4

FREQUENCY MODULATION
Amplitude modulation was discussed in the previous chapter. In this chapter we will
discuss frequency modulation, which is also known as, angle modulation.

Angle Modulation

Variation of the angle of carrier signal with time results in angle modulation. It is of
two types;

a) Frequency Modulation b) Phase Modulation

Frequency Modulation

The type of modulation in which the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied
according to amplitude of modulating signal is called frequency modulation.
Frequency modulation is widely used in VHF communication systems e.g. FM
broadcasting, transmission of sound signal in TV, Satellite Communication etc.

Figure 1 Frequency Modulated wave

Induction Course (General)

Frequency modulated wave is shown in Fig.1. The instantaneous frequency varies

about the average frequency (carrier frequency) at the rate of modulating frequency.
The amount by which the frequency varies away from the average frequency (carrier
frequency) is called frequency deviation and is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

Analysis of FM waves

Equation of a sine wave in the generalized form is

e = A sin θ . (1)

Where e is instantaneous amplitude, A is peak amplitude and θ is total angular

displacement at time t.

A frequency modulated wave with sinusoidal modulation has its frequency varied
according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. If ∆ f is the maximum deviation
of frequency from average, then instantaneous frequency is

f = fc + ∆ f cosω mt
or, ω = ω c + 2π ∆ f cosω mt
(2)
dθ
N ow ω =
dt

Integrating both sides

∫ ω.dt = θ
2π ∆ f
θ = ωct + sinω m t
ωm
2π ∆ f
∴ e = A sin(ω c t + sinω m t )
ωm
∆f
= A sin(ω c t + sinω m t )
fm
∆f
Let = mf
fm
∴ e = A sin(ω c t + m f sinω m t ) (3 )

Where m f is called the Modulation Index of the FM wave.

Thus for a given frequency deviation modulation index varies inversely as the
modulating frequency.

The frequency components actually contained in the FM wave can be determined by

expanding RHS of equation (3), then we get

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 Frequency Modulation

e = AJ0( m f ) sin ω ct
+AJ1( m f ) [sin (ω c+ω m)t-sin (ω c-ω m)t]
+AJ2( m f ) [sin (ω c+2ω m)t+sin (ω c-2ω m)t]

+AJ3( m f ) [sin (ω c+3ω m)t-sin (ω c-3ω m)t]

+AJ4( m f ) [sin (ω c+4ω m)t+sin (ω c-4ω m)t]

+AJ5( m f ) [sin (ω c+5ω m)t+sin (ω c-5ω m)t]

+……………….. (4)

Where Jn ( m f ) is the Bessel function of first kind and nth order with argument mf.
Bessel functions Jo to J8 are shown in fig. 2.

Equation (4) shows that an FM wave corresponding to sinusoidal modulation is made

up of several frequency components spaced apart by the modulating frequency.
Thus an FM wave has in addition to the side bands present in an AM wave, higher
order sidebands as well. Amplitudes

Fig. 2 Bessel Function Jo to J8

of different frequency components depend upon mf, the modulation index. When the
modulation index is less than 0.5, that is when the frequency deviation is less than
half the modulation frequency the second and higher order components are relatively
small and the frequency band required to accommodate the essential part of the
signal is the same as in amplitude modulation. This is called Narrowband FM and is
used for speech communications. When mf is larger than one (frequency deviation
greater than modulating frequency) there are important higher order sideband
components contained in the wave and it is called wide band FM.

Practical values of modulation index vary considerably with frequency. If fm = 15 kHz

and

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Induction Course (General)

∆f = 7 k5 H z
∆f 75
mf = = = 5
fm 15

Value of Bessel functions J0, J1 etc. for mf = 5 are plotted in fig. 3. It is clear that the
amplitude of sideband pair decreases for pairs of order greater then 5 and becomes
less than 1% of the unmodulated carrier amplitude beyond the 8th sideband pair.
+0.5
AMPLITUDE OF CARRIER
& SIDEBAND PAIRS

-0.5
J0(5) J3(5) J6(5) J9(5)

ORDER OF SIDEBAND PAIR

Figure 3 Relative Amplitudes of Carrier and Sideband Pairs for Modulation Index of 5

If the amplitude and frequency of a modulating signal are increased in the same ratio,
value of mf remains the same and the number of sidebands also remains unchanged.
The relative amplitudes of the carrier and sidebands is the same, giving the spectrum
pattern but the sideband spacing is greater because of the increased modulation
frequency.

