Concepts

II.
PURE BENDING
In this section we will discuss the analysis of structures that are under the action of pure
bending. As such, there will be no transverse shear force along the beam section
considered. The problems of beam bending considered here are based on the Euler-
Bernoulli Beam Theory.
In this section we will examine the problems in which the bending moment is applied
either symmetrically or unsymmetrically on homogeneous or non-homogeneous beams.
In addition, we will discuss the elastic and inelastic bending of beams having symmetric
or unsymmetric cross sections. The determination of neutral axis location for elastic and
inelastic beams will also be discussed. The variation of bending-induced normal stresses
on the beam cross section will be shown in several example problems. Finally, in this
section we will discuss the bending of curved beams including the determination of the
neutral axis and distribution of normal stresses.
Section II.1 Introduction
The straight beam section under consideration is in the state of pure bending (i.e.,
transverse shear force is zero along this section). Consequently, as the beam bends, plane
sections remain plane but rotate relative to each other as shown in the figure below.
As illustrated in the figure above, the top surface of the beam is shortened due to
compression, and the bottom surface is elongated due to tension - both as a result of
bending moment M. By examining the figure below, it becomes apparent that at some
location between the top and bottom surfaces of the beam there is a surface whose length
is the same as the original length of the straight beam. This surface is neither in tension
nor in compression, therefore, it is referred to as the "Neutral Surface". The intersection
of the neutral surface with the plane of the beam cross section is called the "Neutral
Axis".
Since the beam cross section only rotates without warping, the slope of the cross
sectional plane is constant, indicating that axial deflection due to bending is linear. This
finding implies that in originally-straight beams in pure bending, the axial strain must
also vary linearly with zero value at the Neutral Axis.
Note: The linearity of axial strain is a consequence of beam being

(a) originally straight, and
(b) in pure-bending state.
Therefore, no additional restriction such as material property or elasticity is imposed.
Now we impose additional restrictions:

(c) bending stresses remain below material's elastic stress limit,
(d) stress-strain relationship is linear.
As a result of restrictions (c) and (d), Hooke's law may be used.
In summary it can be said that in elastic and homogeneous beams, the Neutral Axis, NA
always passes through the centroid of the cross section with its orientation determined
according to the shape of the cross section and the orientation of the bending moment.
The stress and strain variations for some elastic beams are given below.
I. Elastic, homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section
II. Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section
III. Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section



Section II.2 Elastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams
The general bending stress equation for elastic, homogeneous beams is given as
(II.1)
where Mx and My are the bending moments about the x and y centroidal axes,
respectively. Ix and Iy are the second moments of area (also known as moments of
inertia) about the x and y axes, respectively, and Ixy is the product of inertia. Using this
equation it would be possible to calculate the bending stress at any point on the beam
cross section regardless of moment orientation or cross-sectional shape. Note that Mx,
My, Ix, Iy, and Ixy are all unique for a given section along the length of the beam. In
other words, they will not change from one point to another on the cross section.
However, the x and y variables shown in the equation correspond to the coordinates of a
point on the cross section at which the stress is to be determined.
Sign Convention on Bending Moment Components Mx and My:
As far as the general bending stress equation is concerned, if a moment component puts
the first quadrant of the beam cross section in compression, it is treated as positive (see
the examples shown below). Notice that this is just a sign convention for the moment
components and should not be confused with the sign associated with the bending stress.
Neutral Axis:
When a homogeneous beam is subjected to elastic bending, the neutral axis (NA) will
pass through the centroid of its cross section, but the orientation of the NA depends on
the orientation of the moment vector and the cross sectional shape of the beam.
When the loading is unsymmetrical (at an angle) as seen in the figure below, the NA will
also be at some angle - NOT necessarily the same angle as the bending moment.
Realizing that at any point on the neutral axis, the bending strain and stress are zero, we
can use the general bending stress equation to find its orientation. Setting the stress to
zero and solving for the slope y/x gives
(II.2)
A positive angle is defined as counter clockwise from the horizontal centroidal axis.
Notice that we can use the equation for orientation of NA to examine special cases. For
example, if the cross section has an axis of symmetry, Ixy = 0. In addition if only Mx is
applied, then NA will have angle of zero which is consistent with what we would expect
from mechanics of materials.
From this equation, we see that the orientation of NA is a function of both loading
condition as well as cross sectional geometry.
SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 1

For the cross section and loading shown, determine
• (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,

• (b) Bending stress distribution,
• (c) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.
Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic limit.
EQUATION USED: Eq. A13.13
SOLUTION
(a) As seen in the figure above, the cross section is symmetric about the horizontal axis,
therefore, the product of inertia is zero in this case. Furthermore, with the bending
moment applied about the x axis, the y component of moment is zero. As a result of the
previous two conditions, the NA orientation according to eqn. A13.15 will be horizontal -
passing through the centroid as expected. This problem is an example of symmetric
bending.
NOTE: There is no need to find the horizontal position of centroid because there is no
need to calculate the moment of inertia about the y axis as y component of bending
moment is zero.
(b) Because of the conditions stated in part (a) of solution, eq. A13.13 reduces to
The bending stress distribution will be linear with a zero value at the NA.
(c) In this case, the maximum stress is at the farthest point from the NA. Because of
horizontal symmetry about the NA, the stress at the top and bottom of the section will
have equal magnitude with the one on top being compressive. To get the maximum value
of stress, the reduced equation given previously will be used.
The moment of inertia about the x axis is
This makes the maximum bending stress


• (b) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.
Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic limit. Also
assume that each lenght shown is measured to the middle of the adjacent member.
EQUATIONS USED: Eq. A13.13 and Eq. A13.15
SOLUTION
(a) As seen in the figure above, this is a symmetric cross section with unsymmetric
loading. The response will be an unsymmetric bending.
With the product of inertia being zero due to cross-sectional symmetry, we need to
calculate the components of the applied bending moment and the rectangular moments of
inertia in order to determine the orientation of NA.
The components of bending moment are:

By examinning the applied moment, it is clear that both of its components will produce
compression on the first quadrant, hence, they are both positive.
To calculate the rectangular moments of inertia, it is necessary to know the location of

the centroid. Due to horizontal symmetry only the horizontal coordinate of centroid need
to be calculated as its vertical coordinate is known due to symmetry.
The moments of inertia about the x and y axes are
The neutral axis will pass through the centroid with an angle of
(b) The maximum axial stress is at the farthest point from the NA, either at point A, B, C,
or D. To get the stress values, use equation A13.13 at all four points. With the product of
inertia equal to zero A13.13 reduces to
The bending stresses at point A, B, C, and D
are
The results indicate that the maximum bending stress is at point B


• (b) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.
Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic limit. Also
assume that each length shown is measured to the middle of the adjacent member.
EQUATIONS USED: Eq. A13.13 and Eq. A13.15
SOLUTION
This problem requires more analysis as both the loading and cross-sectional shape are
unsymmetric. The procedure is similar to the previous example. First need to find the
centroid, moments of inertia about the x and y axes, and the product of inertia.
The centroid is at
and the moments of inertia and product of inertia are
The components of the applied bending moment are determined as
The x component is negative because it causes tension in the first quadrant.
(a) Since this is a homogeneous section, and it is assumed to be within its elastic limits,
the neutral axis will pass through the centroid. Its angle with respect to the x axis is
(b) The maximum bending stress occurs at the farthest point from the NA, either at point
A or B.
Therefore, point B is the location of maximum bending stress.

The skin-stringer wing section shown is subjected to a bending moment Mo which acts in
the vertical plane putting the top surface in compression. Determine:
• (a) the location of the neutral axis (NA) and its orientation;
• (b) the largest permissible value of Mo if the maximum stress in the wing is not to
exceed 12 ksi;
• (c) the stresses normal to the plane of the cross section in all stiffeners.
EQUATIONS USED: Eq. A13.13 and A13.15
SOLUTION
Since the cross section is not symmetric, the product of inertia will not be zero. With the
reference point at stiffener 14, the centriod of this cross section is obtained first. Then the
rectangular moments of inertia and product of inertia are determined.
(a) Since the wing section is elastic, the NA passes through the centroid. Equation
A13.15 gives
Note that Mx = Mo and My = 0 in this problem.
(b) The simplest way to find the largest permissible Mo is to pick out a few candidate
stiffeners that appear the farthest from the NA. Then use equation A13.13 to solve for Mo
by fixing the stress at 12,000 psi. The lowest moment will be the answer as it will not
induce a bending stress at any point above the allowable value of 12,000 psi.
In this case, stiffener 12 will have the maximum stress because it is the farthest from the
NA. Therefore, largest permissible moment is
(c) Use Momax for Mx in Eq. A13.13 to solve for stress in each stiffener.
Section II.3 Elastic Bending of NON-Homogeneous Beams
Recall that in pure bending the normal strain variation is linear with a value of zero at the
neutral axis. Before we discuss the relationship between stress and bending moment, let's
first determine the location of NA. The equilibrium condition requires the sum of normal
forces to go to zero. Mathematically, this is expressed as
Considering a section made of two different materials with Young's moduli identified by
E1 and E2 and with stresses below the elastic limit of each material, we can write
Where yB is the distance from the NA to the bottom surface, yi is the distance from the
NA to the material interface and yT is the distance to the top surface. Using the linear
equation for strain variation gives
Factoring out the common terms and E1 gives
A close examination of this equation reveals that the bracketed term must be equal to
zero. However, the ratio of E2 to E1 in front of the second term inside the brackets
indicates that neutral axis will pass through the centroid of the modified homogeneous
section, one with material 2 replaced with an equivalent material 1. This fact is captured
in the figure below with the condition that E2 > E1.
Notice that only the width of the section is modified while its height is kept the same.
This condition would have been reversed if the bending moment was applied about the
vertical axis.
The moment equation is written as
For the case of a section made of two different materials, as shown above, the integral is
divided into two parts, one for each elastic material. Notice that y is measured from the
neutral axis.
Using the linear normal strain variation we get
Factoring out the constant terms and normalizing with respect to E1 we get
The terms inside the brackets represent the moment of inertia of the modified
homogeneous section about the neutral axis, and can be expressed as
Substituting this into the previous equation and solving for the stress gives
This equation can be used to calculate the bending stress only for the portion that is made
of material 1. To calculate the bending stress in the portion that is made of material 2, it
should be multiplied by the ratio of Young's moduli of the two materials as
The procedure described above is known as the Modified Section Method, and is used in
the analysis of elastic non-homogeneous beam sections in bending.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
A bending moment of 74,734 N-m is applied to a uniform composite beam shown in the
figure below. If the allowable stress for steel is 250 MPa and the allowable stress for
aluminum is 100 MPa, what is the minimum width of the 5-mm thick steel plates
attached to the aluminum I-beam. Also determine the neutral axis location and bending
stress distribution.
EQUATIONS USED:
SOLUTION
Since this is a doubly symmetric cross section, the centroid will be located at the center.
This is true for both the original and the modified cross sections. With the applied
moment acting about the horizontal axis, the NA will be horizontal in this case. From
inspection, it is known that the maximum strain will occur in the steel plates. Also, with
steel being the stiffest of the two materials it is very likely that it will carry more stress.
To calculate the modified moment of inertia, the entire section is modified to all
aluminum. The modified moment of inertia in terms of w is
Let the steel plates be stressed to their limit. The top plate will have the same stress and
strain as the bottom plate because of symmetry.
Check the stress at the farthest point in the aluminum part.
Use the stress equation and solve for the width

