European Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN 1450-216X Vol.33 No.3 (2009), pp.429-437

© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm

Philosophical Foundations and Research Relevance: Issues for

Marketing Information Research

N. Gladson Nwokah
Corresponding Author Lecturer, Department of Marketing, Faculty of Management Sciences
Rivers State University of Science and Technology
P.M.B,5080, Port Harcourt

Bariyima D. Kiabel
Senior Lecturer, Department of Accounting, Faculty of Management Sciences
Rivers State University of Science and Technology
P.M.B, 5080, Port Harcourt

Anthonia E. Briggs
Lecturer, Department of Information and Office Management, Faculty of Management Sciences
Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B,5080

Abstract

Research is all about finding out something whose absence may distort our ability
to take informed decisions. Business and social sciences deal with human beings and
human organizations that can hardly be predicted. Until recently, business is treated as a
component of social science. The emphasis being placed on business, a distinct field is only
a matter of giving it an empire so as to enable it develops appropriately. Apart from this
reasoning, the approach and methodology adopted especially in the area of research remain
the same in the two broad areas. Research is necessary in a world that is operating on a
super highway wit changes manifesting themselves in ways and manners we had never
known. The economy may buoyant today and by next month is may be depressed; there
may be industrial they may be industrial harmony today and by tomorrow, there is
industrial unrest; students may be of good behavior today and by tomorrow, they are out in
the street demonstrating and chanting war songs; consumers many patronize your products
today and by next month, they have shifted loyalty to another person must research his
environment by a scientific method, which preaches objectivity in both the search and the
reporting of facts. However, this work was set to articulate the various issues involves in
research promotion with emphasis in the distributive pattern. This study covers the basic
philosophical issues inherent in research methods. Some basic problems of effective
research and alternative solutions are also suggested.

Introduction
The wide world of information has been in a state of continuous change for some decades. The
proposition that research in information system lacks cohesion is fairly obvious. There are very few
areas in which continuous research over a period of years has tackled specific problems, or sought an
understanding of particular phenomenon. Information retrieval is one of them and even here there are
different groups, often non-competing and often engaging in this work oblivious to work in related
Philosophical Foundations and Research Relevance: Issues for Marketing Information Research 430

areas. Information behaviour research is another area where there is some degree of cohesion around
models and method that have won support (Wilson1981). Dervin (1992) adds that in that field, there is
perhaps, a developing consensus on an appropriate framework for investigation. One may be interested
to know why there is a lack of cohesion and connection in marketing information research. Wilson
(2000) believes that the reason behind this is because we do not have a single research object. He goes
further to state that we are all interested in information, but that is not a single phenomenon, as
reference to the theory of integrative levels can show. Information is a concept that takes different
forms at different integrative levels.
Wilson (2000) argues that an English philosopher Herbert Spencer appears to be the first to set
out the general idea of increasing complexity in systems. He goes of Chinese Science Joseph
Neeldham (1937). When a researcher manipulates information, he or she manipulates units. The
information retrieval specialist, on the other hand, conceives of information in terms of strings of
symbols, matching query strings against indexed strings. Information from the perspective of the
integrative level involved.
From a philosophical perspective therefore, we need to know the level of organizations we
intend our research to be. For example in the context of research on information system, document will
be taken as the level, broadly defined, searched for by the information user. Document will be broadly
defined to include electronic forms as well as messages of other kinds. There pint of interest here is
more specifically, in the interaction of the information seeker with the potential sources of useful
information and with the question of which philosophical perspective is most appropriate to research in
this field.