A typical spectrum pattern for a FM wave for a modulation index of 5 is shown in

figure 4. It is seen that modulating frequency does two things:

1. Fixes the separation of sidebands.

2. Determines the rapidity with which the sideband distribution changes.

0.5
mf = 5 CARRIER
AMPLITUDE OF CARRIER

0.4
& SIDEBAND PAIRS

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ORDER OF SIDEBAND PAIR

Figure 4 Spectrum of FM Wave for a Modulation Index of 5

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 Frequency Modulation

Sideband Power

In FM signal, the carrier power diminishes during modulation and it is possible for
one or more sidebands to contain more power than the carrier. The power withdrawn
from the carrier during modulation is distributed among the various sidebands. The
louder the modulating signal, the greater will be the energy that is taken away from
the carrier. It is therefore, possible for the carrier, during one of these modulation
sweeps, to contain no energy at all. This is quite logical because the FM signal does
not vary in amplitude. The only way to satisfy this condition during modulation is to
transfer part of the energy to the sidebands. The power transfer is a characteristic of
frequency modulation.

When the intensity of the audio signal is increased the total number of sidebands
also increases i.e. the energy of the FM wave is shifted away from the carrier with
every sideband and the carrier affected. Thus, energy is taken by some and given
up by others. The total energy under all conditions remains constant.

The number of significant side bands corresponding to some of the common values
of modulation index is given in table below. Thus with an index of 5, there are 8
important sidebands on each side of the carrier with an index of 7, the sidebands
increase to 10.

Modulation Number of significant Bandwidth

Index sidebands Required
Above carrier Below carrier (fm = frequency of
audio signal)
0.1 1 1 2 fm
0.4 1 1 2 fm
0.5 2 2 4 fm
1.0 3 3 6 fm
2.0 4 4 8 fm
3.0 6 6 12 fm
4.0 7 7 14 fm
5.0 8 8 16 fm
6.0 9 9 18 fm
7.0 10 10 20 fm

It is interesting to note that when the modulation index is of the order of 0.5 or less,
only two sidebands are formed, which is similar to AM operation with one modulating
frequency.

It is quite confusing to note that although the carrier frequency in the FM transmitter
is not shifted beyond the 75 kHz limits, sidebands do appear beyond these limits. As
a physical analogy, consider a man moving his finger back and forth at the centre of
a small pool of water. Although the man may move his finger only slightly, water
ripples will appear far beyond this little area. The greater the distance covered by

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Induction Course (General)

man’s moving finger, the larger will be the spread of ripples. In FM, the greater the
carrier swing, the greater the number of sidebands obtained.

In actual practice, it rarely happens that a 15 kHz note will have enough amplitude to
spread the carrier to +75 kHz limits.

As the frequency of the modulating signal is lowered the number of sidebands that
extends beyond the 75 kHz limits also decreases until at 50 Hz a full carrier swing
will just produce sidebands up to the 75 kHz limits.

Bandwidth in FM

In FM, the BW is based on the number of significant sidebands, which depends upon
modulation index mf. In practice, the number of significant sidebands is determined
by acceptable distortion. These contain about 98% of the radiated power. By way of
best approximation, the Carson’s Rule (rule of thumb) gives a simple formula for
bandwidth as

BW = 2(1+mf)fm
= 2(∆ f + fm)

Guard band

fc-100 kHz fc-90 kHz fc fc+90 kHz fc+100 kHz

Fig. 5 BW of FM signal

For modulation index of 5 and maximum modulating frequency of 15 kHz, we have:

BW = 180 kHz

A guard band of 20 kHz (10 kHz on each side) is provided to prevent adjacent
channel interference. Thus the maximum permissible BW in FM broadcasting is 200
kHz. For narrow band FM (mf<0.5), the BW is the same as in AM i.e. 2 fm. When the
modulation index is very large (say>20), then the BW becomes 2∆ f i.e. 150 kHz.
For example, if fm = 100 Hz and ∆ f = 75 kHz.