The bending stress distribution for this cross section is
ALTERNATE
SOLUTION
Section II.4 Inelastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams
In this section we will first dicuss the inelastic behavior of beams in pure bending, and
then elaborate on the method of analysis that we can use in such problems.
Inelastic behavior is possible in beams that are made of ductile materials, and as such can
be loaded beyond the elastic limit or proportional limit of the material. This implies that
the ultimate load carrying capability of a ductile beam is higher than its maximum elastic
load. How much higher depends on mechanical properties of the beam material.
Naturally, the behavior of a beam in inelastic bending depends upon the shape of the
material's stress-strain diagram. If the stress-strain diagram is known, it is possible to
determine stress corresponding to a particular value of strain.
As in previous discussions we will assume that the material can be idealized as an

elastoplastic material with maximum stress being the elastic limit stress, and the
maximum strain being considerably higher than the elastic limit strain. It is possible for
the elastoplastic material to have different characteristics in tension and in compression.
For instance the corresponding elastic limit values and even the Young's moduli may be
different. This tends to complicate the analysis to a certain degree.
Assumptions:
The analysis of an inelastic beam is based on the assumption that plane cross sections of a
beam remain plane under pure bending, a condition that is valid for both nonlinear and
linear materials. Therefore, normal strain in an inelastic beam varies linearly over the
cross section of the beam.
Restrictions:
a. Beam has a symmetric cross section. It is not necessary for it to be doubly symmetric.
b. Beam is loaded symmetrically, moment is acting about either the x or the y centroidal
axis.
Neutral Axis Location:

The neutral axis of beams in inelastic bending may or may not pass through the centroid
of the cross section.
The following diagrams show the variations of bending strain and stress across a
rectangular beam section ranging from fully elastic to fully plastic condition. Notice that
the material is assumed to be elastoplastic with elastic limit in tension equal in magnitude
to that in compression.
Notice that the N.A. conicides with the horizontal centroidal axis even as the beam
becomes fully plastic.
If in the previous example the stress-strain variation in compression was different from
that in tension, then the position of N.A. would no longer coincide with the horizontal
centroidal axis as beam is loaded beyond its elastic limit.
Notice that the resultant axial force is zero as the net compression force balances against
the net tension force acting on the cross section.
In such beam problems, the location of N.A. coincides with the horizontal centroidal axis
when the beam is elastic. However, as it is loaded beyond the elastic limit, N.A. shift
either up or down relative to the centroid depending on whether the material can carry
more tension or compression. The farthest position of N.A. is determined by checking the
cross-sectional stress variation for a fully plastic condition.
Helpful Observations in Inelastic Bending:
1. If the stress-strain variations in tension and compression are the same, then
a. N.A. coincides with the centroidal axis (same as moment axis) if the cross section is
symmetric about that axis.
b. N.A. does not conicide with the centroidal axis if the cross section is unsymmetric
about that axis.
2. If the stress-strain variations in tension and compression are different, then

N.A. does not coincide with the centroidal axis regardless of cross-sectional symmetry
about that axis.
Determination of a Beam's Moment Capacity:
1. Check the stress-strain variations in compression and tension. Is there a difference

between elastic limit stress in tension from that in compression?
2. Is the moment acting about the axis of symmetry or not?
3.
Case A. Moment is acting about the axis of symmetry and material properties in
compression and tension are the same.
• Maximum elastic moment is determined from the simplified form of Eq. (II.1)
• Inelastic moment for some given value of maximum strain less than fully-plastic
strain is found from the moment equilibrium equation. First determine the strain
variation (remember it is linear in linearly elastic materials) across the beam.
Then relate the strain variation to stress variation by checking the stress-strain
diagram. Finally write the integral relating the bending moment to the stress
distribution across the beam, and solve for the bending moment.
• Fully-plastic bending moment is obtained by drawing the stress pattern over the
beam cross section. Keep in mind that in this case the location of N.A. is the same
as centroidal axis or axis of symmetry in this case. Calculate the resultant force in
compression, and resultant force in tension. Sum moments about the N.A. and
find the total bending moment on the beam.
Case B. Moment is acting about the axis of symmetry but material properties in
compression and tension are different.
• Maximum elastic moment is determined from the simplified form of Eq. (II.1).
• Inelastic moment for some given value of maximum strain less than fully-plastic
strain is found from the moment equilibrium equation. However, in this case the
N.A. position is unknown. Therefore, an iterative solution based on a guessed
position of N.A. is required. Guess a position for N.A. relative to the centroidal
axis moment is acting about. From linearity of strain, determine the strain
variation, then relate the strains to stresses and use the axial force equilibrium
equation, and see whether the sum of forces goes to zero or not. If it goes to zero,
then the location of N.A. is correct. Otherwise, guess again, and repeat the
procedure. Once the location of N.A. is found, go to the moment-stress integral
equation and solve for the value of moment.
• Fully-plastic bending moment is obtained by drawing the stress pattern over the
beam cross section. Here once again the location of N.A. is unknown. However,
we know the maxium stress in compression as well as in tension. With the stress
being constant in the tension side and constant in the compression side. No
iteration is necessary here as the location of N.A. can be determined by summing
the axial forces to zero and determining the height of compression and tension
portions of the cross section. Once N.A. position is known, then proceed with
determining the moment summation about the N.A. to obtain the fully-plastic
bending moment.
Case C. Moment is acting about a centroidal axis which is not an axis of symmetry, and
material properties in compression and tension are different. Example 1 below deals with
such a problem.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Inelastic bending of a homogeneous beam section
For the beam section and loading shown, determine
• (a) the maximum elastic bending moment that can be applied

• (b) the inelastic bending moment resulting in a strain of 0.003 at the bottom edge
• (c) the maximum (or fully-plastic) bending moment.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
We must first find the location of centroid and the moment of inertia about the horizontal
centroidal axis (x axis)
The moment of inertia about the x axis is all that is needed because with the product of
inertia Ixy equal to zero and no moment about the y axis, the general elastic bending
formula reduces to
(a) Because the elastic-limit stress in the tension side of the stress-strain diagram is less
than that in the compression side, the tensile limit will be the maximum stress allowable.
Since the bottom side is in tension, let the stress at that location be equal to the limit of
45,000 Pa. This gives a maximum moment of
Now, check the top to make sure the compressive stress doesn't exceed its limit (60,000
Pa).
Therefore, the maximum elastic moment is
The strain and stress diagrams corresponding to the maximum elastic moment are shown
below. Notice that the NA in this case coincides with the horizontal centroidal axis (x
axis).
(b) We know the elastic-limit strain in tension and compression to be
With the strain at the bottom now at 0.003, the elastic-inelastic interface, so to speak, is at
some location between the NA and the bottom surface. Since stress-strain variations in
tension and compression are different in the inelastic region, the NA will not pass
through the centroid. Therefore, NA will not coincide with the x axis in this case.
However, the NA will be parallel to the x axis. So we know its orientation but not its
location. The location of NA is found through an iterative process.
Assume NA is @ 68.333 mm from the bottom. Through similar triangles, the elastic-
inelastic interface can be found
If the location of NA is correct, then the summation of forces in the normal direction
must be zero.
Based on the stress diagram shown above, the force equation is written as
Since the sum of axial force components is not zero, the assumed location of NA is
incorrect. The negative value indicates that the NA must be moved in the compression
side as to reduce the area which is in compression or to increase the area in tension. For
the second guess, assume NA to be @ 80 mm from the bottom surface and repeat the
procedure.
The force sum is now positive indicating that the correct location of NA is somewhere
between the two locations assumed previously. Using linear interpolation, we come up
with the third guess
Using linear interpolation again and finding the summation of forces yields
The result is satisfactory. Now with the location of the NA known, the moment
corresponding to the strain of 0.003 at the bottom side can be calculated.
(c) To find the fully-plastic moment, we must first determine the location of NA resulting
in the total axial force to go to zero. In this case, there is no linear stress region. The
compression and tension sides are under the state of constant stress equal to the
corresponding maximum stress values.
Using the stress variation shown above and the corresponding force summation, we find
the location of NA as follows
The fully-plastic moment is found to be

The results indicate that in this case the fully-plastic moment is 57% larger than the
maximum elastic bending moment. We also saw in this problem that the location of
neutral axis changed depending on the magnitude of M. The two factors having the most
influence on the results are: (a) Different material elastic limits in tension and
compression, and (b) Unsymmetric cross section with respect to the moment axis.
SECTION II.5 ELASTIC Bending of Curved Beams
The discussion, so far of beams in pure bending, has been restricted to beams that are
straight before moment is applied. This is no longer true in this section as the beams are
initially curved. Curved beams are encountered at various places in aerospace structures.
For instance, the frames or rings in airplane fuselage are basically curved beams. To
analyze curved beams we must clarify the assumptions and restrictions of the analysis.
Assumptions:
a. Cross sections of the curved beam remain plane after moment is applied.
b. Material used is linearly elastic.
Restrictions:
a. Beam must have a uniform cross section along its length.

