonRings.
Ccenpression
Gauge. Operation,
9.20.
Condenser.Smallmetal cylinderin the distributor
containingthin foil
platesto mmentarilyabsorbthe ignitionpowerand reducedistributor
pitting. Replacement,10.55;testing,9.80. See also DislAbutor;
IgnitionSystem.

conking out. When the engine"juststops".;&uses, 8.63;locatingcause,

8.60.
 2l.00

Convoy. Severalvehiclestravelingtogetherfor mutualassistance.

Princ?ples,3.02.
CoolingSystem. wine accessories whichcirculatewaterthroughthe engine
to remve the heat of burningfuel. Basicprinciple,
2.05;air in, 9.10;
flushing,18.13;leaks,10.70;pressuretest, 9.10;repairs,7.70,10.70;
testing,9.10;waterpump noises,8.80;waterpump repairs,10.71. See
also Fan Belt;Hose;Radiator.
cotterPin. Retainingclip of foldedwire to hold a nut or otherm from
turning. Improvised,7.00.
Crank. Hand operated,7.81; testingengine,7.90,8.11;to startengine,
7.80,7.81.

Crankcase.Sheetmetalpan underthe engineblockto containoil for the

en&e, Dminiq, 18.11;emissioncontrols,10.81;fieldrepair,7.90;
uses for old oil, 10.93;to add oil, 18.11. See also Oil.
CrankcaseBreather. See BreatherCap. .

Cylinder.Hole in the engineblockin whichthe pistoneves. Examining

light,14.51;testingocmpression, 9.10;worn,Diesel,13.10.
CylinderHead. Heavymetalplateboltedover the top of the engineblock
to closethe ends of the cylinders.Brokengasket,8.11,8.21;cracked,
8.62;gasket,8.11,8.21,9.10;improvised torquewrench,14.50;lcose,
8.21;remming, 10.94;repairs,10.94;testing,9.20.
I
Deadman. Construction, 6.41. See alsoAnchor.
IkcarboniZing. 10.95. 1
i
Decoking. See Carbon;Decarbonizing.
Dents. Repair-, 11.00.
-. Derelict. Towing,6.70.
D2eselwine. Internalccanbustion
engineusiq heat fmn ccmpessionto
ignitepUe1. See all of Section13.00. Fordingwith, 3.08;hard
starting,13.10;injectortests,13.20;knocking,13.10;locatingproblems,
13.10;F generator,114.31;
repairs,13.30;testing,13.20.
Differential.Gearsinthemiddleofthe axle housingto transferpowerfrom
propell& shaftto wheels. Damaged,6.72;dismantling,
10.22;gearratio,
10.22;&roundclearance,2.01;limitedslip,3.01,4.01,10.22;location,
2.01;lubric+tion,
'18.11;
periodicinspection,18.21;
switchingfmnt and
rear,10.22;towingcar with damaged,6.72;Unimoglocking,3.01,4.01,
19.40.
Displacemnt. Calculating,
20.00.
// Distributor.Rotmy electricswitchin a blackplastichousingto connect
s &niticm voltageto the sparkplugs. Fieldmpati, 7.82;locatingdefects,
8.12,8.63;l&r&x&ion, 18.ll;testing,9.80.
Doors. R-al for safety,2.01,3.09. See also Body.
DoubleClutw. Operation,2.04. See also Clutch;Gearbox;Transmission.
Downshifting. the gearsdown to a lowergear. For
Processof shir‘ting
mgency stop,1.09;operation,2.04;to slow vehicle,3.04. See also
Clutch;GearshIft.
DriveShaft. See bpeller Shaft.
DriveTmin. Repairs,see all of 10.20. See also Differential,
Gearbox;
PropellerShaft;TransferCase;tiansmission.
Dorm. Storageof, 17.00;supplyingfuel from,17.10;brake,see BrakeDrum.
ElectricWinch. See also Winch.
System. Alternator
Electrical. 5 13.53;repairs,see all of 10.50;testing,9.70.
See also Ignition.
Electricity.In the shop,13.00,toolsrequiring,14.20,14.30.
i%ssion Controls. Repairs,lO.jl.
Engine. iIiese1,
13.00;installing,10.92;introduction,
2.05;noises,8.80;
racing,1.08;removing,10.92;repairs,10.90;replacing,10.92;ruinedby
sarging, 3.09;rlrunningin", 10.93;testing,9.20;uses for spare,10.10;
won't start,8.12.
Ekhaust. F'umes
emittedfrom the engine,!consisting
of unburnedfuel cconponents
and productsof combustion.Color,9.00;color,Diesel,13.20.
Exhaustsystem. Manifoldtoo hot, 9.90;repairs,10.80;testing,9.90. See
also Muffler.
Eahrenheit.Comparison
with Centigrade,
20.10.

