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vi1
RTH R4
R1
R4
vo2
R3 vi2 vo2
vo1 +
vTH1 RL
RL
R2 −
1
ROUT1 ROUT2
+ + + + + +
VRIN RIN + GV VRIN RIN + GV v
vi − 1 RIN1 − 2 RIN2 o
− −1 1
− −2 2
− −
Figure 3: Two cascaded amplifiers, 1 and 2. Each amplifier i is assumed to have its own distinct gain Gi ,
input resistance RIN i , and output resistance ROU T i .
its Thévenin-equivalent output resistance is model of an op amp. However, we do not assume that
the gains G1 and G2 are large, nor do we assume that
RTH2 = R4 ||RL , (5)
the input resistances RIN 1 and RIN 2 are large, nor
and its gain is do we assume that the output resistances ROU T 1 and
ROU T 2 are small.
RL
G2 = . (6) It is easy to see, though, that by the voltage divider
R4 + RL rule
The Thévenin-equivalent circuit for Circuit 1 can RIN 2
be used as shown in Figure 2 to obtain the overall VRIN 2 = G1 VRIN 1 (10)
ROU T 1 + RIN 2
gain: RIN 2
VRIN 2 = G1 vi . (11)
RL ROU T 1 + RIN 2
vo2 = vTH1
RTH + R4 + RL It follows that
µ 1 ¶µ ¶
RL R2
= vi1 . vo = G2 VRIN 2 (12)
(R3 + R1 ||R2 ) + R4 + RL R1 + R2
(7) RIN 2
= G2 G1 vi (13)
ROU T 1 + RIN 2
From this it is easy to see that the overall gain is
µ ¶µ ¶ so the overall gain of the two circuits combined is
R2 RL
G= . RIN 2
R1 + R2 (R3 + R1 ||R2 ) + R4 + RL G = G1 G2 (14)
ROU T 1 + RIN 2
(8)
Note that this is not at all the same as 1
= G1 G2 . (15)
µ ¶µ ¶ R
1 + ROU T1
R2 RL IN 2
G1 G2 = . (9)
R1 + R2 R4 + RL If we could find a way to force
This is unfortunate because if it were the same we
could get G very easily by first obtaining G1 and G2 1 =1
R
(16)
separately and then multiplying them together. 1 + ROUIN
T1
2
I R2
R1 R2
− R2
+ vo
D I RIN C ROUT
vi R1 i
TEST
vi
+ ↓ + +
Figure 4: A non-inverting op amp configuration. I R1 VD RIN +− AV vTEST
− −
D
−
4 Meeting the Condition
Figure 6: Applying the non-ideal op amp model to
We can satisfy the condition of (16) if we require that
the inverting op amp configuration in order to deter-
ROU T 1 ¿ RIN 2 . There are two indpendent ways of
mine its output resistance. Applying a test voltage
meeting this condition. We can either make ROU T 1
at the outputs, calculating the resulting test current,
very small or we can make RIN 2 very large.
and taking their ratio lets us calculate the output
Consider the non-inverting op amp configuration resistance ROUT = vtest /itest .
of Figure 4. Because the op amp has a very large in-
put resistance (almost no current enters its inverting
and non-inverting terminals), using this configuration
allows us to meet the condition of (16).
Now consider instead the inverting op amp config- To obtain the output resistance, we assume that
uration of Figure 5. Recognizing that the presence of the input vi = 0, effectively putting R1 and RIN in
negative feedback around the op amp causes the volt- parallel. Then we use Kirchoff’s current law at node
age at the inverting terminal to be a virtual ground, D, apply Ohm’s law, and rewrite the equations using
the only resistance seen at the input terminal is that nodal voltages. Note that VC = AVD . We get
due to R1 . This resistance is not necessarily very
large, so when using this configuration as the second
of two cascaded amplifier circuits we could only meet IR1 − IRIN − IR2 = 0 (18)
the condition of (16) by insisting that the output re-
sistance of the preceding circuit be very small. VD VD vD − vTEST
− − − =0 (19)
We might consider the output resistance of the in- R1 RIN R2
vTEST
verting configuration itself. Certainly its input resis- vD = ³ ´. (20)
tance is not satisfactory. We can obtain the output R2 R11 + R1IN + R12
resistance by applying the non-ideal op amp model,
as shown in Figure 6.
3
vTEST A
iTEST = 1− ³ ´ (23)
ROUT R2 R11 + R1IN + R12
vTEST 1
− 1− ³ ´
R2 R 1
+ 1 + 1
2 R1 RIN R2
(24)
µ
1 1
= vTEST −
ROUT R2
1/R2 − A/ROUT
+ ³ ´ . (25)
R2 R11 + R1IN + R12