∆f 75000
t h e mn f = = = 750
fm 100

In this case the BW will be 150 kHz, but for fm = 15 kHz, BW will be 180 kHz.

Noise Considerations In FM

FM offers the advantage of a much better noise performance as compared to AM,

the reasons for which are analyzed here.

The main parameter of interest at the input to the FM detector is the carrier-to-noise
ratio (C/N). Since both the carrier and the noise are amplified equally by the various

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 Frequency Modulation

stages of the receiver from antenna input to the detector input, this gain can be
ignored and the input to the detector can be represented by the voltage source Es,
which is the carrier rms voltage as shown in fig 6(a). Also the thermal noise is
spread over the IF bandwidth at the input to the FM detector.

δf

R
C/N
FM S/N
ES Detector
f c-w fc f f c+w

fn
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Noise consideration in FM

Es2
At the input to FM detector, carrier power available =
4R
Available noise power = k TsBN
Where Ts = Temp in degrees Kelvin, BN = IF bandwidth and
k = Boltzmann’s constant

2
C Es
Therefore, input carrier-to-noise ratio, = (1)
N 4R k sTB n

The noise voltage, being random, cannot in general be represented by a sinusoid.

However, for a very small bandwidth δ f, the noise voltage approaches a sinusoidal
variation. The phasor diagram for the carrier and noise is shown in Fig.7. Here, it is
assumed that the carrier is unmodulated except by the noise. This allows the noise
to be shown as a phasor rotating at angular frequency ω n wrt the carrier, where fn =
f-fc, and fn =noise frequency as shown in figure 6(b) . It may be seen that the noise
produces two types of modulation of the carrier :-

a) It changes the resultant amplitude of the signal thereby resulting in AM noise

which is filtered out by the amplitude limiter in FM receiver (before detection).
b) It produces phase modulation as the phase of the resultant signal is different
from the phase of the original signal. The instantaneous value of phase
modulation is φ n(t), its maximum value being (refer to rt. Angle ∆ ABC)

En
φm ax = s in− 1 (2)
Es
If Es >> En,
En
φm ax ≅ (3)
Es

Hence the phase modulation due to noise is given by

En
φ n (t) = s inω n t (4)
Es

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Induction Course (General)

90° En
φ Es - En Es
A Es + En
φ B
90°

Fig. 7 Noise Produces Both Amplitude and Phase Modulation

As we know that phase modulation results in indirect frequency modulation,

therefore, the noise indirectly frequency modulates the carrier. The
equivalent frequency deviation is given by

1 dφ n E
∆ fn = (t) = f n n c o sω n ( t ) (5)
2π d t Es

The peak frequency deviation due to noise is given by

En
∆ Fn = fn (6)
Es

Thus the corresponding noise voltage at the output of the detector will be
proportional to f, the amount by which the noise frequency is away from the
carrier frequency, fc as shown in fig 8. In other words, we can say that the
noise at the detector output

∆Fn

fn

Fig. 8 Noise characteristics at the detector output

increases linearly as the modulating frequency increases. This straight-line

relationship plays an important role in the application of pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis to the audio signal.

Detector Processing Gain

The processing gain of the detector is defined as

S/N
KR = (7)
C/N

where S/N is signal-to-noise power ratio at the output of the detector and C/N
is the carrier to noise power ratio at the detector input.

It can be shown that

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 Frequency Modulation

KR = 3(1+mf) mf 2 (8)

Where mf is the modulation index for the highest modulating frequency. If mf

>> 1, then KR = 3 mf 3. If mf << 1, then KR = 3 mf 2. As shown by equation 7,
the output signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio can be increased by increasing the
processing gain, the C/N remaining constant. Equation (8) shows that a high
processing gain can be achieved by having a high modulation index.