Fan. Blowerto forceair throughthe mdiator for enginecooling. Removing

with waterpump,10.71;whilefording,3.08.
Fan Belt. V-beltdrivingthe fan, and usuallythe waterpump and generator,
frvmthe engine. Adjusiment, 10.70;broken,7.70;causeof overheating,
8.70;loose,8.14;noises,8.80,lO."O;replacmt, 10.70;squeaking, 10.70;
substitutes,
7.70;whilefording,3.08. See also CoolingSystem.
FeelerGauge. Set of thinmetal bladesfor -swing sizeof a smallopenin%
such as the gap of a sparkplug. Mjusting valves,10.91;to set plugs,10.55.
FieldEIxp&ents. AIL1of Section7.00.
FillerCap - mel. Testing,9.50. See also Fuel;Fuel System.
FUer, 031..Replacing,
18.11. See also Crankcase;
Oil.
 21.m

PireewdllPartitionbetweenthe enginecQmpartmen
tand cab.

Tiringorder. To determine,
10.55.

Float. To raise sulmerged

car, 5.01.
Float,Carbmetor. See Carburetor.
“Flooding”. Definition,
8.12.

Ford. FordMotor Company,19.33.

Fording. Drivingthe car throughdeep water,3.08. Greaseafter,18.10;
stuckwhile,4.05;with Dieselengine,13.00.
Forge. Making,14.50.
Fomulas. 20.00.
Formal Control. Definition,
19.10;selecting
vehicle,19.10.
Four-WheelDrive. Applyingenginepowerto all fourwheelsinsteadof the
conventional two-wheeldrive. PrincipLes,
3.01;when to engage,3.01.
See also DriveTrain;TransferCase.
Tt-eezing
Up”. Fran capsizing,3.07.
Puel. Carryingdrumsof, 2.02;dailyinspection,18.30;Diesel,13.00;grades,
19.00;leakingDiesel,13.10;principles
of energyextraction,2.05;reserve
supply,2.01;&phonixg,17.10;spilled,10.10;storage,12.00,17.10;
testingflaw, 9.50;timingDieselinjection,13.30;weightof, 2.02.
fiel,Diesel. 13.00.
F'uel
Filter. Deviceto remve sand,wateror other impurities
from fuel,ustig
a fineah screen,porousceramicor plasticspongematerial. Cleaning,18.14;
clogged,7.50;Diesel,13.10;maintenance,18.14.
Fuel Line. Tubingfmn fuel tank to pump and carburetor.BleedingDimel, 13.10;
W&en, 7.50;clogged,7.50;Diesel,13.10;locatingdefect,8.12;priming,7.50.

Fuel Pump. Engine-powered

or electricpump to mve fuel to the carburetor.
Diesel,13.10;inoperative,7.50;testing,9.50.
Ike1 System. Repairs,10.30;testing,9.50;testingfillercap, 9.50.
Fuel Tank. Keepingfull,2.01;lemking,7.50;patching,10.30;soldering,
10.30;
welding,10.30.

.fise . Electricalsafetydevicewhichmeltsto open the circuitwhen overl,oaded.

Blown,7.80;causesof blown,10.54;location,7.81;locatingblown,7.81;
test*, 7.80, 9.70;substitutefor blown,7.81.