Science Versus Research

The Hutchinson Encyclopedia defines science as nay systematic field of study or body of knowledge
that aims through experiment, observation and deduction to produce reliable explanation of
phenomena, with reference to the material and physical world. The Encyclopedia also defines research
as the primary activity in science, and combination of theory and experimentation directed toward
finding scientific explanations of phenomena. It is commonly classified into types: pure research,
involving theories with little apparent relevance to human concerns; and applied research concerned
with finding solutions to problems of social importance. Hutchinson Encyclopedia opined that today,
scientific research involved an interaction deduction. The subject area called philosophy of science
investigates the nature of this complex interaction and the extent of its ability to gain access to the truth
about the materials world. The Encyclopedia believes that it has long been on logic. According to the
Hutchinson, Encyclopedia , in the 20th century Karl Popper has described scientific method as rig ours
experimental testing of a scientist’s ideas or hypotheses. The sociology of science investigates how
scientific theories and laws are produced, and question the possibility of objectivity in any scientific
realism with scientific relativism as proposed by Paul K. Feyeraband adopted by the Hutchinson
Encyclopedia.
Cooper and Schindler (2002) argue that science has come to be associated with research.
Research activities are limited to developing the body of facts often identified as science. They believe
that research is a process whereby we learn of problems, develop things that improve life, assess the
validity of new programmes, or procedures, as establish rules and laws that predict the behaviour of
events and objects. The link between science and research comes from the orderly approach one takes
in the investigation, not the subject matter studied. Cooper and Schindler (2002) went further to argues
that the scientific method is a four-step process namely; (1) problems-obstacle-idea, (ii) hypothesis,
(iii) reasoning –deduction (including hypothesis testing) and (iv) observation-testing experiment. If the
problem has been well stated, the hypotheses adequately formulated, and the implications of the
hypothesis carefully deduced, the next step is to test the hypothesis- testing the relationship between
the variables. Mason, Lind and Marchal (1996) believe that it is not the hypotheses that are tested, but
431 N. Gladson Nwokah, Bariyima D. Kiabel and Anthonia E. Briggs

the deducted implications of the hypotheses on the basis of the research evidence; the hypothesis is
either accepted or rejected.

Phenomenology as an Integrative Framework

Kuhlthau (1994) argues thorough analysis of the basis of phenomenology would take us back to the
distinction between Plato’s world of ideas and Aristotle’s world of senses, and those founders of
philosophy, via Descartes, the British pragmatists of the early 18th century. In this work we shall begin
with Husserl since his impact on the philosophy of the social sciences in the 20th century can be said to
be dominant. Wilson (2002) argues that many disciplines have a phenomenological dominant. Wilson
(2002) argues owe to Husserl. Hussey (997), quoting Allen (1990) defines phenomenology as a science
of phenomena. A phenomenon is a fact or occurrence that appears or is perceived, specially one of
which cause is in question. Phenomenological paradigm is concerned with understanding human
behaviour from the participant’s own frame of reference. Wilson (2000) argues that Husserl. While
accepting the Cartesian duality of mind and body, proposed that we need to focus upon human
experience of the world, rather than on the world itself, and indeed that the real world should be
bracket that is put aside from consideration while we focus on the individual experience.
Phenomenology seeks to understand how person construct meaning and a key concept is inter-
subjectivity. Wilson (2000) believes that our experience of the world, upon which our thoughts about
the world are based, is inter-subjective because we experience the world with and through others. He
believes that whatever meaning we create has its roots in human activity. Wilson (2000) argues that
Heidegger who is famous student of Husserl took an essential opposite view, rejecting the Cartesian
position and recognizing that human experience is experience of something and that some, apart from
the working of our own mind, consists of the external world from which we derive our stimuli.

Positivistic Dimensions
The positivistic approach in the social sciences is based on the approach used in the natural sickness,
such as biology, hots any and physics. It may not be surprising to agree that because of the successful
nature of this approach adopted by the natural scientist, the social scientist adopted this method at the
early nineteenth century. The basic argument here is that, the social scientists could adopt the role of
observers of an independent and pre-existing reality; they should remain distant when conducting their
research and not allow values and bias to distort their objective views. Hessey (1997) argues that the
positivistic approach seeks the facts or causes of social phenomena. For instance, information on those
factors that influence consumers attitudes to ‘made in Nigeria goods’. In the positivistic perspective the
researcher must obtain the various factors, which determine the reasons behind consumer’s choice of
made in Nigeria goods. Positivists believe that facts or causes of social phenomena sought with little
regard to the subjective state of the individual. Ciborra (1998) argues that logical reasoning is applied
to the research so that precision, objectivity and rigour replace hunches, experience and intuition as the
means of investigating research problems. Hussery (1997) is of the opinion that positivism is founded
on the belief that the study of human behaviour should be conducted in the same way as studies
conducted in the natural sciences. Hussey (1997) went further to argue that positivists’ law provides
the basis of explanation, permit the anticipation of phenomena, predict their occurrence and therefore
allow them to be controlled. He argues that explanation consists of establishing causal relationship
between the variables by establishing causal laws and linking them to a deductive or integrated theory.
Take for instance, ‘ Because management cannot keep an eye in every decision and action taken by all
its SBU, the success of an SBU and its managers must be judged by monitoring its performance
overtime. Thus, the SBU’s managersn should have control over the factors that affect performance, and
then be held accountable for the outcomes’
The social and natural worlds are both regarded as being bound by certain fixed laws in a
sequence of cause and effect. Hussey (1997) believes in the assumption that social reality is
Philosophical Foundations and Research Relevance: Issues for Marketing Information Research 432

independent debates of what is reality can be kept distinct from the epistemological question of How to
we obtain knowledge of that reality? The effect of investigating reality has no effect on that reality.

