INTEGRATION OF PHOTOVOLTAICS IN ARCHITECTURE
Caroline Sohie
Arup Associates, 37 Fitzroy Square, London W1T 6EY, UK
ABSTRACT
This paper positions the integration of photovoltaics
in architecture within a holistic approach towards
sustainability. The following projects by Arup Associates1
clearly demonstrate this approach through very different
applications of solar energy:
• A showcase for photovoltaics.
• A strategic and practical application for a remote area.
• An infrastructure project supported by a central
government initiative.
INTEGRATION OF PHOTOVOLTAICS IN
ARCHITECTURE
Never before in history we have been so self-conscious
about the world resources. Our pursuit of renewable
energies and the integration of these new applications in
our built environment is seen as us being responsible for
future generations.
In many cases the projects become demonstration projects
of what may become technically achievable in the future.
With these pilot projects we seek to inspire ourselves as
well as others.
Therefore it is important that these initiatives do not only
become a public relation stunt but also a testbed for the
rapid development of technology that we shall witness and
participate in the future; even if right now there doesnʼt
appear to be an immediate need and we can switch off the
light, knowing that afterwards, we can turn it on again.
So why do we, or our client for that matter, want to integrate
the use of photovoltaic cells into our future projects?
What is the idea, the purpose?
Is it a question of absolute need? Is it because of appearance
towards the general public or of social consciousness?
Or are we driven by technical posibilities and curious to see
where they lead?
How the technology of photovoltaics will evolve is very
hard to predict. Except for the “natural” technological
progress such as increasing the efficiency of the PV
panels, expansion of application possibilities,... this
applied technology could one day undergo a phase change
through a drastic transformation of the product or through
discovering production methods which might make
photovoltaics accessible to everyone.
The architecture which seeks to integrate photovoltaic
systems is very sensitive to these developments as they set
a series of rules regarding massing and orientation of the
building, incorporation of technical requirements and the
design of the external envelope.
The building envelope has undergone many transformations
throughout architectural history but in essence the highly
technologically advanced curtain wall seeks to satisfy still
the same fundamental needs as the hut or the Mongolian
Yurta tent: to create the ideal habitat by offering shelter and
comfort .
With the discovery of photovoltaics a whole new chapter
was initiated when suddenly the “architectural skin” was
found to have the capacity to produce energy as well.
Currently the shape and appearance of Photovoltaic
applications are still very much dictated by its purpose but
maybe in the future they will become more fabric related.
In the future “intelligent” cladding materials might be
developed and even programmed to become the perfect
integrator of form and multiple technologies going far
beyond fulfilling the absolute function of protection.
At present a lot of work has gone into rationalising the
different types of existing PV installations and in setting-
out PV application guidelines for architects and engineers .
These installations range from very basic “bolt-on” options
with a minimal level of integration between solar panel and
supporting structure to options where the PV Unit forms an
integral part of the cladding system in which they can even
be applied in louvers and shading systems.
Although we can try to rationalise and generalise these
systems, the integration of PVs depends totally of the
architectural project in which they will be applied.
Each project represents a case on its own with its particular
opportunities and constraints, informed by climate
conditions and programme, aesthetics and its function
within society and local economics.
This paper will illustrate the architectsʼ approach towards
the integration of Photovoltaic cells describing three
projects, which have been designed and developed by Arup
Associates in recent years.
Although these projects are radically different from each
other, the approach taken by the designers is very consistent
and can be summarised in four important themes:
- Opportunity for PV application
- Aesthetics
- Integration of PV installation
- Value for money
BP SOLAR SHOWCASE, Birmingham, UK.
1 BP SOLAR SHOWCASE, Birmingham, UK.
The BP Solar showcase is an exceptional type of building
as it has no inherent site context.
It was designed as a prototypical building, showing how
photovoltaic cells could be integrated into energy efficient
domestic and commercial buildings.
It was designed and built in just six weeks to coincide with
the G8 Summit of World Leaders held in Birmingham in
May 1998.
This project was a joint effort by Arup Associates
– architects and engineers- and Ove Arup & Partners –
photovoltaic, facade, acoustic, and IT/ telecommunications
engineers.
The use of photovoltaics was the driving force behind this
113M2 pavilion, and the embracing architectural concept
an expression of the solar paths.
The solar units are inherently part of the south-facing solar
wall/roof cladding system, designed and detailed by the
architects.
A laminated plywood diaphragm with waterproof
membrane supports the solar roof. The PV laminated
panels are fixed back with an aluminium pressure plate
to aluminium carriers, which are connected back to the
primary timber structure.
The south-facing solar wall is curved and angled to
optimise absorption of solar energy and maintain a nearly
constant electrical output, whilst also shading the east and
west vertical walls to protect against excessive solar gain.
Generating a peak of 15 kW of electricity, the mono-
crystalline PV installation powers ventilation, lighting, and
electrical equipment. It is connected to the National Grid,
allowing excess electricity to be exported during the day
and imported during the night.
Double-glazed units with Pilkingtonʼs “K” low emissivity
glass are used on the East and west walls, combined with
plywood infill panels on the west wall. The level of glazing
and the amount of opaque panelling in the walls has been
designed to balance internal heat gains – incurred through
lighting, equipment and people – with heat losses.
Two heat recovery systems are employed. One uses “waste”
heat from the electrical cupboard housing the photovoltaic
inverters and from the rear of the photovoltaic cells.
A fan blows this hot air down ducts in the buildingʼs fabric
into a flap damper chamber adjacent to the entrance, from
where it is directed into the interior or exhausted outside,
according to internal heating requirements.
The second system employs the principles of a Roman
Hypocaust: hot air is drawn from the top of the pavilion,
and blown through a second integrated duct, again to a
damper located next to the entrance. If the heat is not
needed internally, the hot air is directed to an underfloor
chamber comprising ducts of clay land-drain pipes that
diffuse the air through the underfloor joist zone. A “pebble
bed” is used in this area, providing additional thermal
mass to the structure, thus helping to minimise diurnal and
seasonal temperature fluctuations.
Except for Photovoltaics other sustainable features were
applied such as the recycling of rainwater, increasing
thermal mass, use of a prefabricated timber frame to create
a re-usable building.
In this building the integration off PVs is part of a holistic
sustainable approach which encompasses all aspects of
design and construction. The building is a prototype: its
orientation and the level of glazing and insulation, can be
adapted to suit its function and location.
After the G8 Summit the pavilion was relocated to Baglan
Bay, South Wales, as a permanent visitor centre for an
energy park. The project was awarded the UK Solar Award
in 1999.
DRUK WHITE LOTUS SCHOOL, Ladakh, India. configuration, to accommodate sudden higher energy
demands or to work in conjunction with the main grid in case
its efficiency would be improved within the following years.