:.:i’
.,;.::: _’

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Gas. See Fuel.
Gasket. Sheetof softmaterialsuchas cork or cardboardto seal jointbetween
metalparts. Head,to test, 9.20;improvising,
10.10;leaking,9.10;making,
10.10;removing,10.10;replacingcylinderhead,10.94;tester,14.51.

Gas Pedal. See Accelerator.

GearbOX. Housingand gearsbetweenclutchand propellershaftto vary engine-
to-wheelspeedratio.Locatingdefects,8.51;lubrication, 18.11;noise,
8.80;periodicinspection, 18.21;towingcar with damaged,6.72. See also
Gear Shift;TransferCase;Wansmission.
Gearshift.Driver'shandlefor changinggear ratios. Operation,
2.04. See
also Downshifting;
TransferCase;Transmission.

GeneralMotorsCorporation.19.34.
Generator.Cylindricalaccessoryproducingelectricity,
generallydrivenby
the fan belt. Alternator,
10.53;basicpriciple,2.05;locatingdefects,
8.14;lubrication,
18.11;repairing,10.53;shoppower,12.00,14.31;
testing,9.70;welder,14.42.
Glass. Fixingcracked,11.00;replacing
window,11.00.
Graphite. Fop lubrication,
18.11.

GravelRoads. Operationon, 3.00.

Grease. Thicklubricantfor bearings,ball joints,etc. Gun, 18.10;packing
bearing,10.10;pit in shop,12.00;removing,12.00,14.50.
Greasii?g.
Procedure,
18.10.
Qound (Electrical).Polarity,9.70.
Gully. Straddling,
3.00. See also Ruts.
Head Gasket. See CylinderHead Gasket.
Headlights.Lampson frontof vehiclefor nightdriving. Dim, 2.04;failure,
1.07;for testingbattery,9.70;for testinggenerator,9.70;for testing
starter,9.70;mud on, 2.04;protection
on gravelroad, 3.00;repairs,10.54.
Help. Signalsto secure,5.00.
Hill. Descendingwith winch,6.53;use of brakeson, 3.04;with slippery
surface,3.04.
Hitch. Trai;ler,
6.81;trailer,on frontof car, 6.83.

Hoist. In shop,12.00;making,14.50.
Hook. For tow Win, 6.21.
Hose. Radiator,mendingbroken,7.70.
21.00

Hydraulic
Which. See Winch.
Hydmmeter. Testerfar batteryconditionwhichmeasuresspecificgravityof
electrolyte;
usuallya glasstubewith a rubberbulb on the end. Operation,
9.70;chartof SE &pecific gravity)readings,20.10.
Ice. Drivingon, 3.04.
IgnitionCoil. Electricdevicefor raisingvoltageto sparkplugs,usually
a blackplasticcylinderon the firewall. Basicprinciple,2.05;dropping
resistor,8.12;replacement,10.55;testing,9.80;wet, 7.82.

IgnitionSystm. Locatingdefects,8.12;principles, 10.55;repairs,10.55;

testi.r*g,
9.80;whilefording,3.08. See also Battery;Distributor;
IgnitionCoil;SparkPlugs.
IgnitionTiming. Testing,9.80.
IgnitionWiring.Yeakingl',
10.55.
Injector.Fuel sprayerwhich forcesfuel into Dieselenginecylinder,.
Diesel
fuel,13;lO;testingDiesel,13.20;timingDiesel,13.10,13.30.
InnerTube. Blackrubberliningbladderof a tire. Lmating leak,10.62;
patching,10.62;remving, 10.62;salvagingrubber,10.62;to replace
spring,7.00. See also Tire.
Insects. Removingdead,18.14.
IntakeManifold. Metalcastingon the engineblockto distributeair and
fuelmixturefrom the carburetorto the cylinders.Basic principle,2.05;
vacuumtest, 9.20.

International
HarvesterCcmpany. 19.35.
Jack. Machinefor liftingthe car. Liftcar off obstacle,+.03;‘liftcar
out of mud and snow,4.02;omation, 7.60;placemnt, 10.10;substitute,
7.60;to buildhoist,14.50;to raisecar fzmn bridge,4.04;used over pit,
12.00;usingwinchas, 6.40;wrLenin snow or mud, 4.01.