Basic Criticism of the Positivistic Paradigm

Hussey (1997) has outlined four basic criticisms of the positivistic paradigm as follow:
A) It is impossible to treat people as being separate from their social contexts and they cannot be
understood without examining the perceptions they have of their own activities,
(a) A highly structured research design imposes certain constraints on the results and may
ignore relevant and interesting findings,
(b) Researchers are not objective, but part of what they observe. They bring their own interest
and values to the research; and
(c) Capturing complex phenomena in a single measures is , at best misleading

Assumptions of the Main Research Philosophy

Creswell (1994) adopted by Hussey (1997) draws on a number of other authors to show the different
assumptions of the two main paradigms. Creswell (1994) refers to the positivistic paradigm as
quantities and the phenomenological paradigm as qualitative. Bureel and Morgan (1979) on the other
hands, refer positivistic paradigm as objectivist and phenomenological paradigm as subjectivists. We
shall take model of Burrel and Morgam (1979)

The Ubjective-Objective Dimension

Figure 1: a scheme for analyzing assumptions about the nature of science

The
The
subjectivists
subjectivists
approach to
approach to
social science
social science

Nominalism Ontology Realism

Anti-positivism Epistemology Positivism

Voluntarism Human nature Determinism

Ideographic Methodology Nomothetic

Source: Burrel and Morgam (1979), sociological paradigms and organizational Analysis, Heinemann.

Figure 1 above shows two stands, which depicts the two basic methods in social science
research. While Burrel and Morgan (1979) outlined four sets of philosophical assumption, which
underwriter the basic approaches in research in social science, Hussey and Hussey (1997) adopted
Creswell (1994) argue for five basic philosophical assumptions. Though, both authors agree in the
433 N. Gladson Nwokah, Bariyima D. Kiabel and Anthonia E. Briggs

ontological, Epistemological and methodological. Burrel and Morgan (1979) argue that the third
assumption should be focused on human nature. Hussey and Hussey (1997) adopted Creswell (1994)
argument that human nature should be seen in terms of Axiological and Rhetorical assumption.

Ontological Assumption
From the model above, the basic ontological question is what is the nature of reality? Burrel and
Morgan (1979) believe that the ontological assumption is concerned with the very essence of the
phenomena under investigation. They believe that the basic ontological questions are whether the
reality to be investigated is external to the individual-imposing itself on individual consciousness from
without or the product of individual consciousness , whether reality is of an ‘objective’ nature or the
product of individual cognition, whether reality is a given ‘out there; in the world, or the product of
one’s mind.

Nominalism-Realism (Ontological Dimensions)

With the ontological assumption, a marketing information analyst must decide whether he consider the
world (market) as objective and external to the research of socially constructed and only understood by
examining the perceptions of the customers actions. Take for instance, an assumption that packaging
affects customers’ perception of a product. Nominalists, and realists will see the questions of ‘to what
extent information on product package affects customers perception’ differently. Realist who belief
that reality is objective and singular, apart from the research will use a quantitative method to assess
the extent to which information on product packaging affect customers perception of a product. The
realist will use empirical method to investigate the extent this assumption is; because of their believe
that they exist in real life. Nominalist on the other hand believe that reality is subjective and multiple as
seen as participants in a study. In this instance, nominalists will want to research on the form that a
given factor must be responsible to nay form of customer’s perception on packaging.

Epistemologial Assumption
The prevailing question of epistemological assumption is the relationship of the researcher to that
researcher. Hussey and Hussey (1997) argue that Epistemology is concerned with the study of
knowledge and what we accept as being valid knowledge. This involves the examination of the
relationship between the researcher and that, which is being research.