FM is a superior type of modulation system mainly because of its noise

suppressing qualities. In an AM system noise can interfere even with the
desired signal 100 times stronger and render the reception poor but in FM a
noise signal half as strong as the desired signal can be suppressed
completely. This effect becomes more and more pronounced as the
frequency of the interfering signal approaches that of the desired signal so
much so that the weaker noise signal is completely overpowered when their
frequencies become equal. This is known as CAPTURE EFFECT.

Let us assume that in the worst case, the noise amplitude En is half of the
signal amplitude.
1
i.e. En = Es
2
Then in the right angled triangle ABC of Fig. 7,

En 1
s i φn = =
Es 2
En 1
φ = s i −n1 = s i −n1
Es 2
= 3 0o o r0.5 2r a d i a n s

At the highest modulating frequency of 15 kHz, the frequency deviation due to

noise will be

∆ fn = 15 x 0.5 = 7.5 kHz

But maximum frequency deviation due to signal = 75 kHz.

Therefore, the output S/N = 75/7.5 = 10

Thus the 2:1 C/N is transformed into 10:1 S/N at the output of the detector.

We have seen that noise output of an FM receiver is directly proportional to

phase deviation and also modulating frequency (difference in frequency of
signal and noise). In case desired frequency and noise frequency are same
or in other words fc –f = 0 the resulting indirect frequency deviation and
consequently noise output is zero. As already stated this is known as the
capture effect. In case two signals (the desired and the interference signal)
are at the same frequency or Co-channel, the stronger of the two completely
overpowers the weaker, which is not heard at all in the output. As the
frequency difference increases the noise output also increases
proportionately resulting in what is known as Triangular Noise Response of
an FM receiver. Only at a point where difference in frequency becomes
equal to direct frequency deviation of the carrier at the transmitter end, S/N at
the output of FM receiver becomes equal to S/N at its input. What is heard in

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Induction Course (General)

the output is the difference in frequencies of the desired and the

interfering/noise signals. As audible range of human ears ends at about 15
kHz a noise signal differing in more than 15 kHz in frequency is not heard and
hence this is to be neglected. The other important factor is that with the
increase in frequency difference, the interfering/noise signal suffers rejection
at tuned circuits at the input of the receiver.
FM, mf = 5 FM, mf = 5
With 13dB FM, mf = 1
50 Pre-emphasis
4.5 4.75dB
OUTPUT SNR, dB

dB

40
AM, ma = 1
14
dB
30

20 THRESHOLD (13dB)

Not to scale
10 All levels are in terms
of power ratio

10 20 30 40 50

INPUT CNR, dB

Fig. 9 Detector Processing gain in FM

Taking these factors into consideration noise/interference above 15 kHz has

to be neglected. This factor is however applicable equally to AM also. This
phenomenon has been depicted pictorially in figure 9.

Noise in Narrowband FM

Rectangular AM
distribution
FM Noise
Triangle

Fc fc+15 fc-75 fc-15 fc fc+15 fc+75

a) Narrow band FM (mf=1) b) wideband FM (mf =5)

Fig. 10 Comparison of Noise performance of FM over AM

Assuming that noise is uniformly spread over the receiver bandwidth, the
noise output of an AM receiver remains constant and will be a rectangle. But
in FM, the noise output is triangular and increases as we move away from the
carrier frequency as shown in Fig.10

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 Frequency Modulation

It is seen from Fig.10(a) that the average improvement for narrow band FM
over AM (point A) will be 2:1 at the average audio frequency of 7.5 kHz at
which FM noise appears to be half of the AM noise voltage. But in reality, the
picture is more complex and in fact the FM improvement is 3 :1 as a
voltage ratio. This gives an increase of 3:1 in power signal-to-noise ratio for
narrowband FM as compared to AM. This is equivalent to 4.75 dB
improvement, which is quite worthwhile.

Noise In Wideband FM

In AM, the maximum permissible modulation index m= 1, but in FM there is

no such limit. It is the maximum frequency deviation that is limited to 75 kHz
in wideband VHF sound broadcasting service. At the highest audio frequency
of 15 kHz the modulation index in FM is 5. It will be much higher at lower
audio frequencies e.g. if modulating frequency is 1 kHz, the maximum value
of modulation index in FM will be 75.