Jackknifing.Definition,
6.82;safetyhazard,6.80;to avoid,6.82:
Jeep. 19.36.
JumperCables. Heavywireswith clipson the ends for connecting
one car's
batteryto another's.To use, 7.81.
Knocking.Rattlingnoisein enginelike loosemarblesrollingamund, caused
by poor fuel burningin cylinders.Dieselengine,13.10;eliminating,
10.93;
identifying, 8.61,8.80.
Knots. To joinrope, 6.12.
buckle Joint. See SteeringKnuckle.
Land Rover. 19.37.
 21.00

Leaf spring. See Spring(Chassis).

LightS-.Bnprovised
for work.,
7.00;in shop,14.30;repairs,10.54;work, 15.20,

LimPted-Slip
Differential.See Differential.

LittW. For carryingpatient,15.10.

Load. Capacity,19.10. Causingcapsizing,3.07;heightof, 2.01;in trailer,
6.82;liftingwith winch,6.40;loadingthe vehicle,2.02;securingto truck,
15.10;weightcalculation, 20.00.
LockingHubs. Hand-turned
knobson frontwheelsto disconnect
wheelsfrom axles.
Advantages,19.20;definition,
19.20.

mz. As deadman,6.41;jamnedundercar, 6.52;rroving

with winch,6.40.
Lubrication.Fillingcrankcase,
18.11;procedure,
18.11.
Lug Nuts. Nuts fittingstudsto noun-t
brakedrumsand wheels.Worrowing",7.00;
tightening,7.60;see also BrakeDrum;Rim; Wheel.
Maintenance.Preventive,
see all of Section18.00. Routinescheduled,
18.20.
Hanifold,Exhaust. See ExhaustSystem.
MasterCylinder.Fmt-opqated hwau$& cylinderwhichforcesfluidto the
wheelcylindersto stopthe car; usuallylocatedon oppositesideof fire-
wallfrombrakepedal. See also Brakes.
Measmts. Charts20.10.
Metricequivalents.20.10.
Minibike. 19.00.
Moisture. On ignitionwires,7.82.
Mud. Capsizedin, 6.61;-ication from,4.00,4.01;hung up in, 4.02;
improvingtractionin, 3.04;resistance
of, 3.04;winchingout of, 6.50.
MUfflCT. Metalcan containingsoundbafflesfor the exhaustgas, usually
munted underthe rear of the car. Clogged,8.62;noise,8.80;repairing
leaks,10.80;replacement, 10.80.

NightDriving. Precautions,
3.00.
Noises. Bubblesin radiator,9.10;unusual,8.80.
Nut. Squareor hexagonal
metalfittingwith a threadedhole to be screwedon
abolt or stud. "F!rozent',
7.00;to remove,10.10.
Obstacle.Hung up on, 4.03;straddling,
3.00.
Oil. Checkingfor leaks,18.21;checkinglevel,18.30;consumption, 8.21;
cooler,19.20;dailyinspection, 18.30;exhaustcolorchecks,9.90;gear,
18.11;improvised cooler,15.20;locatingdefects,8.21;loss of pressure,
1.01,8.20;periodicinspection, 18.21;refillingcrankcase,18.11;SAE
ratings,18.11;spilled,10.10;storage,17.00;to free nut, 7.CO;water
in, 9.20.
Oil Drum. As float,5.01;load in truck,2.02.
Oil Filter. Screenor porousmaterialto removeparticlesfrom engineoil,
usuallylocatedin a can-shapedhousingconnectedto the crankcase.
Replacement,18.11.

Oil Pan. See Crankcase.