b. Beam segment considered has a constant radius of curvature.
c. Beam cross section must possess at least one axis of symmetry so the product of inertia
is zero.
d. Bending moment is applied perpendicular to radius of curvature of the beam.
e. Bending stresses must remain below the elastic limit.
In general for beams having radii of curvature much longer than their depths, the elastic
bending formula gives fairly reasonable results for bending stresses. However, for more
accurate calculation of stresses especially when the radius of curvature is of the same
order of magnitude as the beam's depth, then we must use Winkler's method of analysis.
In curved beams, the assumption of plane sections remain plane after loading is still
valid. However, since the length of the beam varies from its top surface to the bottom
surface, the strain variation is no longer linear, instead it is hyperbolic. This is evident by
the equations below.
EUQATIONS TO REMEMBER
These two equations show that stress and strain vary hyperbolically along the cross
section.
Unlike in the case of straight elastic beams, the neutral axis does not pass through the
centroid of the cross section. Rather, it is located somewhere between the centroid of the
cross section and the center of curvature of the beam. Its exact location can be determined
by the equation given below.
The differnetial area 'dA' is chosen in such a way that makes the evalution of the integral
in the denominator fairly easy. The closed form equation for 'R' for some simple cross-
sectional shapes are given in the figure below.
The radius of curvature, measured from the center of curvature to the centroid of the
cross section, is determined by
Using the moment equilibrium equation along with the Hooke's law, the bending stress in
terms of moment is obtained as
where
or
The sign associated with the moment is positive if the moment tends to increase the
curvature. It is negative if it tends to decrease the curvature, or flatten the curved beam.
Strain is determined from Hooke's law as
Although the stress and strain variations along the cross section of the curved beam are
hyperbolic, Hooke's law is still valid because the material is linearly elastic, i.e., stress-
strain relation is linear.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Radius of curvature, neutral axis location, maximum stress and stress
variation for a curved beam

For the curved beam with triangular cross section shown, determine
• (a) the centroidal radius of curvature

• (b) the neutral axis location
• (c) the maximun stress corresponding to the moment of 80 N-m
• (d) the stress variation
SOLUTION
(a) The radius of curvature is found as
(b) The neutral axis position relative to the center of curvature is found as
It should be noted that the NA is always located between the center of curvature and the
centroid. The sign of moment doesn't matter.
(c) The maximum stress will be located at either point A or point B. Notice that the
moment at the section of interest is positive as it tends to increase the curvature.
Therefore, point A has the maximum stress.
(d) The stress variation is shown below.

TRANSVERSE SHEAR FORCES
Section III.1 Introduction
In previous discussion on pure bending of beams the transverse shear forces and
corresponding shear stresses were absent. That absence simplified the flexure problem as
the applied loads (i.e., bending moments) only produced flexural normal stresses. In this
chapter our focus is on a more general loading condition - one that involves both bending
moment and transverse shear force. The existence of the latter indicates that we no longer
have pure bending problem.
Recall from mechanics of materials that in beam bending transverse shear forces and
bending moments are related to each other. This relationship was displayed in drawing
the shear and moment diagrams for various beams and loading conditions.
We first are going to revisit the problems that we encountered in mechanics of materials
course. In order to do that we must recall problem restrictions and the method of analysis
that was used in the solution of those problems.
Restrictions:
1. Shear stress at every point in the beam must be less than the elastic limit of the
material in shear.
2. Normal stress at every point in the beam must be less than the elastic limit of the
material in tension and in compression.
3. Beam's cross section must contain at least one axis of symmetry.
4. The applied transverse (or lateral) force(s) at every point on the beam must pass
through the elastic axis of the beam. Recall that elastic axis is a line connecting
cross-sectional shear centers of the beam. Since shear center always falls on the
cross-sectional axis of symmetry, to assure the previous statement is satisfied, at
every point the transverse force is applied along the cross-sectional axis of
symmetry.
5. The length of the beam must be much longer than its cross sectional dimensions.
6. The beam's cross section must be uniform along its length.
Section III.2 Shear Center
Consider the figure below showing a cantilever beam with a transverse force at the tip.
Under the action of this load, the beam may twist as it bends. It is the line of action of the
lateral force that is responsible for this bend-twist coupling. If the line of action of the
force passes through the Shear Center of the beam section, then the beam will only bend
without any twist. Otherwise, twist will accompany bending.
The shear center is in fact the centroid of the internal shear force system. Depending on
the beam's cross-sectional shape along its length, the location of shear center may vary
from section to section. A line connecting all the shear centers is called the elastic axis of
the beam. When a beam is under the action of a more general lateral load system, then to
prevent the beam from twisting, the load must be centered along the elastic axis of the
beam.
The two following points facilitate the determination of the shear center location.
1. The shear center always falls on a cross-sectional axis of symmetry.
2. If the cross section contains two axes of symmetry, then the shear center is
located at their intersection. Notice that this is the only case where shear center
and centroid coincide.
If the cross section contains no axis of symmetry or only one axis of symmetry, the
determination of the exact location of shear center requires a more detailed analysis
which we will discuss in following sections.
Section III.3 Flexural Shear Stress and Shear Flow
Derivation:
Consider a cantilever beam with a symmetric cross section subjected to a lateral (or
transverse) force P at the tip. The shear and normal stresses induced by this force are
required to be below the corresponding elastic limits of the material.
Next, we consider a transverse section located at some distance x from the free end of the
beam as shown above. The bending moment at this section is related to the normal stress
according to the equation
In order to go any further, we need to know how σ x varies along the section. Recall from
previous chapter that if the section is in the state of pure bending, then the normal strain
vaires linearly. Furthermore, if the section is in elastic condition and the material is
linearly elastic, then according to Hooke's law, normal stress would vary linearly as well.
With that in mind, we need to determine whether the normal strain varies linearly in the
presence of transverse shear force. Without getting too deep into the theory of elasticity,
it suffices to say that if the beam is long compared to its cross section, then the normal
strain does vary linearly. On the other hand, if the beam is short, then normal strain
variation is in fact nonlinear when transverse shear force is present.
So we either have to limit our analysis to long beams or assume that the normal strain
variation is linear regardless of the length of the beam. With the requirement of elastic
condition and the use of linearly elastic materials, the general elastic bending formula
described in the previous chapter can be used. In the presence of one moment component
and zero product of inertia, the normal stress equation reduces to
The distance y is measured from the centroidal z axis (which in this case coincides with
the neutral axis), Iz is the moment of inertia of the section about the z axis.
Relating the bending moment to the applied shear force P gives
The maximum normal stress, at section x, will occur at the farthest distance from the
neutral axis. In this case the stress distribution indicates that distance to be to the top
surface of the section as shown below.
To examine the shear force and associated shear stress created as a result of transverse
force P, let's consider a beam segment highlighted in the figure below. While the left
edge of the beam segment is free from any force in the x direction, the right edge is not
due to the presence of σx. The question is how can equilibrium be maintained in this
case? This points to the existance of a horizontal shear force H along the bottom surface
(longitudinal surface) of the highlighted segment. The important point to notice first is
that a transverse shear force results in the creation of a longitudinal shear force.
Now the equation for equilibrium of forces in the x direction is written as
where A* represents the area of the beam section from y1 to c. Making appropriate
substitutions and simplifying the resulting equation gives
The integral term represents a geometric quantity referred to as the moment of area,and is
denoted by Qz. The subscript z indicates that the moment of area is obtained about the z
axis. The equation for H can be written as
This equation indicates that the longitudinal shear force is an explicit function of x and an
implicit function of y through the moment of area. At the tip section x is zero, hence H is
zero for any value y. However, for any positive value of x, the variation in H depends on
the location of y1. It can be shown that for y1 = 0, H reaches its maximum value whereas
at y1 corresponding to the top and bottom surfaces, H goes to zero. Therefore, the
longitudinal shear force H varies linearly with respect to x and quadratically with respect
to y.
Now, divide both sides of the equation by x
Note that P times x represents the moment Mz at position x, and that in the limit as x
approaches zero, Px/x simply represents the change in the bending moment which is
simply equal to the transverse shear force at that location. Therefore, we can rewrite this
equation as
The ratio of H over x represents the quantity known as the shear flow denoted by q. In
this case, shear flow is acting along the longitudinal surface located at distance y1. For the
problem described here, the shear flow can be written as
At a given position x, q varies according to the variation of Q. The equation for Q reveals
that at the NA corresponding to y1 = 0, Q reaches its maximum value, and at y1
corresponding to the top and bottom surfaces, it will be zero.
To obtain the flexural shear stress along the longitudinal surface corresponding to y = y1,
we simply divide q by the width of the longitudinal surface. If this dimension is denoted
by t, then
The subscripts on τ indicates that the longitudinal surface has a normal vector in the y
direction and that the shear stress component is in the direction of x axis. Since shear
stress in the longitudinal plane must be equal to that in the transverse plane, then the two
subscripts can change places without any change in the right hand side of the equation.
The equation above is known as the average flexural shear stress formula.
Although the value of shear flow is always maximum at the neutral axis location, we
cannot conclude that shear stress will also be maximum there. The reason is that t may
vary from one point to another, and that it is possible for a point other than the neutral
axis to have the maximum shear stress. In order to calculate the maximum shear stress,
the following relationship should always be followed.
Restrictions:
Before we can apply the average flexural shear stress formula, we must consider the
restrictions that apply to this equation:
1. The section has to be homogeneous (made of a single material).

