Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mary Barnes
1999
c University of Sydney
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 1
If the derivative of F (x) is f (x), then we say that an indefinite integral of f (x)
with respect to x is F (x).
For example, since the derivative (with respect to x) of x2 is 2x, we can say that an
indefinite integral of 2x is x2 .
In symbols:
d 2
(x ) = 2x, so 2xdx = x2 .
dx
Note that we say an indefinite integral, not the indefinite integral. This is because the
indefinite integral is not unique. In our example, notice that the derivative of x2 + 3 is
also 2x, so x2 + 3 is another indefinite integral of 2x. In fact, if c is any constant, the
derivative of x2 + c is 2x and so x2 + c is an indefinite integral of 2x.
where c is what we call an “arbitrary constant”. This means that c has no specified value,
but can be given any value we like in a particular problem. In this way we encapsulate
all possible solutions to the problem of finding an indefinite integral of 2x in a single
expression.
In most cases, if you are asked to find an indefinite integral of a function, it is not necessary
to add the +c. However, there are cases in which it is essential. For example, if additional
information is given and a specific function has to be found, or if the general solution of
a differential equation is sought. (You will learn about these later.) So it is a good idea
to get into the habit of adding the arbitrary constant every time, so that when it is really
needed you don’t forget it.
The inverse relationship between differentiation and integration means that, for every
statement about differentiation, we can write down a corresponding statement about
integration.
For example,
d 4
(x ) = 4x3 , so 4x3 dx = x4 + c.
dx
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 2
Exercises 1.1
d
(ii) dx
(x5 ) = , so dx =
d
(iii) dx
(ex ) = , so dx =
d 1
(iv) dx x2
= , so dx =
d
(v) dx
(x) = , so dx =
d
(vi) dx
(ln x) = , so dx =
The next step is, when we are given a function to integrate, to run quickly through all
the standard differentiation formulae in our minds, until we come to one which fits our
problem.
In other words, we have to learn to recognise a given function as the derivative of another
function (where possible).
Try to do the following exercises by recognising the function which has the given function
as its derivative.
Exercises 1.2
i. (− sin x)dx
ii. 3x2 dx
iii. 2dx
iv. sec2 xdx
3 1
v. x 2 dx
2
1
vi. − dx
x2
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 3
Rule 1
(cf (x))dx = c f (x)dx, for any constant c.
For example 10 cos xdx = 10 cos xdx = 10 sin x + c.
It sometimes helps people to understand and remember rules like this if they say them
in words. The rule given above says: The integral of a constant multiple of a function is
a constant multiple of the integral of the function. Another way of putting it is You can
move a constant past the integral sign without changing the value of the expression.
Similarly, from
d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = (f (x)) + (g(x)),
dx dx dx
we can derive the rule
Rule 2
(f (x) + g(x))dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
For example, (ex + 2x)dx = ex dx + 2xdx
= ex + x2 + c.
In words, the integral of the sum of two functions is the sum of their integrals.
We can easily extend this rule to include differences as well as sums, and to the case where
there are more than two terms in the sum.
Examples
Solutions
i.
(1 + 2x − 3x + sin x)dx =
2
1dx + 2xdx − 3x dx −
2
(− sin x)dx
= x + x2 − x3 − cos x + c.
Note: We have written + sin xdx as − (− sin x)dx because (− sin x) is the deriva-
tive of cos x.
ii.
1 1 x
(3 cos x − ex )dx = 3 cos xdx − e dx
2 2
1
= 3 sin x − ex + c.
2
You will find you can usually omit the first step and write the answer immediately.
Exercises 2
We should now look carefully at the formula we have just worked out and ask: for which
values of n does it hold?
d
Remember that the differentiation rule dx (xn ) = nxn−1 holds whether n is positive or
negative, a whole number or a fraction or even irrational; in other words, for all real
numbers n.
We might expect the integration rule to hold for all real numbers also. But there is one
snag: in working it out, we divided by n + 1. Since division by zero does not make sense,
the rule will not hold when n + 1 = 0, that is, when n = −1. So we conclude that
Rule 3
1
xn dx = xn+1 + c
n+1
for all real numbers n, except n = −1.
When n = −1, xn dx becomes x−1 dx = x1 dx. We don’t need to worry that the rule
above doesn’t apply in this case, because we already know the integral of x1 .
Since
d 1 1
(ln x) = , we have dx = ln x + c.
dx x x
Examples
Find
i. x3 dx
dx
ii.
x2
√
iii. xdx
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 6
Solutions
1 1
i x3 dx = x4 + c = x4 + c. ← replacing n by 3 in the
(3 + 1) 4
formula
dx −2 1 1
ii = x dx = x−2+1 + c = − + c. ← replacing n by −2 in the
x 2 −2 + 1 x
formula
√
1 1 1 2 3
iii xdx = x 2 dx = 1 x 2 +1 + c = x 2 + c. ← replacing n by 1
2
2
+1 3
Exercises 3.1
very important habit to develop. There is no need to write down the checking process
every time, often you will do it in your head, but if you get into this habit you will avoid
a lot of mistakes.