Because of this required flexibility, the strategic decision

was made to construct a solar farm accommodating 300
PV panels to supply the energy for the whole campus. The
gained electricity may be used directly or stored in batteries
for later use, after sunlight hours.

The PV panels will be mounted externally, on structures

2 DRUK WHITE LOTUS SCHOOL, Ladakh, India.
The Druk White Lotus school shows how power can
be brought to the people and is an example of strategic
planning of solar infrastructure at village scale in a location
were no other reliable energy supply is present.
The School is situated in the village of Shey, in the western
Himalayas of Northern India.
The project is an initiative of the Drukpa Trust, a UK
registered charity and is under the patronage of His Holiness
the Dalai Lama. The aim of the project is to build and sustain
a new school for 750 mixed pupils.
The master-plan consists out of two main parts:
• The “Mandala” or institute, teaching courtyards
organised around a central open-air assembly courtyard
including computer and science labs, art studios, library
and assembly hall.
• Accommodation for some pupils and staff,
organised along a “residential spine” with dining hall,
kitchen and vocational training workshops.
south facing and tilted at 30° - 40° to the horizontal. The DC
circuit boards, batteries and power conditioning units shall be
mounted within a protected electrical housing.
Except for the solar farm photovoltaic technology is also
used for water supply to activate the pump system for two of
the boreholes on site. A solar collector system will be erected
to supply all residences with warm water.
The whole project is conceived as a model for appropriate
and sustainable modernisation in Ladakh.
Besides of the use of photovoltaics the spaces and their
structures are designed for flexibility, excellent day lighting
and ventilation, passive solar energy collection and to
perform safely during earthquake. The desert site will
be entirely self-regulating in terms of water cycle and all
buildings will take maximum advantage of the high–altitude
climate. Building materials and construction techniques
are mostly indigenous to Ladakh, with careful auditing of
sustainable resource supply.
The Druk White Lotus School secured the award for World
Architecture Best Green Building 2002.

The first phase opened for teaching in September 2001 and

includes the Nursery and Infant school courtyard, solar
energy centre and water infrastructure as part of the ongoing
construction programme.