It may be seen from figure 11 that as the modulation index is increased from
mf =1 to
mf = 4, the signal-to-noise voltage ratio will increase proportionately. Thus
the S/N power ratio in a FM receiver is proportional to the square of the
modulation index. For mf = 5 and modulating frequency of 15 kHz, there will
be a 25:1 (14 dB) improvement for FM, as compared to when mf = 1. No
such improvement is possible in AM. For an adequate C/N ratio at the
detector input, an overall improvement of 18.75 (4.75 + 14) dB is achieved
with wideband FM as compared with AM.
mf = 4 mf = 3 mf = 2 mf = 1
AM
NOISE

INAUDIBLE
AUDIBLE
FM NOISE
FM NOISE
fc +15 +60 fc +15 +45 fc +15 +30 fc +15

Fig. 11 FM noise increases with reduced modulation index, mf

Threshold Effect

The above analysis is not applicable to the case when noise and signal levels
are comparable because then the rotating noise phasor En may encircle the
origin of Es with the result that the phase modulation is no longer limited to a
maximum value as given by equation (3), nor can the noise modulation be
assumed to be sinusoidal as in equation (4). In this case there is a sudden
decrease in output S/N when the C/N drops below a certain level called the
threshold level. For conventional FM detectors, threshold occurs for about 10
to 12 dB as shown in figure 12.

Equation 7 can be rewritten as

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S C
10 log10 = 10 log10 + 10 log10 K R
N N
S C 
or  N  =  N  + [ K R ] dB
dB dB

This equation applies only for C/N values above threshold can be used to
calculate KR for a given value of modulation index.

Thus if we want to have the benefits of better noise performance of FM, the
input CNR(power) should be greater than about 12 dB. This is called
threshold effect.

Threshold

For practical reasons, the threshold is defined as the value of (C/N) at which
the actual curve drops 1 dB below the straight line projection as shown in
figure 12.

30dB
Operating
point
20dB
(S/N)
1 dB
10dB Threshold
margin

10 20 30
Not to
scale
(C/N) dB

Fig. 12 Threshold Effect

Threshold Margin

The difference in dBs between the operating point (C/N) and the threshold (C/N) is
called the threshold margin as shown in figure 12.

Impulse Noise

When a pulse is applied to a tuned circuit, its peak amplitude is proportional to the
square root of the bandwidth of the circuit. Similarly, if a noise impulse is applied to
the tuned circuit in the IF section of an FM receiver, a large noise pulse will result.
When the noise pulses exceed about one-half the carrier size at the amplitude limiter,
the limiter fails. When noise pulses exceed carrier amplitude, the limiter limits the
signal having been “captured” by noise. Therefore, the maximum deviation and
bandwidth cannot be increased indefinitely. As a compromise, the maximum
frequency deviation of 75 kHz has been permitted. It can be shown that under
ordinary circumstances (En<Es/2), impulse noise in FM is reduced to the same extent
as random noise.

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 Frequency Modulation

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

According to noise triangle, the noise output of FM detector increases linearly as the
modulating frequency increases. Also we know that in a complex audio signal, the
higher audio frequencies are weaker in amplitudes. Thus it is a double tragedy for
the high audio frequencies, their amplitudes are small but they have to face higher
noise levels as compared to lower audio frequencies. To overcome this problem, the
higher audio frequencies are given an artificial boost at the transmitter in accordance
with a pre-arranged curve. This process is called pre-emphasis.

In the FM receiver, the higher audio frequencies are restored to their normal levels
through a reverse process called de-emphasis. The de-emphasis curve is the mirror
image of pre-emphasis curve as shown in figure 13.

13 dB

Pre-emphasis
+3dB

0dB

-3dB
De-emphasis

3.180 kHz
-13 dB
2kHz kHz 15 kHz
Frequency

(Not to scale)
Fig. 13 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

+V

R Cc
L/R = 50 µ sec. L
AF output

R AF in from FM C
Detector RC = 50 µ sec.