Overheating.Causes,7.70;locatingcause,8.70;themstat test, 9.10.
See also CoolingSystem.
ParkingBrake. See Hand Brake.
Parts. Availability,
19.00;carriedin car, 16.00,interchanging,
19.00;
stockin shop,16.00.
Passengers.Numberof, 2.03.
Patch. Hot, 10.62;tire,10.62.
PCV. 10.81.
Pedals. Removingrubberpads, 15.20.
Pickup'
Trzlck.Selecting,
19.10.
Piston. Cylindrical
metalblockmovingup and down in the engineto provide
power. Basicpurpose,2.05;Dieselengine,13.10.
PistonRings. Metalringsfittedintogroovesin the pistonto providea tight
sealwith the cylinderwall. Ccmpression
test, 9.20;Diesel,13.10;replacing,
10.93;warn, 8.62.
Plymouth. 19.38.

Points. See BreakerPoints.

Power. Lack of, 8.62.
F!ressure. Testingcylinder,9.10.

Fbressure
Gauge. To test fuel pump, 9.50.
Preventive
Maintenance.See all of Section18.00.

Propem%? Shaft. Pipe-likercdtransmitt~ powerfromgearboxto differential.

&dcen, 1.03;noises,8.80. See also Drive Shaft.
Pulley. Ratiocalculation,
20.00;with winch,6.44;see also Blockand Tackle.
 21.00

Push. To startengine,7.81.
PusherBoard. Operation,
6.70.
Radiator. Finnedtubingset in frameat frontof car for coolingthe water
circulated throughthe engine. Addingwater,7.70;air in, 9.10;boiling,
1.04;anti-freeze, 7.70;basicprinciple, 2.05;checkingwater level,18.30;
dailyinspection, 18.30;flushing,18.13;locatingdefects,8.70;oil in,
9.10;overheated,1.04;overheatingcausedby low pressure,9.10;pressure,
9.10;repairingleaks7.70,10.70;soldering, 10.70;substitute for water,
7.70. See also CoolingSystem.
Radio. 4.00
Recovery. Of s&merged car, 5.01.

Resistor. Ignitioncoil,8.12.
Rim. Metalwheelon whichthe tire and tube (if any) are mounted.Rerroving
tire from,10.62;split,10.62. See also Tire;Wheel.
River. See also Fording.
Rock. Hung up on, 4.03;straddling,
3.00.
RockerArm cover. Metalcoveron top of engineblockover the ends of the
valvesand arms whichmove the valves. Adjustingvalves,10.91;breather-
see BreatherCap.
RollerBearing. Frictionreductiondeviceconsisting
of two cylinderswith metal
rollersbetweenthem,i.lsed
onaxles and otherparts. Assembling,10.23;
greasing,10.10;testing,9.40.
Rope. Aroundtire,4.00;splicing,6.10;storage,6.10;strengthof fiber,6.10;
syntheticfibers,6.11;usingvines,4.00. See also Cable;Winch.
Rotor,Distributor.Blackplasticelectricswitchinsidethe distributor
cap whichturnsto connectthe centerwire of the cap to each of the outer
wiresini3lm. See also Distiibutor.
RoughRunning. Locatingcause,8.60;8.61.
Running&tar. See Alimt; S@ngs; Steering;Tires.

“Running al” l
Dieselengine,13.30;gas engine,10.93.
Ruts. StMddling,3.00.
Sand. Extrication
from,4.00;resistance
of, 3.04.
seat Belts. Purpose,19.20;valueof,2.03.

Sedilnsntcup.See Fuel Filter.

e. kbbblingof frontwheels,sometimes
makingsteeringdifficult.
Bslancingtires,10.62;locatingcause,8.35;repairs,10.61. See also
Steering;SteeringBox.

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21.00

shcckAbsorber. Hydrauliccylinderbetweenaxle housingand chassisto reduce

road bmps; usuallylocatednear eachwheel. Basicprinciple,2.05;broken,
8.80;bushingmissing,8.80;dailyinspection, 18.30;periodicinspection,
18.21;replacement,10.64;testing,9.40.

Shop. Designing,
12.00.
Silencer.SeeMuffler.
Siphon. For gasoline,17.10.
Skid. To regaintraction,3.04. Also see *action.

Snow. Capsizedin, 6.61;drivingin deep, 3.95;extricationfrom,4.00,4.01;

hung up in, 4.02;resistance
of, 3.04;winchingout of, 6.50.