Ladakh is located at 3.500 m above sea level. Its little rainfall

and the sunʼs extreme radiation intensity and long radiation
time makes the project site especially suitable for using
renewable energies.

The project mainly requires energy for light and power

during teaching activities in the school, for special events
in the assembly courtyard and evening activities at the
residential courtyards.

At present energy supply through the public grid is

insufficient and the existing hydroelectric plant at the river
Indus is very unreliable. Therefore the use of solar energy is
the only feasible solution.
The solar strategy needs to be an inherently flexible managed
PV installation to allow for potential future changes in
VAUXHALL CROSS INTERCHANGE, London, UK.
3 VAUXHALL CROSS INTERCHANGE, London, UK.
The Vauxhall Cross project, which is currently under
construction, promotes a new vision for a multi-modal
transport interchange, strategically located in the heart of
London.
This interchange is marked by a landmark sculptural
building, a stainless steel “ribbon” undulating down the
length of the 200m long bus station providing shelter,
urban prominence and a symbol of regeneration. The broad
plan canopy locates all the local bus services in one area
easing the switch between transport modes and increasing
safety and security of passengers. An accommodation
unit under the cantilevering arms of the canopy provides
facilities for the station controller, driversʼ mess and area
traffic controller as well as improving access from the
Underground station below.
Because of the projectʼs strategic significance, it was the
expectation of the client body (Transport for London, Cross
River Partnership and London Development Agency)
to demonstrate consideration and implementation of
renewable energy design.
Besides sustainability issues such as control of energy loss,
embodied energy and construction waste management, this
project provides an excellent opportunity to incorporate
solar energy technologies into a landmark development.
The Vauxhall Cross project was seen as an exemplary
pilot-project for future infrastructure projects which
would demonstrate the clientʼs commitment to meeting the
aspirations of the GLA Energy Strategy2 as well as raising
aspirations for the regeneration of Vauxhall.
Through the Governmentʼs Major PV Demonstration
Program a DTI (Department of Trade and Industry) grant
was secured which covers 65 % of the total costs of
installing a 30kWp array on the cantilevered bus station
canopy.
A multi-disciplinary team of Arup Associates developed
the solar solution as an integral part of the architectural
proposal.
The photovoltaic modules are incorporated in the sloping
section (forks) of the canopy at an angle of 20° to the
horizontal, and 25° west of south-facing. Each fork carries
4 sub-arrays of 21 modules, which are connected back to
the PV distribution board.
The PV units replace the stainless steel cladding panels
of the top portion of the canopy. The units (Nom. 860 x
1320) come in a black anodised aluminium frame and are
connected back to a sub-frame, with a concealed continuous
aluminium pressure surface fixing.
The wireways, trunking and junction boxes are located
underneath the waterproof membrane, in the void of the
canopy structure.
Each fork is provided with a walkway for further
maintenance and replacement of the solar arrays.
A net-metering contract will be developed between an
electricity supplier and London Buses Ltd. In order to use
the electricity grid to effectively store electricity generated
during daylight hours for use at night.
Installation of the PV modules, mechanical fixing and
electrical connections shall be carried out by the cladding
and electrical contractor involved in the construction of the
whole Interchange.
The contractors will be trained by an accredited PV
installation trainer to install the PV system, in direct
response to Government aims of having the Building
Industry as a whole become familiar with the technology
rather than the specialist few.
CONCLUSION
The wooden Shinto Shrine in Ise is built to honour the
Japanese sun gods. To retain the shrineʼs purity, it is rebuilt
every 20 years, using renewable materials such as wood
and thatch and preserving traditional skills.
It is an example of perfect integration in climate, constant
cultural renewal and alignment with nature.
These values might inspire our current society.
The use of Photovoltaics canʼ t be seen as a stand alone
subject. Only if it is part of a holistic approach towards
sustainability, can it fulfil an essential role in the transition
of our technological world towards a rediscovered balance
with nature.
APPENDIX

1 Arup Associates

Arup Associates was established in1963 and forms part of

the Arup group. The London based practice provides total
architecture, driven and informed by integrated design.
Arup Associates integrates architecture, engineering, cost
consultancy, urban and product design within one design
studio.

2 GLA Energy Strategy

The Greater London Energy Strategy is an initiative of the

Mayor of London and has as main objective to develop
London as an exemplary world class city for sustainable
energy and enhance social, environmental and economic
improvement. The public consultation draft was published
in 2003.