2. The section has to have an axis of symmetry, therefore, product of inertia is zero.
3. The shear force V passes through the shear center of the section, and is parallel to one
of the two principal centroidal axes.
4. The shear stress at every point is below the corresponding elastic limit of the material.
************
Pop Question:
What if the longitudinal surface we considered in above derivation was not parallel to z
axis? What would change in that case?
Answer:
To answer these questions, consider the figure shown below.
In the case of horizontal longitudinal surface, we will be calculating the yx or xy

component of shear stress. To calculate Qz we use the area above the longitudinal
surface. t in this case is equal to the distance from the left edge to the right edge of the top
section. In the case of the vertical longitudinal surface, we will be calculating a different
component of shear stress, i.e., τzx which is the same as τxz on the transverse surface. In
this case Qz can be found by considering the area to the right side of the longitudinal
surface, and t would be equal to the flange thickness. This difference is demonstrated in
the following discussion:
Shear Stress Components τyx and τzx
************
If V is along z direction, then the moment of inertia is that about the perpendicular axis or
y axis in this case. For Vz loading, the flexural shear stress formula can be written as
Therefore, at a given point on the cross section we can calculate two components of shear
stress depending on the orientation of the longitudinal surface. Generally speaking, one
component is always much larger than the other thus, that would be the one of most
interest in the analysis.
Table below gives equations for maximum shear stress for specific cross sections. The
distance e is defined as the distance from the neutral axis to the point of maximum shear
stress. The shear force V is normal to the NA and it acts along the vertical axis of
symmetry, hence through the shear center. The maximum shear stress is given in terms of
the ratio V/A.
Shear Stress Variation:
If we obtain the equation that describes the shear stress as a function of position on the
cross section, it would be easy to find how shear stress varies from point to point as
shown in the example figure below.
Knowing that the ratio V/I is constant for a given section, we need to only concentrate on
the variation described by Q/t. For example, if we follow the derivation steps, we find the
average flexural shear stress variation for a beam with rectangular cross section, as shown
above, will be parabolic according to the equation
Shear Flow Variation:
The shear flow distribution at a given cross section is determined by writing the equation
VQ/I, which is basically the shear stress multiplied by 't'. The shear flow distribution
calculation can be seen in the example problems given at the bottom of this page.
Here are some examples of shear flow diagrams for sections with at least one axis of
symmetry. Each of these cases show the shear flow when the shearing load passes though
the shear center.
In each of these shear flow diagrams, the maximum shear flow occurs at the neutral axis,
which passes through the centroid of the section. This will also be the location of the
maximum shear stress as the wall thickness is constant. Also notice how the shear load is
perpendicular to the NA.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Maximum shear and flexural stresses in a beam with T cross-section
• Example 2 Average shear stress in a beam with an uneven I cross section
SECTION III.3 EXAMPLE 1
A cantilever beam with T cross section is loaded at the tip by a vertical force. Determine
at section n-n:
• (a) Maximun compressive stress.

• (b) Maximum tensile stress.
• (c) Maximum shear stress.
Note: Stresses induced by the tip load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material
used.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
Using line b-b as reference, with positive direction downward, the y centroidal coordinate
is determined as
Since the beam is elastic, the netrual axis will pass through its cross-sectional centroid.
The moment that force P produces is about the horizontal axis, therefore, neutral axis
coincides with the horizontal centroidal axis in this problem as shown in the figure
below.
The applied load puts the portion above the NA in tension and the one below in
compression.
The moment of inertia about the horizontal centroidal axis is the only one that is needed
to be calculated here, and is determined as
(a) The maximum compressive stress will occur at the farthest point from the NA, on the
compression side. At section n-n the bending moment is
The corresponding compressive stress will be

(b) The maximum tensile stress will occur at the farthest point from the NA on the
tension side.
(c) As was explained earlier, the shear stress should be viewed as the ratio (V/I) times the
ratio (Q/t). At a given section along the length of the beam (V/I) is constant. This means
that the maximum shear stress will occur at the point on the cross section which results in
the largest (Q/t) value.
Without any exception, the first moment of area, Q is always maximum at the NA. Since
in this cross section the width t is also minimum at the NA, we can conclude that the
maximum shear stress will occur there.
Side Note:
Based on the above discussion, it is quite possible for the maximum shear stress to occur
at a point other than the NA. You must always be aware of this fact when analyzing a
beam under transverse shear loads.
To determine Q, cut the cross section horizontally at the NA and choose either the top or
the bottom portion, it doesn't matter which because the same answer will result using
either portion. Therefore, it makes sense to pick the portion with the simplest shape to
calculate Q, in this case the bottom portion.
The maximum shear stress on the transverse plane n-n is found to be
The shear stress distribution over the entire cross section was not asked for in the
problem statement, but it is shown below for completeness.
Notice that the shear stress distribution shows only one component of shear stress (i.e.,
the vertical component). While this component is the dominant one along the vertical
flange, it is the smallest one along the horizontal flanges. To determine the dominant
component of shear stress along the top flanges (i.e., horizontal component), we must
make a vertical cut along either the left or the right flange (due to symmetry) and
calculate Q/t along the flange. The variation of shear stress will be linear with the largest
flange shear stress occuring near the junction of the three flanges. We will see this
difference in later example problems. However, in this problem the overall maximum
shear stress at section n-n is the one found earlier.
It is also important to point out a couple of things about the shear stress distribution
shown. First, notice that the variation of shear stress is quadratic. This is governed solely
by the equation for Q. Second, notice the discontinuity at the junction. This is because as
we go from top to bottom surface, the thickness suddenly changes at the junction. The
sharp reduction in thickness is responsible for the sharp increase in the shear stress.

A beam with the cross section shown is acted upon in its plane of symmetry by a 3 kN
force. For points A and B located at section n-n, shown in the figure below, determine the
average shear stress. The moment of inertia and centroid location are given in the figure.
Note: Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the corresponding
material.
EQUATION USED
SOLUTION
First the vertical shear 'V' at n-n is determined from the free body diagram shown below
The moment of area Q at point A, for a horizontal cut is given as
Thickness 't' is defined by the width of the 'cut' which in this case is 100 mm. Hence, the
average shear stress at point A is
Notice this is the vertical component of shear stress at point A.
The moment of area Q at point B, for a horizontal cut is given as

Point B is at the intersection of the web and the flange. The width of the cut is 20 mm,
making the shear stress
The shear stress at a point is mostly dependent on the thickness of the member at that
point. Usually, in thinner members more shear stress will be present as demonstrated by
this example.
Section III.4 Shear Flow Analysis for Symmetric Beams
Shear Flow Calculation:
To calculate the shear flow over a section of interest we must have the value of transverse
shear force V that is acting along a principal axis. This force is either given or should be
obtained from the shear diagram. Then we need to have the moment of inertia about an
axis that is perpendicular to the direction of the transverse shear force. For example, if V
is along y, we need to have Iz, or if V is along z, we need to calculate Iy. With Vz/Iy or
Vy/Iz known, we calculate the first moment of area, Q. If V is along the y direction, we
need to calculate Q about the z axis. To do this a segment of the cross section is isolated
from the rest, and its moment about the z axis is calculated. The way we isolate a
segment is by cutting it perpendicular to its thickness. We will see how this is done in the
example problems at the end of this section. An example of a shear flow diagram is
shown below.
Notice that in this example, the transverse shear load is in the vertical direction. Thus, the
moment of inertia about the horizontal centroidal axis is used for the calculation of shear
flow. The shear flows along the top flange and the web are calculated as
The direction of shear flow has to be consistent with that of the resultant shear force, in
this case Vy.
We can also calculate the shear force acting in each member. To do this, we simply
integrate the shear flow along each member.
Key Observation:
If we examine the internal shear force distribution we observe the following facts. Since
the resultant shear force is in vertical direction, the two flange forces (in horizontal
direction) will add up to zero as they should. However, if we compare the force in the
vertical web, F2 to Vy we find that they are not the same. Although this may indicate that
force equilibrium is violated, the fact is otherwise. We know from previous discussion
that shear stress at a given point is represented in terms of its two perpendicular
components. We also said that usually one component is much larger than the other. In
this case the vertical component of shear stress in top and bottom flanges is much smaller
than its horizontal component but not necessarily zero. If we were to consider the vertical
component of shear stress in the two flanges and calculate the corresponding shear force,
we will find that they added with F2 will be equal to Vy.
The reason we don't go through the trouble of calculating these forces is because they are
much smaller than F2. In fact we can see that if b > > t, then F2 is > 90% of Vy. It is
important to know this fact when doing bending analysis under transverse loads.
Shear Center Calculation:

The shear center is found using moment equilibrium. We show the resultant transverse
shear force acting at the shear center which is at some distance e from the point of
reference, usually the centroid of the cross section. We then write the moment produced
by the resultant shear force V, set it equal to the sum of moments produced by individual
internal force components, F1, F2 and F3, and solve for the unknown distance, ez in this
case. Paying attention to the direction of each moment, we can write
Beam Sections Not Loaded Through the Shear Center:
If the applied shear force does not pass through the shear center, it will force the beam to
twist as it bends. This eccentricity produces a torque, that will cause an additional shear
flow and shear stress. The analysis used for torsion of beams with open cross sections
(I.4) can be used here to find the constant shear flow and corresponding shear stress at a
desired point on the cross section.
In analysis of such sections, the shear force is replaced by an equivalent force-couple at