Soap* For hands,12.00;to repairfuel tank, 7.50.

Solder. Improvised,
7.00.
Soldering.Processfor joiningmetalsby heatingthem and flowingon a soft,
melted"solder"metalwhichcoolsand hardens. Fueltank, 10.30;radiator,
10.70.
Solenoid.See StarterSwitch.
SparkCoil. See IgnitionCoil.
Sparkplug. Whiteceramicand n&al terminalof the ignitionsystemwhere
electricityfmmthe ignitioncoil causesa sparkto ignitethe fuel;one
is locatedat the top of each cylinder. Basicprinciple,2.05;field
repair,7.82;length,10.55;locatingdefects,8.12,8.15;periodicin-
spection,18,21;'replacing,10.55;settinggap, 10.55;size,10.55;testing,
9.80;vacuumgaugetest, 9.20.
Speedcar&er.Noise,8.80.
SplineJoint. Type of shaftjointin whichone sectionhas lengthwiseribs
whichslideinto similargmoves in the other section;ccmmnly used for
plmpllm shaft. Greasing,18.10;periodicinspection, 18.21. See also
propellershaft.
spreaders.Springsm rubbercirclesused to pull tire chainstight. Use on
tire chains,3.03.
springsozhassis).Flat leaf or coil springsbetweenthe axlesand chassis.
Basicprinciple,2.05;coil type,10.63;dailyinspection, 18.30;dis-
mantling,10.63;judgeof overloading, 2.02;remving, 10.63;replacing
leaf,10.63.

wQz* Wire coil with elasticity

to returna part afteruse, such as to lift
the accelerator afterit has been depressed.Replacewith rubber,7.00.
Starter, Electricrotorto turn the engineand startit. &mature, 10.56;
benchtesting,10.56;brushes,9.70;comutator,, 9.70;fieldwindings,10.56;
jammd, 7.81;locatingdefect,8.11,8.12;lubrication, 18.11;repairs,9.70,
10.56;testing,9.70.
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 21.00

StarterSwitch. 'Totest, 9.70.

starting.Dieselengine,13.10;locatingcauseof failure,8.64.
Steering. Broken,1.05;daily inspection,
18.30;effectof load on, 2.02;
fieldexpedients, 7.30;greasing,18.10;grip on wheel,2.03;locating
defects,see all of 8.30;partsbent,1.06;periodicinspection,18.21;
repairs,10.61;testing,9.40,'

SteeringBox. Housingat the lowerend of the steeringwheel shaftwhich

convertsthe rotarymotionof the steeringwheelto the lateralforce
neededto steerthe frontwheels. Causeof shimrry, 8.35;checking,18.21;
loose,10.61;lubrication, 18.11.
SteeringKnuckle. Connection
in wheelend of frontaxle to transmitpower
to frontwheelswhileallowjngthem to turn for steering.Checking,18.21;
lubrication,18.11;testing,9.40.
Still. For drinkingwater,5.00.
Storage. In shop,17.00;of pa&s, 12.00;on vehicle,15.10.
Straddling
Obstacles.3.00.
Stranded. 5.00.
Stream. See also Bridge;Ford;Submerged;
Water.
Stud. Threadedcylinderscrewedintoahole inan enginepart sothatpart
is left exposedto be used to hold down anotherpart such as a cover.
To remve, 10.10.
Stump. Himg up on, 4.03.
smged. 3.09;5.01;fieldrepairsafter,7.10;salvagewith winch,6.62.
Supplies.Carriedin car, 16.00;dailyinspection,
18.30;stockin shop,16.00.
Swamp. To omss, 3.04. See alsoMud; Traction.

Synclmxnesh.Type 01 transmission whichcompensates

for differences
in
rotatingspeedof the drivegearsand wheelsto avoidgrindingor clashing
when Shiftinggears.~ See also Transmission.
Tailpipe. Pipe at the end of the exhaustsystem,from the mufflerout the rear
of the car. See also must System.
Tempera-. Centigrade
and Fahrenheit
chart 20.10.