Positivism and Anti-Positivism (Epistemological Stance)

Here positivists are used to characterize epistemologies, which seek to explain and predict what
happens in the social world by searching for regularities and causal relationship between its constituent
elements (Burreland Morgan, 1979), Positivist is objective in nature and belief that researcher is
independent from that being researched. The positivist believes that only phenomena, which are
observable and measurable, can be validly regarded as knowledge. They try to maintain an independent
and objective stance.
Anti-positivists on the other hand are qualitative and subjective in nature. Their believes is that
the researcher interacts with what is being researched. They believe that the researcher may be
involved in nay kind of participative enquiry. This polarity between the two approaches has been
captured by Smith (1983) as adopted by Hussey and Hussey (1997), who argues, in quantitative
research (positivistic approach) facts act to constrain our beliefs, while in interpretive (Anti-
positivistic) research beliefs determine what should count as facts.
Philosophical Foundations and Research Relevance: Issues for Marketing Information Research 434

Human Nature
The human nature is the 3rd assumption in research process according to Burrel and Morgan (1977).
Husey and Hussey (1997) conceptualized this stage into two: Axiological and Rhetorical. According to
Hussey and Hussey (1977), the axiological assumption is concerned with values, while the rhetorical
assumption is concerned with the language of research. The human nature debate according to Burrel
and Morgan (1979) revolves around the issues of what model of man is reflected in any given social-
scientific theory. Man is value free and unbiased; also man is value-laden and biased.

Voluntarism and Determinism (The human nature debates)

Burrel and Morgan (1979) believe that the Deterministic view regards man and his activities as being
completely determined by the situation or environment in which he is located. Determinists consider
that they are detached from what they are researching and regard the phenomena, which are the focus
of their research as objects. They are interested in the interrelationship of the objects they are studying
and believe that these objects were present before they took an interest in them. Also determinists
believe that the objects they are studying are unattached by their research activities and will still be
present after the study has been completed. Though, it has little influence in the social sickness, but it
is still very useful.

Methodological Assumption
The methodological assumption is concerned with the process of the research. Hussey and Hussey
(1997) argue that the choice of methodology to adopt is largely determined by the choice of ones
paradigm. Cooper and Schindler (2002) defined methodology as the overall approach to the research
process.

Ideographic-Nomothetic Theory
(The methodological debate) the ideographic approach is qualitative in nature. It uses inductive
process, mutual simultaneous, shaping of factors, and believes in accurate and reliable data through
verification. Burrel and Morgan (1979), argue that the ideographic approach to social science is based
on the view that one can only understand the social world by obtaining first hand knowledge of the
subject under investigation. They went further to state, that it places considerable stress upon getting
close to one’s subject and exploring its detail background and life history. They also believe that the
ideographic approach emphasizes the analysis of the subjective accounts which one generates by
getting inside situations and involving oneself in the everyday flow of life- the detailed analysis of the
insight generated by such encounters with one’s subject and the biographical and journalistic records.
He added that the ideographic method stress the importance of telling one’s subject unfold its nature
and characteristics during the process of investigation. We notice here that ideographic uses small
samples, possibly over a period of time. Because of their subjective nature, ideographic will use a
number of different research methods to obtain different perceptions of the phenomena and in their
analysis will be seeking to understand what is happening in a situation and looking for patterns which
may be repeated in other similar situation. The Nomothetic approach to social science on the other
hand lays emphasis on the importance of basing research upon systematic protocol and technique.
Burrell and Morgan (1979) argue that the nomothetic approach is epitomized in the approach and
methods employed in the nature sciences, which focus upon the process of testing hypotheses in
accordance with canons of scientific rigour.
Hussey and Hussey (1997) argue that the nomothetic is likely to be concerned with ensuring
that nay concepts, he uses can be operationalised that is in such a way that they can be measured. A
researcher who believers in a nomothetic approach unlike the Ideographic approach will probably use
435 N. Gladson Nwokah, Bariyima D. Kiabel and Anthonia E. Briggs

large samples and reduce the phenomena he is examining into their simplest parts. The researcher will
focus on what he regards as objective facts and formulate hypothesis. In his analysis, he will be
seeking associations or causality of information technology and marketing concept. To obtain at least
95% of the fact given at least 55 significant errors, the researcher will be preoccupied with the
construction of scientific tests to assess how information affects or relates with efficient and effective
marketing concept. The researcher will use quantitative techniques for the analysis of data. Burrel and
Morgan (1979) believe that survey questionnaires, personality tests and standardized research
instrument of all kinds are prominent among the tools, which comprise nomothetic methodology.