the shear center. The final shear stress diagram will be the superposition of
1. the shear stress with the shear force passing through the shear center,and
2. the shear stress induced by the associated torque about the shear center.
An example of this kind of loading is shown below. Note that in this case, the maximum
shear stress occurs at a point on the neutral axis which is on the left edge of the vertical
flange.
Shear Force in Fasteners:
In many applications, beam sections consist of several pieces of material that are attached
together in a number ways: bolts, rivets, nails, glue, weld, etc. In such so called built-up
sections we are interested in knowing the amount of shear stress and the resulting shear
force at the cross section of fasteners or over the glued surface.
The figure shown below gives an example of two rectangular members that are attached
by means of mechanical fasteners. In this case, we want to know the amount of shear
stress as well as shear force carried by each fastener. The fasteners are spaced evenly at a
distance of s. Each fastener has a cross-sectional area denoted by Af.
Note that the surface of contact or joint is treated as a frictionless surface. Therefore, the
shear flow is carried entirely by the fasteners.
If at a given section, there are more than one fastener, the shear flow will maintain the
same value, but the shear force and shear stress will change depending on the number and
size of fasteners used. For example, if at a given section there are two identical fasteners
as shown below, then the force in each is found as shown below.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Shear flow distribution, shear center location, and max shear stress
calculation for a simply-supported beam with doubly symmetric cross section
calculation for a simply-supported beam with a symmetric cross section
calculation for a simply-supported beam with a symmetric cross section. The
transverse shear force does not pass through the shear center
For the beam and loading shown, determine:
• (a) the location and magnitude of the maximum transverse shear force 'Vmax',
• (b) the shear flow 'q' distribution due to 'Vmax',
• (c) the 'x' coordinate of the shear center measured from the centroid,
• (d) the maximun shear stress and its location on the cross section.
Stresses induced by the loads do not exceed the elastic limits of the material. Assume the
transverse force passes through the shear center of the beam at every cross section.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
(a) To find the maximum transvere shear, the shear at each section along the beam
between sections A and D must be found. This means that we need to draw the shear
diagram. To do this we have to take the following steps:
From the free body diagram, the reactions at A and D are
The transverse shear variation along the section with distributed force can be found by
using the integral equation
The resulting shear diagram shown below indicates that the maximum shear force is
Vmax = 55.8 kN and it occurs along portion CD.
(b) For the shear flow analysis we must consider a beam section with maximum shear
force. In this case any section along portion CD will satisfy this requirement. To obtain
the shear flow, first draw the picture of the cross section. Since the moment of inertia
about the horizontal centroidal axis (perpendicular to the direction of V) is already given,
we can go directly to the moment of area (Q) calculation. Begin at the free end of the top
right flange where we know the shear flow is zero, and consider a portion of length s as
shown in the figure below.
Write the equation for the shear flow in terms of the moment of area of the portion of
length s.
Notice that the moment of inertia is that of the entire I cross section about the horizontal
centroidal axis, which is perpendicular to the direction of V.
Due to symmetry about the vertical centroidal axis, the shear flow in the top left flange
will be the same as the flow in the top right (same magnitude, opposite direction). Also
due to symmetry about the horizontal centroidal axis, the shear flow in bottom flanges
will be the same as the ones on top (same magnitude, opposite direction).
In the web, the shear flow doesn't start from zero, like it did in the flanges. This is
because the starting point of the web is a junction and not a free end. The starting shear
flow for the web is shown in the figure below.
Using the fluid flow analogy the flow coming into the web-flange junction from flanges
must leave the junction through the web.
To determine the shear flow variation along the web, isolate a section of length w along
the web as shown in the figure below.
Write the shear flow equation by writing the starting value which is 128.96 kN/m, and
adding to it the contribution of the web. V/I ratio stays the same (as it should), and all that
remains to be calculated is the moment of area of length w along the web.
The complete shear flow diagram is shown below. The shear force in the web is found by
calculating the area under the q diagram. This gives a value of 54.626 kN which
represents approximately 98% of the total shear force which is 55.8 kN. The rest of it (not
shown), as explained before, will be carried by the top and bottom flanges.
(c) Since this is a doubly symmetric cross section, the shear center is located at the
intersection of the axes of symmetry which is the centroid.
(d) The maximum shear stress will occur at the point on the cross section where the ratio
(q/t) is maximum. In this problem that point is located on the neutral axis.
In summary, the maximum shear stress in the flange is 6.829 MPa and occurs at the
intersection of the flange and the web (i.e., s = 61 mm). The minimum shear stress in the
web is 21.493 MPa and the maximum shear stress is 30.511 MPa.

Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material. The
transverse force passes through the shear center of the beam at every cross section.
EQUATION USED
SOLUTION
(a) To find the maximum transvere shear, the shear at each section along the beam
The transverse shear can be found by using the integral equation from mechanics of
materials
Vmax = 55.8 kN and it occurs along portion CD.
Notice that the answer to part (a) is the same as the one found in Example 1. This is
because the beam supports and loading condition dictate the transverse shear force
variation along the length of the beam. The shape of the beam cross section has no effect
on this variation.
(b) For the shear flow calculation, with the shear force and the moment of inertia about
the horizontal centroidal axis known, we again begin from a free end where we know the
shear flow is zero. In this case, we start from the free end of the top right flange. Note
that we could have chosen any of the three free ends of the cross section. The final
variation would come out to be exactly the same regardless of which flange tip we started
from.
For the segment of length s, write the moment of area equation and put it in the shear
flow equation as given below.
Due to symmetry about the vertical centroidal axis, the shear flow in the top left flange
will be the same as the flow in the top right (same magnitude, opposite direction).
For the web, begin at the web-flange junction. What pours into the web is what enters the
junction from each flange.
Consider the segment of length w along the web. Write the equation for its moment of
area, and put it in the shear flow equation as in Example 1.
The final shear flow diagram is shown below. Note the linear variations in horizontal
flanges and quadratic variation in the vertical flange.
If we integrate the shear flow equation for the vertical flange we obtain a shear force of
55.02 kN. This is approximately 99% of the total shear force of 55.8 kN. The remaining
1% is carried by the horizontal flanges.
(c) Do to symmetry about the vertical axis, the shear center falls along that axis, but not
at the centroid as was the case with doubly symmetric I cross section of beam in Example
1. With the shear center falling on the vertical axis of symmetry its x-coordinate
measured from the centroid is obviously zero.
(d) The maximum shear stress will occur at the point on the cross section where (q/t) is
maximum. In this case maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis and its value is
To summarize, the maximum shear stress in the horizontal flanges occur at their
respective junction with the vertical flange. This shear stress is 9.02 MPa. The minimum
shear stress in the vertical flange is 28.39 MPa and the maximum shear stress is 35.99
MPa.
• (b) the shear flow 'q' distribution due the 'Vmax',
Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material.
NOTE:In this problem the applied transverse shear force passes through the centroid of
the cross section, and not its shear center.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
(a) To find the maximum transverse shear, the shear at each section along the beam

The transverse shear can be found by using mechanics of materials
Vmax = 55.8 kN and it occurs along portion CD. Notice once again that the diagram is
exactly the same as those found in the previous two example problems as the loads and
boundary conditions have not changes.
(b) For the shear flow analysis we need to have the moment of inertia about the centroidal
axis perpendicular to the shear force, in this case the horizontal centroidal axis. The
dimensions of the cross section are measured to the middle of each adjacent member for
simplicity. Hence, the cross section can be treated as
The moment of inertia is found as

Notice that in this problem the applied lateral load does not pass through the shear center.
This means that as a result of this loading, the beam will twist while bending. The
principle of superposition allows us to break this problem into two parts. In the first part
we will determine the shear stress due to V through the shear center, and in the second
part we will determine the shear stress due to accompanying torque as was explained
earlier. For the shear flow due to V passing through the shear center, we start at the free
end of the top right flange by isolating a portion of length s along the flange, same as in
previous examples.
Write the equation for the moment of area of the isolated section, and put it in the shear
flow equation as given below.
For the web start from the web-flange junction and write the shear flow equation
considering the moment of area of w portion along the web.
The bottom flange will have the same shear flow as the top flange due to horizontal
centroidal symmetry of the cross section.
NOTE: always check your final value of q to make sure that at the free end you get zero.
The shear flow diagram shown is only due to V through the shear center and does not
represent the final or true shear flow variation. However, this is the variation we need in
order to find the location of shear center.
(c) Because of symmetry about the horizontal centroidal axis, the shear center must be
located on that axis. Therefore, its 'y' coordinate is known. The 'x' coordinate of shear
center can be determined by summing moments about the centroid. First, we need to find
the force in each flange and the web. The force along each member is just the area under
the shear flow curve.
The force in the flange is the area of the triangle (the height and length would be 488.5
and .12). But as long as the equations are available, it's easier to just integrate.
Always calculate the summation of vertical and horizontal forces, and check them against
the resultant force. With only a vertical force acting on the section, the sum of horizontal
forces should add up to zero, as they do. Notice that the vertical force along the web is
almost 99.7% of V with the remaining 0.3% carried by the flanges as explained before.
Summing moments about the centroid gives the horizontal coordinate of the shear center.
Since the answer came out positive, it means that the shear center is to the left of the web
as assumed.
(d) The shear flow diagram shown above is only the contribution of the force through the
shear center.
There is also a shear flow induced by the torque about the shear center. Knowing the
location of shear center, we can now calculate the torque as shown in the figure below.
The value of torque is determined as
Recall from the discussion of thin-walled sections in pure torsion and the elastic
membrane analogy that the shear stress contours along each member can be shown as in
the figure below.
To use the equation for torque-induced maximum shear stress, we first need to calculate
the a/t ratio. Since all members have the same thickness, the maximum shear stress due to
torque occurs in the middle of the longest member, in this case the web.
Looking at the shear stress contours, we observe that near the inside edge of the web the
shear stress is downward, therefore, it would add to the one caused by the shear force
through the shear center. With both components being maximum at the neutral axis, the
calculation of the overall maximum shear stress would be performed as
The maximum shear stress occurs at the NA, on the inside edge of the web.
Section III.5 Shear Flow Analysis for Unsymmetric Beams
In chapter II, a general equation for the bending stress was introduced. It was further
shown that this equation could be used on any cross section, symmetric or unsymmetric,
under symmetric or unsymmetric bending moment. There is a similar general equation
for shear flow. It too can be used for any cross section, symmetric or unsymmetric, under
symmetric or unsymmetric transverse shear force. This equation is derived from Eq.
(II.1), and is given as
When the section is symmetric there will be no product of inertia, and if only a vertical
shear force is applied, this equation reduces to what we have used previously for
determining shear flow distribution at a given section.
The analysis procedure for unsymmetrical cross sections is as follows:
• Determine, as needed, the centroid, moments of inertia, and the shearing load in
the problem.
• Consider the two parts of the general shear flow equation separately.
• Determine the shear flow resulting from each part.
• Combine the two parts together to get the final shear flow distribution.
When using this equation, it is important to consider the 'signs' on the transverse shear
force components, Vx and Vy. The sign convention used is as follows:
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• (a) the location and magnitude of the maximum transverse shear force,
• (c) the 'x' coordinate of the shear center measured from the centroid of the cross
section.
Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material. The
transverse shear force is applied through the shear center at every section of the beam.
Also, the length of each member is measured to the middle of the adjacent member.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
With the cross section being unsymmetric about the centroidal axes x and y, we need to
calculate the product of inertia. However, first we need to know where the centroid is
located. Then we can calculate the moments of inertia Ix, and Iy, and the product of
inertia, Ixy. The calculations lead to the following answers:
(a) To find the maximum transvere shear force, the shear at each point between A and D
must be found. From the free body diagram, the reactions at A and D are
The transverse shear can be found from mechanics of materials

From the diagram, the maximum shear force is found to be
(b) To find the shear flow use equation A14.14. With only a vertical force acting on the
section, whatever the sign, the magnitude of the shear flow will not change with the
choice of sign. But to be consistent with the discussion on the sign convention, the shear
force is negative along portion CD of the beam, as shown in the shear diagram.
Notice that in the above equation Vx is zero, as there is no horizontal force acting on the
section.
Work on one part of the general shear flow equation at a time.
Part 1
Obtain the shear flow variation by considering the summation of xA which constitutes
the moment of aera Q in this case.
The equation for the vertical flange is linear, and it would be easy to plot. The horizontal
flange would be a little harder to plot accurately as it is parabolic, we also need to obtain
more information. For example, what are the roots of the shear flow equation
(corresponding to a zero shear flow, which indicates a change in shear flow direction),
and where is the slope of the shear curve zero (corresponding to the location of maximum
shear flow along the horizontal flange).
With all the necessary information determined, the shear flow distribution corresponding
to part 1 of the general shear flow equation can be plotted as shown below.
Notice that the shear flow never took a zero value, except at the free ends, hence no
change in sign (i.e., direction) was observed.
Part 2
For this part we need to calculate the moment of area due to summation of yA.
With the picture shown above, the moment of area can be calculated and put into the part
2 of the general shear flow equation as shown below.
With the flow variation along the vertical flange being parabolic this time, we need to
examine the equation along the vertical flange to see if shear flow goes to zero anywhere
along its length.
The shear flow from part 2 is shown below.