TempeMhrreIMicator. See Radiator.

Test Instmnmts. 14.30.

Test Iamp. To test fuse, 9.70.

Tedng Ekpipent. All.of Section9.00.
Thermostat.Heat-operatedopeningin the coolingsystemwhichopenswhen the
enghe becomeshot to allowwaterto flow. To test, 9.10.

Tie Rod. Pipe-likeconnection

betweentwo frontwheelsto make them steer
together.Adjustingtoe-+. 10.61;bent,1.06;broken,1.05,7.30;field
repair,7.30;troubleshcotmg, 8.35.
Timing. Adjusmt to make sparkplug fire at propertime in relationto piston
lmvement. Adjusting,9.80,10.55;Dieselengine,13.10,13.30;misfiring,
8.61;settingbeaker points,10.55;testing,9.80;tune-up,18.12.
TimingLamp. Operation,
9.80,10.55.

TippingOver. See also Capsizing.

Tire. Balancing,8.31,10.61,10.62;blomut, 1.02;causeof worn, 8.32;
changing,7.60;changingpress,14.50;compressor to inflate,14.32;daily
tispection,
18.30;drivingon flat,7.60;effectof size on traction,3.05;
flat,on trailer,6.82;in coldweather,18.15;inflating tubeless,10.62;
lugs,10.62;periodic,inspection, 18.21;puttingon rim, 10.62;removingfrom
rim, 10.62;ripped,10.62;rotating positions10.62,18.21;selecting, 19.20;
spare,2.01;stuckin bridge,4.04;track- distancebetweentireson same axle,
2.01;tubeless,10.62;used for towing,6.70;valve,10.62;wear due to 4WD,
3.01.
TireChains. See Chains,Tire.
Toe-In. Adjusting,10.61;definition,
10.61. 0

Tools. See all of Section14.00. Carriedin car, 14.10;dailyinspection,

18.30;%me-m3deff,14.50;improvised torquewrench,14.50;in shop,14.20;
specialized,14.30;storage,12.00.
Torque. chartfor bolts,20.10.
TcmqueWmx&. Improvised,
14.50.

Towing. 6.00. Eyes,15.20.

TowRope. Hook for, 6.21;joiningpiecesof, 6.12;knots,6.12;lengthof,
6.71;to attach,6.71;use of old tire,6.70.
Toyota. 19.3,9.
Traction. ImpmXng, 3.01,4.00;increasingwith chains,3.01;loss of, 3.04;
precautionswhen winching,6.60;wheelhook,4.00;winchnot dependenton,
6.30.
Trailer. 19.00. Brakes,6.81;crossingbridge,3.06;crossingford,3.08;
extricating,
6.83;for generator,12.00;hitches,6.81;loading,6.82;
maneuvering,6.82;movingwith winch,6.40;towing,6.82;towingwith
tractor,6.80;uses of, 6,80.
 7lhnsferCase. Additional
gearboxon 4WD cars to providefrontwheelpower
and highergearratiofor addedpoem. L&&cation, 18.11;operator,2.04;
periodicinspection,18.21. See also DriveB&n; Gearbox;Transmission.

Transmission.Gear-changingequipmntbetweenengine anddifferentials,
eitherautmatic or manual. Automatic, 19.20;locatingdefects,8.51;
lutrrication,
18.11;noises,8.80;on 4WD vehicle,3.01;periodicinspection,
18.21;towingcar with damaged,6.72. See also Gearshift.