AF in Pre-emphasised
AF output

a) Pre-emphasis circuit b) De-emphasis circuit

Fig. 14 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis Circuit

Two types of curves i.e. 50 µ sec and 75 µ sec are in vogue in FM sound
broadcasting but AIR has adopted 50 µ sec curve which gives about 13 dB
boost at 15 kHz and is 3 dB at the frequency of 3.180 kHz (f = 1/2π RC,
where RC = 50 µ sec Figure 15 (a) & (b) illustrate the effect of pre-emphasis

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Induction Course (General)

on the modulating signal frequency response at the transmitter whereas (c) &
(d) show the effect of de-emphasis on the modulating signal and noise at the
FM receiver. The de-emphasis cancels out the pre-emphasis on the signal
and also attenuates the noise at the receiver. The overall effect is to leave
the post detection signal levels unchanged while the high frequency noise is
attenuated. Subjective tests with 50 µ sec pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
give an improvement of about 4.5 dB. However, one should be cautious that
the pre-emphasised signal does not over modulate the carrier by exceeding
the 75 kHz deviation. Typical pre-emphasis and d-emphasis circuits are
shown in Figs. 14(a) & (b) respectively.

Modulating
V Signal V Modulating Signal
after pre-emphasis

f f
a) b)

Signal Signal
V V
Output Output
before after
de- de- Noise
emphasis Noise emphasis

f f
c) d)

Fig. 15 Effect of pre-emphasis and De-emphasis on Modulating signal

If we compare a 100% AM system with a 100% (mf = D=5) FM system it can

be shown that

S ( f m)
N = 3( D) 2 = 75
S (a m)
N
Or in decibels S/N improvement in FM over a corresponding AM system is

10 log 75 = 18.75 dB

S/N improvement in FM over a corresponding AM system with pre-

emphasis/de-emphasis (18.75 + 4.25) = 23.25 dB. (Fig. 16)

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 Frequency Modulation

212 23.25
2.83 times increase due to pre
emphasis at TX & DE at receiver
75 18.75
25 times increase due to
wider modulation pass
band (mf = 5)
Improvement
in S/N Power
3 4.75
Ratio 3 times increase due to
phase modulation by noise
1 0
Improvement
Amplitude Modulation S/N
(dB)

Fig. 16 S/N Improvement due to FM Transmission

Other Forms of Interference

FM offers not only an improvement in the S/N ratio but also better immunity
against other interfering signals.

a) Co-channel Interference

In an FM receiver, the amplitude limiter works on the principle of passing the

stronger signal and eliminating the weaker one if the stronger signal is at least
twice the amplitude of the weaker signal. In a similar fashion, a relatively
weak interfering signal (in the same channel) from another transmitter will
also be eliminated.

Suppose we are carrying a FM receiver and moving from the coverage area
of one transmitter towards that of another co-channel transmitter. The
interesting phenomenon of capture will be noted in this case.

The second transmitter is virtually inaudible till its signal is less than about
half of that from the first. After this, the second transmitter becomes quite
audible in the background and eventually dominates, ultimately finishing the
first transmitter signal. Thus the moving receiver has been captured by the
second transmitter. But in AM, the effect would be totally different, the
stronger signal will dominate but the weaker one will also be heard in the
background as quite significant interference.

b) Adjacent-channel Interference

We have seen that FM signal with maximum deviation of 75 kHz and 50 µ

sec pre-emphasis gives a rejection of 23 to 24 dB better than AM, for noise as
well as interfering signals. A guard band of 10 kHz provided on each side of
the FM channel also serves to reduce adjacent channel interference.

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Generation of FM signal

There are two methods of generation of FM signal :

a) Direct Method of FM generation.

b) Indirect Method of FM generation.

Direct Method of FM Generation

i) Varactor Diode Modulator

This modulator has been shown in fig. 17. It makes use of a varactor diode (also
known as varicap or capacitance diode). The capacitance of this diode varies with
the applied bias voltage (DC voltage + modulating voltage). The diode forms, at
least partially the tuning capacitor of the tank circuit, that determines the frequency of
the oscillator. The capacitance varies with the applied modulating voltage and so
does the frequency.