Now, combine the two parts together by adding (algebraically) the shear flow
components along each flange as.
Vertical Flange
Check to see if there is a change in direction of shear flow along this flange.
Horizontal Flange
Check to see if there is a change in direction of shear flow along this flange.
As the calculations indicate, there is infact a point along the horizontal flange where the
shear flow switches direction. This is captured in the final shear flow distribution shown
below.
To make sure that the values found are correct. We must check the equilibrium of forces
in x and y directions, individually.
The equilibrium is satisfied. Therefore, we can presume that our analysis is correct.
(c) The 'x' component of the shear center is determined by summing the moments about
an arbitrary point, here we choose point 'G' at the intersection of vertical and horizontal
flanges.
With the resultant force along each flange passing through the corner of the angle section,
they produce no moment about point G, therefore
If we look at this angle section carefully, we observe that with the two flanges being
identical, and separated by 90 degrees, an axis of symmetry is created along the 45
degree line between the two flanges passing through the corner. Hence, as before the
shear center is located on the axis of symmetry. Notice also since this axis of symmetry
was not along x or the y axes, the product of inertia Ixy did not vanish. Something to
ponder upon!
Section III.6 Analysis of Beams with Constant Shear Flow Webs
The discussions of flexural shear stress and shear flow, so far, have been focused on
sections which are fully effective in bending. This means that the entire cross section was
used in calculation of centroid and moments of inertia. The shear flow varied either
linearly or non-linearly along each member of the cross section. As such the calculation
of shear flow was somewhat involved.
In this section our focus shifts to built-up beams (with open section) that are composed of
thin web(s) supported by stiffeners (or stringers). In the analysis of such beams the
following assumptions are made.
Assumptions:
1. Calculations of centroid, symmetry, moments of area and moments of inertia are

based totally on the areas and distribution of beam stiffeners.
2. A web does not change the shear flow between two adjacent stiffeners and as such
would be in the state of constant shear flow.
3. The stiffeners carry the entire bending-induced normal stresses, while the web(s) carry
the entire shear flow and corresponding shear stresses.
Analysis:
Let's begin with a simplest thin-walled stiffened beam. This means a beam with two
stiffeners and a web. Such a beam can only support a transverse force that is parallel to a
straight line drawn through the centroids of two stiffeners. Examples of such a beam are
shown below. In these three beams, the value of shear flow would be equal although the
webs have different shapes.
The reason the shear flows are equal is that the distance between two adjacent stiffeners
is shown to be 'd' in all cases, and the applied force is shown to be equal to 'R' in all
cases. The shear flow along the web can be determined by the following relationship
Important Features of Two-Stiffener, Single-Web Beams:
• Shear flow between two adjacent stiffeners is constant.

• The magnitude of the resultant shear force is only a function of the straight line
between the two adjacent stiffeners, and is absolutely independent of the web
shape.
• The direction of the resultant shear force is parallel to the straight line connecting
the adjacent stiffeners.
• The location of the resultant shear force is a function of the enclosed area
(between the web, the stringers at each end and the arbitrary point 'O'), and the
straight distance between the adjacent stiffeners. This is the only quantity that
depends on the shape of the web connecting the stiffeners.
• The line of action of the resultant force passes through the shear center of the
section.
For multi-stiffener, multi-web beams the shear flow never changes direction in the web
between the adjacent stiffeners. But it can change direction at a stiffener separating two
adjacent webs.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Resultant shear force in a web connecting two stiffeners
• Example 2 Shear flow distribution and shear center location in a multi-web multi-
stiffener open section

For each of the constant-shear-flow web sections shown, determine:
• (a) the magnitude of the resultant shear force,

• (b) the location of the resultant force (same as shear center), with respect to point
'O' shown with each section.
• (c) the direction of the resultant force.
Let q=100 lb/in in each section.

EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
At a glance all of the three sections look very different, but once we do the analysis, we
will be able to see the similarities.
Maybe this is a good place to make an educated guess. With respect to magnitude,
location, and direction of the resultant force how similar are these sections?
Section 1:
The straight distance between the stringers at the ends of the web is
The magnitude of the force is therefore given as

The direction of the force is parallel to 'h'. The location of the force from point 'O' is
The area A is shown by the hashed region.
Notice that the line of action of the resultant force passes through the shear center of the
section.
You may ask the question, how would I know by using the scalar equation for 'e' which
side of line 'h' the force should be shown?
The answer is simple. Remember that the resultant force should produce the same
moment about point 'O' as the components. Looking at the shear flow direction shown for
section 1, the shear flow produces a counter clockwise moment about point 'O'.
Therefore, the resultant shear force must do the same. The arrow on the resultant force
vector is consistent with the direction of the shear flow along the web, or the shear force
in each segment of the web (i.e., the vertical parts and the horizontal part).
Section 2:
The magnitude of the force is given as
The direction of the force is parallel to 'h'. The location of the force measured from point
'O' is
The area 'A' is shown by the hashed region.
Notice that the same reasoning as before can be used to show the correct direction and
location of the resultant shear force.
Section 3:
The magnitude of the force is given as
The direction of the resultant shear force is parallel to 'h'. The location of the resultant
shear force requires the use of equation for 'e'.
Note that for the previous two sections when we drew straight lines from each stringer to
reference point 'O', the resulting region produced a single enclosed area. With the shape
we have here, when we connect the ends of the web to point 'O' by two straight lines, the
result is two instead of one area. Hmmm! Interesting! What should we do now?
Well we don't give up this easily. We just have to interpret equation we use for 'e' a bit
more carefully. In situations such as this, when more than one cell is created, the
direction of moment of shear flow in the two areas may be opposite. As is the case here.
So we look at the expanded form of equation for 'e'. We calculate 'e' associated with each
cell from the equation e=2A/h, then we add them together by paying attention to the
direction of moment the shear flow in each cell produces about point 'O'.
Here, the bigger cell produces a counter clockwise moment, whereas the smaller one
produces a clockwise moment. The location of the resulant force is, hence, determined as
Now, when we compare the three sections, we realize in all three, the magnitude of the
resultant shear force was exactly the same. The difference in these sections appeared only
in magnitude of 'e'. Also note that in all sections, the shear flow was directed in northwest
direction, and as can be seen so was the direction of the resultant shear force. Finally, the
resultant force in each section passes through the shear center of the section.
For the multi-web, multi-stringer open-section beam shown, determine
• (a) the shear flow distribution,

• (b) the location of the shear center.
EQUATION USED
SOLUTION
The location of the centroid with respect to stringer 4, and moments of inertia are
(a) With no horizontal shear force, and with the above information, equation A14.14
reduces to
Starting at stringer 1 and working around to stinger 6, the shear flow due to the vertical
shear is
The shear flow diagram and the location and direction of each force component for this
section are shown below.
It is important to pay attention to the location of each force, especially the ones for the
semicircular webs.
(b) To determine the 'x' coordinate of the shear center the web forces need to be
calculated. Then the moments are summed about stringer 4 with clockwise positive.
To find the 'y' coordinate of the shear center, a fictitious horizontal shear force 'Vx' is
applied to the beam, then the same analysis is repeated.
Now calculate the force in each web.
Use the moment equilibrium to determine the y-coordinate of the shear center.
The shear center location is shown in the figure below.
IV. TRANSVERSE SHEAR LOADING OF BEAMS WITH

CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS
The topics discussed in this section deal with transverse shear loading of unstiffened or
thin-walled stiffened beams with CLOSED cross sections. Such beams are generally
referred to as BOX Beams. The methods of analysis discussed here are relevant to
airplane wing, tail, and fuselage structures. However, more reference is given to aircraft
wing structures composed of a single-cell or a multiple-cell closed box beam.
Topics covered:
Flexural shear stress, shear flow, shear center of unstiffened and thin-walled stiffened
sections.
Sections 1 through 4 deal with uniform beams whereas sections 5 and 6 deal primarily
with nonuniform and tapered beams in which the cross-sectional moments of inertia are
not constant.
Restrictions: The beams are considered to be homogeneous and elastic.
SECTION IV.1 Single Cell Beams
In chapter III, we discussed shear flow distribution in beams having open cross sections.
We used the general shear flow equation
to determine the shear flow variation starting from a free edge where we know q = 0. In
beams having closed cross sections, however, there is no free edge. Consequently, the
shear flow analysis for closed-section beams is slightly more complicated than that for
the open-section beams. For this analysis we will rely, to some extent, on the techniques
discussed previously in chapters I and III.
Two types of closed-section shear flow problems are discussed here.
In case 1, the resultant shear force passes through the shear center of the closed section.
Therefore, we know that in such a loading, the beam will bend without twisting. This is
referred to here as the bending problem.
In case 2, the resultant shear force does not pass through the shear center. As a result, the
beam will twist as it bends. This is referred to here as the bend-twist problem.
There are two different methods to solve these types of problems. Method 1 is known as
the direct method, and method 2 is known as the indirect or shear center method.
These two methods of analysis are explained below.
Case 1: Bending Problem
In these problems we know that the transverse shear force passes through the shear center
of the section. How do we know that? There are two possibilities. This fact may be
explicitly stated in the problem statement. Else, it may be realized by examining the
geometric shape of the beam cross section and where the applied load is shown to be
acting. Therefore, it is obvious that beam should bend without twisting.
To start the analysis, assume the shear flow is zero at an arbitrary point. This implies that
the section has been "cut" longitudinally at that point, thus creating a free edge. Then, we
use the general shear flow equation to find the "preliminary" shear flow distribution
along each wall. We designate this shear flow by q'. The reason we call this the
preliminary shear flow is that it is based on the assumption that shear flow is zero at the
selected point. Also, with this being a bending problem, the shear flow should result in
the angle of twist of zero. If we were to use q' to solve for the twist angle, it would not
result in zero twist. This tells us that the shear flow q' is not the true shear flow
distribution.
To satisfy the zero-twist requirement, a constant shear flow of unknown magnitude q0 is

added to the shear flow distribution q' found previously. Recall the angle of twist
equation for closed sections discussed in Chapter I. We use that equation with q along
each side being q' of that side + or - q0 depending on whether they are both in the same
or opposite direction. By setting the angle of twist to zero we find the constant shear flow
q0. This value is then added to q' values found previously to determine the final shear
flow distribution, q.
These steps are graphically shown in the figure below for a doubly symmetric cross
section under a vertical transverse shear force through the shear center (which in this case
coincides with the cross-sectional centroid). Note the symmetry in the shear flow pattern.
This is the consequence of force acting along an axis of symmetry.
Case 2: Bend-Twist Problem
1. Direct Method
If we are just interested in determining the shear flow distribution due to the resultant
shear force with no interest in the location of shear center, then this is the easiest method
to use. In using this method, it does not matter whether or not the transverse shear force is
acting through the shear center.
As in the previous case, we begin the analysis by selecting a point and assuming that q' =
0. Then we use the general shear flow equation to determine the preliminary shear flow
distribution q' all around the section. This shear flow distribution will satisfy the force
equilibrium but not the moment equilibrium. To satisfy the moment equilibrium a
constant shear flow q0 must be added to the preliminary shear flow system. The
magnitude of this constant shear flow is found from moment equilibrium. That is the sum
of moments due to the shear flow system of q'+q0 about an arbitrary point must balance
the moment produced by the resultant shear force about the same point. With one
equation in one unknown, the magnitude of q0 will be determined.
Note that the shear center location will remain unknown or unimportant throughout the
solution. For our rectangular section example with the shear force shifted near the right
edge, this approach yields the final shear flow pattern as shown below
2. Shear Center Method
We use this method if in the process of calculating the shear flow distribution due to the
applied load we also want to determine the location of the shear center. To explain this
procedure let us consider the same example used for the direct method. We can represent
the resultant force acting at some arbitrary location in terms of an equivalent force-
moment system acting at the shear center of the section. We don't know the magnitude of
the moment as we do not know the location of the shear center, but we can write it as the
force times its moment arm, measured from the point of application of the force to the
shear center as shown in the figure below.
Now we solve the problem in two parts. First we determine the location of the shear
center by determining the shear flow distribution due to force through the shear center.
The procedure is exactly the same as the one described above in the bending problem.
At the conclusion of this part, we know the location of the shear center. If the location of
shear center is exactly along the line of action of the applied force as specified in the
problem (i.e., d = 0), then the solution is finished. Otherwise, we calculate the moment
shown in the figure as T = Vd. This moment has a shear flow associated with it which
can be found using the relation T = 2qA. From this relation we solve for the constant
shear flow shown in the figure as qbar. This shear flow has to be superimposed over the
one found previously, in the shear center calculation, in order to get the final shear flow
distribution corresponding to the actual loading condition.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 (updated on 6-13-05) Shear center location, shear flow distribution,
and max shear stress calculation in a cantilever box beam with a symmetric cross
section
SECTION IV.1 EXAMPLE 1

For the thin-walled single-cell rectangular beam and loading shown, determine
• (a) the shear center location (ex and ey),

• (b) the resisting shear flow distribution at the root section due to the applied load
of 1000 lb,
• (c) the location and magnitude of the maximum shear stress.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
(a)
Due to vertical symmetry of the cross section, the shear center will lie on the centroidal y
axis, hence ex = 0 in this case. However, with no symmetry about the horizontal
centroidal axis, the value of ey is unknown.
Here is how we calculate the vertical coordinate of the shear center:
We consider the root section and apply a fictitious horizontal shear force Vx through the
shear center. Note that the applied vertical load must be removed for this analysis. In this
part we demonstrate the solution procedure described in case 1.
With no vertical force and no product of inertia, the general shear flow equation reduces
to
Because of vertical cross-sectional symmetry and symmetric loading, the neutral axis will
pass through the centroid as shown below.
In order to use the general shear flow equation, we assume q = 0 at an arbitrary point.
This assumption models the cross section as an "open" section. The resulting shear flow
distribution is designated by q' to indicate that it only represents a preliminary and not the
final shear flow distribution. We decided to assume q' = 0 at the upper left corner. We
start from that point and go around the section and determine the preliminary shear flow
distribution.
The resulting preliminary shear flow distribution due to Vx is shown below.
Since Vx passes through the shear center, the section will not twist. Using the angle of
twist equation from chapter I and setting it to zero we obtain the constant shear flow q0
required to keep the section from twisting.
The negative sign on the shear flow q0 implies that its direction is opposite to that
assumed in the figure above. The constant shear flow q0 is added to the preliminary shear
flow system found previously to determine the final shear flow distribution (not shown
here) due to Vx.
The direction of positive shear flow is arbitrary, in this case we chose it to be in the
counter clock-wise direction. The fact that the shear flow found in the analysis using the
general shear flow equation and the shear flow found using the angle of twist equation
were in opposite directions is important. They oppose each other.
Now, by summing the moments about point 'A' at the corner, we determine the vertical
location of the shear center. Remember that the force associated with the shear flow is
just the area under the shear flow curve. It can either be found by integrating the shear
flow equation or, if the curve is simple, like a triangle, it can be solved for directly.
The shear center is located at (0", 0.6") from the centroid.
(b) For this part the direct method will be used.
The resultant shear force will be equal to the vertical load at the tip. With no horizontal
shear force and no product of inertia, the general shear flow equation reduces to
Again, assume q = 0 at a point (i.e., cut the section at corner 'A') and work around the
cross section, finding the preliminary shear flow distribution.
Each one of these equations should be checked for its maximum value location and
whether there are any sign changes, indicating a change in the shear flow direction. To
find a change in sign, set the equation to zero and solve for 'w'. If the result is within the
limits of 'w' along that particular web, then there is a sign change. To find the location of
the maximum value, take the derivative of the equation with respect to the 'w' and set the
equation equal to zero. This part is just for quadratic or higher degree equations. The
maximum for the linear equations will be at one end or the other. The analysis of one
equation is shown here.
With this part done, the shear flow for the open section can be drawn as shown below.
Sum the moments about corner 'A' to get the shear flow q0 needed to balance the
moments. This time the forces along 'CD' and 'DA' are found by integration.
Add this constant shear flow to those found previously to get the final q distribution.
These equations should be analyzed again to determine any shear flow direction changes
and locations of maximum shear flow. Two in particular are segments 'BC' and 'DA'. The
location for the change in direction should be the same. Notice that in the above shear
flow equations w2 and w4 are measured in opposite directions.
The final shear flow distribution is

Notice that although the cross section is symmetric about the y axis, the shear flow
distribution is not. This is because the vertical shear force is not on the axis of symmetry.
It is always a good idea to check equilibrium equations to make sure they are satisfied. In
this case the summation of horizontal forces add up to zero as they should, and the
summation of vertical forces add up to very close to 1000 lb. The slight difference is due
to the fact that the vertical component of the shear in the horizontal webs have been
ignored. This idea was first discussed in the discussion of transverse shear loading of
open sections in chapter III. Also if we were to take moments about any point, we will
find the sum of moments due to shear forces balance the one due to external force.
(c)
By examining the shear flow distribution and thickness variation, it is clear that the
maximum shear stress is in segment 'AB' at w=3.377".
Section IV.3 Single Cell- Multiple Flange Beams: Symmetric and

Unsymmetric Cross Sections
This section deals with statically indeterminate box beams with constant-shear-flow
webs. For example, a single cell box beam with four stiffeners and four webs. The shear
flow analysis in such box beams is basically the same as that discussed in section IV.1 for
closed sections.
We cut the cross section at a particular web in order to start the solution at a point with a
known shear flow (i.e., q' = 0), and work around the cross section using the general shear
flow equation. Then, we replace the cut web and show a constant shear flow qo around
the closed cell. This unknown shear flow is the actual value of shear flow in the web that
was originally cut. Both the shear center and direct method can be used to solve for the
unknown shear flow. The shear flow between stringers can be calculated as in section
III.6. Remember that for these problems, the shear flow between two adjacent stringers is
constant in both magnitude and direction. The change in direction can only occur at a
stringer location.
The example below shows the analysis procedure.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
For the single-cell skin-stringer closed section shown, determine
(a) the shear flow distribution for a vertical transverse shear force of Vy passing through
the shear center,
(b) the horizontal position of the shear center ex,
(c) the shear flow distribution for a horizontal transverse shear force of Vx passing
through the shear center,
(d) the vertical position of the shear center ey.
Note: show the shear center location position relative to the centroid.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
The centroid of the cross section is located at
Notice that since the stiffeners are assumed to carry the bulk of bending in skin-stringer
sections, only the areas of the stiffeners are used in calculating the centroid as well as the
moments of inertia.
(a) Apply a load Vy in the downward direction. We begin by removing the skin between
stringers #7 and #1 so we can start from a point with a known shear flow (i.e., zero) and
be able to use Eq. A14.14. With Vx = 0, equation A14.14 reduces to
The moments of inertia are
Start at stringer #1, and work around the section.