TJmck. Types,19.10.
Tube,Tire. SeeInnerTube.
3bbiIlg.Bending,10.10;repairingdented,10.10;to put oil in housings,18.11;
to transferfuel,17.10.
Tune-Up. Procedure,
18.12.
Untig. 19.40.
universalJoint. Power-transmitting
jointfor a twistingshaftmade of two
V-shapedbracketswith a fom-pointed"spider"betweenthem. Cover,15.20;
damaged,8.33;greasing,18.10;noises,8.80;periodicinspection, 18.21;
repairing,10.24.
Vacuum. wine, to test,9.20;in fuel tank, 9.50;locatingleaks,9.20.
VacuumGauge.Meterfor measuringvacuumas a test instrument.Adjusting
carburetor,10.30,18.12;operation,9.20;testingtiming,9.80.
Valve (Engine).Plug that closescylinderat variouspointsin the engine
operating-cycle;usuallylocatedin the cylinderhead. Adjusting,10.91;
basicprinciple,2.05;checkingby exhaustcolor,9.90;cmpressiontest,
9.20;Dieselengine,13.10;grinding,10.91;moving, 10.91;sticking,8.62;
testing,9.20;timing,8.62;tune-up,18.12;vacuumtest, 9.20.
Valve(Tire). Stopperin the air ;lippleof a tire or innertube whichlets
air *to the tire but not out. Leaking,10.62. See also Tire.

Vehicle..&sic designs,19.10;selecting
new, 19.00.
Vibration.Locatingcause,8.33.
Vines,,To replacerope,4,OO.
volkswagen.19.41.
Voltage. rrPre~surett
of electricity
in any electrical
system. To liaise
charging,10.53.
.v01bIleter.
14.30. To adjustvoltageregulator,10.52;*LOtest generator,
9.70,
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 21.,00

VoltageRegulator.Electricalcontrolsfor the batterychargingcircuit,

usuallyconsMing of two or mxe smallrelaysundera metal. or plastic
cover. Adjusting,10.52;locatingdefects, 8.14;testing,9.70.

Addingto radiator,7.70;battery,18.14;car subnepgedin, 5.01;

~~-teT?.
carryh, 7.70;distilled, 18.14;drainingfrom gas tank, 15.20;driving
in, see Fording;for the shop,12.00;heaterfor shop,U.00; ignitionsplash
guard,15.20;in crankcase, 9.20;in engine,7.10,8.11;in exhaustsystem,
9.90;in fuel,7.50;15.20;on ignitionwires,7.82;radiator,18.13;reserve
supply,2.01;stillfor producing, 5.00;substitute for radiator,7.70. See
also Submerging.
WaterF+mp. Centrifugal pump,usuallymunted on frontof enginewith fail\,,
for movingcoolingwaterthroughengineand radiator. Leakingair, 9.10;
noisesfrom, 8.80;repairs,10.71. See also CoolingSystem;Radiator.
Weight. Capacityof vehicle,see also Lcad,
Welder. Shop tool for joiningmetalby heatingand meltingthe jointarea.
Electricarc, 14.42;gas, 14.41;generatortype,14.42;transformer type,
14.42.
Welding. Chainrepairs,6.23;chassis,11.10.
Wheel. Metal circleon whichthe tulx and tire are mounted. Bent,to test
for, 9.40;rrmnting,10.62;noises,8.80. See also Rim.
Wheel,Spinning. See Traction.
Wheel Bearings. LocatingDefects,8.34;to test, 9.40. See also Ball Bearings,
RollerBeixdngs.
Winch. Accessmy tool usuallymunted on tint of car for applyingforceby
windingup a rope or cable. See all of Section6.00. Rt-oken
cable,6.42;
cablefor, 6.34;cablesnarled,6.43;capstantype,6.31;drivesystemfor,
6.33;drum type, 6.31;economicaspects,6.30;electric,6.33;goingdown-
hill, 6.53;hydraulic,6.33;in md, 6.50;in snow,6.51;installing, 6.32;
operation,6.40;recoversubmerged car, 5.01;selecting,6.31;to wind cable,
6.43;used as shophoist,12.00;while fording,3.08.
Window. See also Glass.
Windshield
Wiper. Flatrubber-edgedbladewhichoscillates
acrosswindshield
to frerrove
rain drops. Blademaintenance,
18.14.
wire. Ignition,to test, 9.80,
Wire Rope. Carryingon vehicle,6.03;for winch,6.34;joiningsections,6.02;
splicing,6.02;storage,6.03;strength,6.Ol;to form eyes,6.02. See also
Cable;Rope.

Nmkbench. For shop,12.00.