-Vcc

Cd C L FM output

RFC
T

Cb

Cd Vd X(t) Mod. Sig., X(t)

Q

Vo

Fig. 17 Varactor Diode Modulator

Operation of the Circuit

Vo - provides a suitable bias to the varactor diode.

Cb - blocking capacitor. It blocks the DC bias voltage of varactor diode so that

operating point of transistor and bias voltage of varactor diode can be chosen
independently.
x ( t ) −Modulating signal.
Cd - Diode capacitance at its operating voltage.
Ct - total capacitance of the tank circuit
Ct - C + Cd

RFC Radio frequency choke. It blocks the oscillation going to bias voltage Vo.

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 Frequency Modulation

The modulating signal added to DC voltage Vo through transformer T. Hence the

capacitance of varactor diode is varied in accordance with the modulating signal.
This capacitance becomes the part of the main tank circuit. Accordingly, frequency
of oscillation is controlled by the modulating signal. The FM output is taken from the
collector of the transister through a buffer amplifier so that the load impedance on the
oscillator is essentially constant.

ii) Voltage controlled oscillator modulator

This circuit has been given in figure 18. It is an astable multivibractor. Its frequency
of oscillation depends upon the applied DC voltage. Hence, if the applied voltage is
made to vary in accordance with the modulating signal, by putting the DC supply and
the modulating signal voltage in series, the frequency of oscillation will vary with the
modulating signal. This type of circuit will produce a rectangular wave form of
varying frequency from which it is not difficult to derive the corresponding sinusoidal
signal.

-Vcc
-V Mod. Sig.

Rc R1 R2 Rc

C1 C2

T2

T1

Fig. 18 VCO Modulator

Operation of the circuit

The circuit generates a periodic rectangular waveform. Its time period T is given by

T = 0.69 (R1 C1 + R2 C2)

With R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 we get T = 0.69 (RC + RC) = 1.38 RC

From this we find that the period T does not depend on supply voltage. It depend on
the values of R and C only. This type of multivibrator operate at a fixed frequency.

Now, if we disconnect the resistance R1 and R2 from the Vcc and connect these two
resistances to an auxiliary voltage -V (modulating signal) as shown dotted in the
figure, the frequency of oscillation becomes function of both Vcc and -V. The time
period T is given by,

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 V cc
T = 2 R C l n  1+ 
 V 

Hence, now by putting V in series with Vcc and varying it we can get a variable
frequency which will be in accordance with the V (modulating signal). From this
rectangular wave we can get sinusoidal waveform by passing it through band pass
filter.

Indirect method of FM Generation

Armstrong method

In this method frequency modulation is obtained through a phase modulator. The

modulating signal is integrated prior to modulating the carrier, so that the output of
the phase modulator becomes a frequency modulated signal. Fig. 19. The required
phase modulated signal is generated with the help of a double side band - SC
modulator. In this method index of modulation is limited to 0.5.
Input
Integrater Phase
Modulator
Modulator FM Output
signal

Fig. 19 Armstrong method of FM generation

Detection of AM Signal

There are many types of detectors for detecting various form of AM signals. One
such detector is Envelope Detector, which is used for detection of DSB - FC signal.
The operation of this detector is discussed below :

Envelope Detector

The circuit diagram of envelope detector along with wave form is shown in Fig. 20
(a) and (b). During positive half cycle of the input, capacitor C charges to almost the
peak value of the half cycle. When the level of input voltage starts falling, the diode
D is reversed biased by the voltage on the capacitor. The capacitor discharges
through the resistance R with a time constant RC. The discharging of the capacitor
continues, till, in the next positive part of the carrier cycle, the input voltage exceeds
the capacitor voltage. Then, the diode conducts again and the whole process
repeats. Thus, in each carrier cycle, the capacitor charges to nearly the peak value
of the cycle.