Examples
Solutions
i.
5
5
x x
e + 3x 2 dx = e dx + 3 x 2 dx
1 5
= ex + 3 · 5 x 2 +1 + c
2
+1
2 7
= ex + 3 · x 2 + c
7
6 7
= ex + x 2 + c.
7
ii.
(5 csc x + 3 sec x)dx = −5 (− csc x)dx + 3
2 2 2
sec2 xdx
= −5 cot x + 3 tan x + c.
Exercises 3.2
4 Solutions to exercises
Exercises 1.1
d
i dx
(sin x) = cos x, so cos xdx= sin x + c.
d
ii dx
(x5 ) = 5x4 , so 5x4 dx = x5 + c.
d x
iii dx
(ex ) = ex , so e dx = ex + c.
iv d
dx
1
x2
= − x23 , so − x23 dx = 1
x2
+ c.
1
x2
= x−2 and d
dx
(x−2 ) = −2x−3 = − x23
d
v dx
(x) = 1, so 1dx = x + c.
(Note: 1dx is usually written as dx.)
d 1
vi dx
(ln x) = x1 , so dx
x
= ln x + c.
Exercises 1.2
Exercises 2
i (cos x + sin x)dx = sin x − cos x + c.
ii (ex − 1)dx = ex − x + c.
iii (1 − 10x + 9x2 )dx = x − 5x2 + 3x3 + c.
4
iv (3 sec2 x + )dx = 3 tan x + 4 ln x + c.
x
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 9
Exercises 3.1
1 6
1. i x5 dx = x + c.
6
1 10
ii x9 dx = x + c.
10
1 1 1
iii x−4 dx = − x−4+1 = − x−3 + c = − + c.
3 3 3x3
1 1 −1 1
iv dx = x−2 dx = x +c = − + c.
x2 −1 x
√
1
x− 2 dx
1 1
v √ dx = = 2x 2 + c = 2 x + c.
x
√
3
1 3 1 +1 3 4
vi xdx = x 3 dx = x3 = x 3 + c.
4 4
(Note: In exercises like v and vi above, it is easier to work out what power of x is
required, and then to work out what coefficient is needed to give the correct answer on
1
differentiating. This is usually better than substituting for n in xn+1 . So v is more
n+1 1 1
easily done by saying (mentally) “ − 12 + 1 = 12 , so the answer will involve x 2 . Now 2x 2
will give a coefficient of 1 when differentiated so x− 2 dx = 2x 2 + c ”).
1 1
√ √
1
vii x 2 dx = √ x 2+1 + c.
2+1
√
3 2 5 2 2√
viii x xdx = x 2 dx = x2 + c = x x + c.
5 5
1 1 1
ix dx = x−π dx = x−π+1 + c = − + c.
xπ −π + 1 (π − 1)xπ−1
1 3
2. i −3xdx = −3 · x2 + c = − x2 + c.
2 2
1 4 1
ii (x3 + 3x2 + x + 4)dx = x + x3 + x2 + 4x + c.
4 2
1 1 2
iii (x − )dx = x − ln x + c.
x 2
1 1
iv (x − )2 dx = (x2 − 2 + )dx
x x2
1 3 1 1 1
= x − 2x − + c. (Recall, 2
dx = − )
3 x x x
√
2 x 1 1
x− 2 dx +
1
v √ + dx = 2 x 2 dx
x 2 2
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 10
1 1 2 3
= 2 · 2x 2 + · x2 + c
2 3
√ 1 √
= 4 x + x x + c.
3
2x4 + x2
vi dx = (2x3 + x)dx
x
1 1
= 2 · x4 + x2 + c
4 2
1 4 1 2
= x + x + c.
2 2
3 + 5x − 6x2 − 7x3 3 5 7x
vii dx = + −3− dx
2x2 2x 2 2x 2
3 −2 5 1
7
= x dx + dx − 3 dx − xdx
2 2 x 2
3 1 5 7 1
= (− ) + ln x − 3x − · x2 + c
2 x 2 2 2
3 5 7
= − + ln x − 3x − x2 + c.
2x 2 4
Exercises 3.2
i (10ex − 5 sin x)dx = 10ex + 5 cos x + c.
√
5 3 1
ii x(x2 + x + 1)dx = x 2 + x 2 + x 2 dx
2 7 2 5 2 3
= x 2 + x 2 + x 2 + c.
7 5 3
√
5 1
iii + √ dx = 5 sin−1 x + 2 x + c.
(1 − x2 ) x
x3 + x + 1 x(x2 + 1) + 1
iv dx = dx
1 + x2 1 + x2
1
= x+ dx Dividing through by (1 + x2 )
1 + x2
1 2
= x + tan−1 x + c.
2
tan x sin x 1
v dx = · dx Writing tan x = sin x
cos x
sin x cos x cos x sin x cos x
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 11
1
= dx
cos2 x
= sec2 xdx
= tan x + c.
vi tan2 xdx = (sec2 x − 1)dx Using tan2 x = sec2 x − 1
= sec2 xdx − 1dx
= tan x − x + c.