Discussion
Positivistic (objectivists) and phenomenological (subjectivists) are two extremes and very few people
would operate within their pre forms. Hussey and Hussey believe that there are a number of alternative
classification and alternative paradigms, most of which underline the fact that there are not just two
paradigm but also a whole range Morgan and Smirch (1980) adopted by Hussey and Hussey (1997)
identify a continuum of these assumptions with six identifiable stages, which is shown in table 1.

Table 1: Continuum of Core Ontological Assumption

Positive Approach to
Phenomenologist (subjective)
objectivist social sciences
Reality as a Reality as Reality as a Reality as a realm Reality as a Reality as a
concrete structure concrete process contextual file of of symbolic social const. project of human
information discuss imagination
Source: Hussey and Hussey (1997) adopted from Morgan and Smirch (1980).

Starting at the left hand side, at the extreme positivist end of the continuum, which Morgan and
Smirch (1980) adopted by Hussey and Hussey (1997) refer to as the objectivist end; there are those
who assume that the social world is the same as the physical world. Their ontological assumption
according to Hussey and Hussey (1997) is that reality is an external and real, the researcher can attempt
to measure and analyze it using research methods such as surveys. At the send stage of the continuums,
Hussey and Hussey (1997) argue that surveys. At the second stage of the continuums, Hussey and
Hussey (1997) argue that reality is regarded as a concrete process where the world is in part what one
makes of it.
The third stage, they argue is where reality is derived from the transmission of information,
which leads to an ever-changing form and activity. They argue that at the fourth stage, the social world
is a pattern of symbolic relationships and meanings sustained through a process of human action and
interaction. They went further to argue that at the fifth stage the social world is treated by individuals
through language, actions and routines. At the sixth stage, which they say is the extreme
phenomenologist end of the continuum also known as the subjectivist end, reality is seen as a
protection of human imagination. Under this assumption there may be no social world apart from that
which is inside the individual’s mind.

Summary
This work was set to discuss on the philosophical foundations and research relevance; issues for
marketing information research. Two major philosophical issues were identified. Phenomenological or
subjectivists and the positivist or objectivists. Positivistic paradigm in the social sciences is based on
the approach used in the natural sciences such as biology. Positivists (objectivist) believe that social
scientists should adopt the role of observers of an independent and pre-existing reality; they should
remain distant when conducting their research and not allow value and bias to distort their objective
views. The positivist therefore, seeks the facts or causes of social phenomena with little regard to the
Philosophical Foundations and Research Relevance: Issues for Marketing Information Research 436

subjective stage of the individual. Therefore, the ontological debate of what is reality can be kept
distinct from the epistemological question of “How do we obtain knowledge of that reality? It means
that the act of investigating reality has no effect on the reality. The objectivist law provides the basis of
explanation, permit the anticipation of phenomena predict occurrence and therefore allow them to be
controlled.
Subjectivist and phenomenological paradigm on the other hand is concerned with
understanding human behaviour from the participant’s own frame of reference. A reason to the
objectivist approach, it is assume that social reality is within us, therefore the act of investigating
reality has an effect on that reality. Considerable regard is paid to the subjective state of the individual.
This qualitative approach stressed the subjective aspect from human activity by focusing on the
meaning, rather than the measurement of the social phenomena. In this work some social methodologic
or assumptions of social science research were also mentioned. Methodology refers to overall approach
to research process, from the theoretical underpinning to collection and analysis of data. Like
paradigms, methodology cannot be ruled or false, only or less useful. The paradigm the researcher
adopts will have great importance for the methodology to be used. The following are the trend to the
two-man paradigm.

Objectivist (Positivist) Paradigm

a) Trend to produce quantitative data
b) Uses large sample
c) Concern with hypothesis testing
d) Data Is highly specific and precise,
e) The location is artificial
f) Reliability is highly
g) Validity is low and
h) Generalizes from sample to population

Subjectivist Paradigm
i) Trend to produce quantitative data
j) Uses large sample
k) Concern with generating theories
l) Data is rich and subjective
m) The location is natural
n) Reliability is low
o) Validity is high
p) G Generalizes from one setting to another
437 N. Gladson Nwokah, Bariyima D. Kiabel and Anthonia E. Briggs

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