The time constant RC should be sufficiently large so as to reduce the carrier

frequency ripples, but at the same time sufficiently small in order to allow the voltage
on the capacitor to follow the modulation envelope. When these requirements meet,
the output follow the peaks of the carrier cycles i.e. it follows the envelope of the
input, hence the device is called as peak or envelope detector. The practical circuit
will be some what different from the circuit of fig. 20.

STI(T) Publication 60 002/IC(G)/2004

 Frequency Modulation

Diode
Current
D

AM Input Output
C R t

Output
Voltage

(a)

t
Fig. 20 Envelope Detector (b)

Detection of FM Signal

The process of detection of FM signal is the process of deriving a voltage that varies
in proportion to the instantaneous frequency of the received FM signal. There are
many methods to detect FM signal. If the received signal is modified in such a way
that its amplitude varies in accordance with its instantaneous frequency, then the
envelope detector of figure 20 can be successfully utilised for FM detection. One
such circuit is discussed here.

Resonant circuit Discriminator (Slope Detector)

This detector has been shown in fig. 21. The tuned circuit is driven by a current
source. The current is frequency modulated. The circuit is detuned in such a way
that the carrier frequency lies on the positive slope of the characteristics. Hence,
resulting voltages across the tuned circuit varies with the frequency of the input
current.

-Vcc D

Output
C C R

FM Input Q

Fig. 21 Resonant Circuit discriminator

In a FM detector, the output should be independent of the input amplitude variations,

if any. Hence, it is common practice to proceed an FM detector by a limiter, so that
the input amplitude variation gets removed.

Advantages Of FM over AM

STI(T) Publication 61 002/IC(G)/2004

Induction Course (General)

Amplitude and hence power of FM wave is constant and independent of depth of

modulation. But in AM, modulation depth determines the transmitted power.
Thus additional energy is not required as modulation is raised.

FM is more economical than AM due to following reasons :

(a) It is possible to have Low Level Modulation in FM as the intelligence is in the

frequency variations only and the modulated signal can be passed through
class C amplifiers. But since the AM signal contains information in amplitude
variations, so only high level modulation is possible in an AM transmitter.

All the transmitted power in FM is useful whereas in AM most of it is in the carrier

which contains no useful information.

Antenna gain is possible in FM due to the reason that directive antennas are used in
VHF range where the physical dimensions of the antenna are very easy to
manage.

3. Better Noise Performance

Amplitude variations caused by noise are removed by having limiter in FM

receiver. This makes FM reception lot more immune to noise than AM
reception.
Noise can further be reduced in FM by increasing the frequency deviation. This is
not possible in AM as modulation cannot exceed 100 % without causing
severe distortion .
Less adjacent- channel interference due to better planning as the commercial FM
broadcasts began in 1940s (much later than AM) ------ a guard band has been
provided as per CCIR standard frequency allocations.
FM broadcasts operate in the VHF and UHF ranges in which there happens to be
less noise than in the MF and HF ranges occupied by AM bands.
Due to the use of space wave propagation in which the range of operation is
limited to slightly more than line of sight, it is possible to operate several
independent transmitters with much less co-channel interference.

4. Stereo transmission is possible with FM due to its wider bandwidth

Additional information such as RDS, SCA can be sent along with the stereo signal

Phase Modulation
If the Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the
modulating signal (information), it is called phase modulation.

Analysis of Phase Modulation Signal

Let carrier,

Vc ( t ) = Ec C os w c t )

Modulating Signal

Vm ( t ) = Em C os ω m t

STI(T) Publication 62 002/IC(G)/2004

 Frequency Modulation

Then, Phase Modulated Signal

V( t ) = Ec Cos ( w c t + φ)
where φ = φo + k p Em Cos ωm t

Phase of carrier is varied as per amplitude of modulating signal.

V( t ) = Ec Cos ( w c t + k p Em Cos ωm t )
= Ec Cos ( w c t + φd Cos ωm t )
where φd = k p Em = Modulation Index

PM

∆f ∆f
FM and PM

FM

Vm fm

Fig. 22 Phase Modulation

In FM, modulation index is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude and

inversely to modulating frequency.

In PM, modulation index is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude but

independent of modulating frequency.

STI(T) Publication 63 002/IC(G)/2004