Note that the value of q' found for each web would have been the true value of shear flow
if the original section was an OPEN section (i.e., with no web between stiffeners 1 & 7).
This would be similar to the problems discussed previously in Chapter A14. However, in
this problem we are dealing with a closed section so the q values found from Eq. A14.14
are NOT the actual shear flows, and that is why we use the variable q' to make that
distinction.
Now, replace the skin between stringers #7 and #1. Since the resultant shear force passes
though the shear center, the twist angle must be zero. We use the angle of twist equation
set to zero. This equation allows us to find the value of shear flow qo that once is
algebraically added to q' values would give the true shear flow in each web.
This is the required shear flow to keep the closed section from twisting. Note that it is in
terms of Vy.
By algebraically adding qo to q' in each web, we will come up with the actual shear flow
distribution for the case when Vy is passing through the shear center
(b) To find the horizontal location of the shear center, we sum the moments about the
position of one of the stringers. Here we choose stringer #2.
ex is measured from the centroid of the cross section.
(c)
To determine the shear flow distribution for V = Vx and Vy = 0, we pretty much follow
the same procedure as used in part (a). Again, remove the skin between stringer #7 and
#1. With Vy = 0, equation A14.14 reduces to
As before, work all the way around the section to find q' in each web.
Use the angle of twist equation set to zero to solve for qo.
By algebraically adding qo to q' in each web, we will come up with the actual shear flow
distribution for the case when Vx is passing through the shear center
Note the direction of shear flow around the section. To check the validity of the shear
flows, we can sum forces along the x direction to make sure it comes out to be equal to
Vx which is the resulant force of all shear flows.
Finally, we sum moments about the position of stringer #2 to solve for dy and ey.
Therefore, the shear center is located at 5.85" to the left and .08" below the centroid as
Just for the curiosity sake, where would the shear center be if there really was no skin
between stringers #7 and #1, making this an open skin-stringer section?
It can be easily found by using the q' values in the above analysis in the equation for the
summation of moments. Use the q' in part (a) to find the ex and use the q' in part (c) to
find ey in this case. The shear center would be located at
This location is consistent with the location of the shear center for a channel section.
Section IV.4 Multiple-Cell Multiple-Flange Beams: Symmetric and
Unsymmetric Cross Sections
For finding the shear flow distribution and shear center location in two-cell or multiple-
cell (i.e., more than 2 cells), multiple-flange beams the same methods demonstrated in
section IV.1 can still be used. Keep in mind that such beams are always statically
indeterminate, and we must use either the direct method or the shear center method to
solve for the shear flow distribution.
However, following the procedure described in section IV.1 does not provide us with
sufficient number of equations to solve for all the unknown shear flows. An important
fact to remember in these problems is that all the cells will twist the same amount.
This will help us establish sufficient number of equations to solve for the unknown shear
flows.
The equation for the angle of twist is the same as the one used before for closed-section
beams with constant-shear-flow webs.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Analysis of a 2-cell 3-flange box beam

For the uniform two-cell, skin-stringer cantilever box beam and loading shown;
• (a) determine the shear flows in the webs and the axial forces in the stringers at
the root section,
• (b) determine the shear and normal stresses at the root section,
• (c) determine the shear center location,
• (d) determine the deflection at the tip which includes vertical and horizontal
displacements and twist.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
(a)
At first glance, we can tell that this is a statically indeterminate problem. There are 7
unknown forces and shear flows, but we only have 6 static equilibrium equations to work
with.
However, if we include the angle of twist equation, there will be sufficient equations to
solve for all the unkowns in the problem.
Start by summing the vertical and horizontal forces and the moments about stringer A
using the view shown in the figure below.
The equilibrium equations are
Now write the angle of twist equation for each cell. Since the angle of twist in the two
cells must be equal, we can set the right hand sides of these equations equal to each other
and obtain an additional equation in terms of the unknown shear flows.
We now have 4 equations and 4 unknowns. Solving them gives the shear flows as
The axial forces are found by breaking up the wing section and drawing the shear flows
on the panels and stringers.
(b)
The shear stresses in the webs are found simply by dividing the shear flow in the web by
the corresponding web thickness. The normal stress in each stringer is found by dividing
the axial force by the area of that stringer.
(c)
To find the x coordinate of the shear center, we must apply a vertical force of arbitrary
magnitude. In this case, we apply a vertical force of 2500 lb. The location of the shear
center is assumed to be to the left of the vertical web between stringers A and B as shown
below. We write the force and moment equilibrium equations along with the equation for
angle of twist in each cell. Since the force is passing through the shear center, there
cannot be any twist. Therefore, each twist equation is set equal to zero.
We have 5 equations and 5 unknowns. Solving for ex yields
To find the y coordinate of the shear center, we apply a horizontal force, which in this
case is chosen to be 500 lb in +x direction. Following the same procedure as used
previously, we find ey as follows.
(d)
With the cross section having no centroidal axis of symmetry, we cannot directly solve
for the vertical tip deflection based on the formula
This equation gives the correct answer only if x and y are principal axes. In this problem
x and y are not the principal axes as Ixy is not zero. Hence, what we need to do is to first
locate the principal axes, then calculate the corresponding moments of inertia. Then by
transforming the forces in the directions of principal axes, we solve for the tip deflection.
The cross-sectional centroid is located at (7.2",5") from flange B. The corresponding

moments of inertia are calculated to be Ix = 25 in4, Iy = 207.36 in4, and Ixy = -36 in4.
Using the equations for the principal plane and corresponding moments of inertia, we
obtain Ixp = 214.21 in4 and Iyp = 18.15 in4 with yp axis being at 10.77 degrees counter-
clockwise from the x axis. Transforming the applied forces in xp and yp directions gives
Pxp =-2,362.49 lb, and Pyp = 958.47 lb. Now using the deflection equations for the tip-
loaded cantilever beam, we obtain 4.34" and 0.15" in -xp and yp directions, respectively.
These values correspond to E = 10 Msi. These results translate into a tip deflection of
(x,y) = (-0.67,4.3"). Therefore, the tip would deflect upward and to the left (as viewed
from the root) as a result of the loads and the cross-sectional geometry.
If we calculate the tip deflection by disregarding the facts stated above, we would end up
with a tip deflection of (x,y) = (.08",3.33"). This would result in error of 22.6% in vertical
deflection.
The twist at the tip is found by using the angle of twist equation for either of the two
cells; the answer will come out the same, regardless of which cell is used.
NOTE:
In this example problem we used the equations of equilibrium along with the angle of
twist equation to solve for the unknown shear flow and axial forces. Here is the procedure
for solving for the shear flows using the direct method:
As before we need to remove some webs to create an open section. The choice of which
webs to remove is arbitrary so long as once these webs are removed the section will be
fully open. For example if we remove the curved and flat webs connecting stringers A
and B, we will have an open section consisting of only two webs and three stringers.
Now, we use the general shear flow equation to solve for the preliminary shear flow q'
along the remaining webs. Note that we have to do this once with only Vy as the resultant
shear force, and another time with Vx as the only resultant force.
Once the q' values are found, we will replace the webs that were removed earlier.
Because of having two cells, we show two constant shear flows qo1 and qo2 in cells one
and two, respectively. We write the angle of twist equation for each cell with q along
each web being the algebraic sum of q' and qo. By setting the angle of twist in both cells
equal, we will have one equation in two unknows qo1 and qo2. Next, we write the
equation for the summation of moments about an arbitrary point. This will give another
equation in terms of qo1 and qo2. Solving them simultaneously gives the two constant
values. The actual values of the shear flows are found by algebraic addition of qo's and q'
values in all webs. We have to pay attention to the sign of each component in finding the
actual shear flows.
Having found the shear flows in the webs, we can then draw the free-body diagram of the
beam to solve for the axial forces in the stringers as was done in the solution above. The
described procedure is what we would use in the case of multiple-cell multiple-flange
box beams to be discussed next.
Section IV.5 The Determination of the Flexural Shear Flow

Distribution by Considering the Changes in Flange Forces (The Delta P
Method)
The method of solution based on the general shear flow equation is valid for beams with
uniform cross section (constant moments of inertia). However, in aircraft structures it is
common to encounter nonuniform beams. The wing box is a good example. In such
problems the general shear flow equation could lead to erroneous values for shear flows.
This is because this equation assumes Ix, Iy, and Ixy are all constant along the length of
the beam whereas in a nonuniform beam that is not the case. Therefore, we must use a
different method of analysis when dealing with nonuniform beams.
The Delta P method described in this section is what we would use for nonuniform
beams. Note that nonuniformity could be in different forms. For example, we could have
a skin-stringer box beam with stringer areas varying along the length of the beam causing
the moment of inertia to be a function of position along the length. We could also have
webs of varying dimensions, i.e., tapered . The shear flow analysis using the Delta P
method is more tedious than using the general shear flow equation and is not
recommended for uniform beams.
The example problem below shows the procedure for using the Delta P method. Let's
consider a square beam of 100 in. in length subject to a 100 lb load at its tip passing
through the centroid. There are four stringers at the corners, each with an area of 1 sq. in.
We'd like to find the shear flow pattern by using the Delta P method.
The final shear flow pattern is shown above. The following solution steps show how this
pattern was obtained.
With Delta P method we must identify two adjacent sections along the length of the
beam. The section at which the shear flows are sought is called section A-A, and the
adjacent section, some distance away along the length, is called section B-B.
We proceed by calculating the normal force in each stringer at section A-A. To do this
we need to use the general bending stress equation. First, we need to identify whether
there is any symmetry with respect to horizontal or vertical centroidal axes. This is done
by examining the stringer areas and their distribution. Also determine how many
components of bending moment are present at section A-A. In this case the cross section
is doubly symmetric, so obviously the product of inertia is zero. Also with the force at the
tip acting in the vertical direction, there is only one moment at the root, that is Mx. Once
the stress in each stringer is determined, the force in each stringer is determined by the
product of stress times the cross-sectional area.
These steps are repeated at section B-B. Notice that this section is closer to the tip,
therefore, the bending moment at this section is less than that at the root, section A-A.
Since there is no change in cross-sectional geometry, the centroidal location and the
moment of inertia do not change. The forces in stringer at section B-B are obtained and
shown below.
The difference between the axial force at each end of the stringer is determined next. This
is where the name Delta P comes from.
As in previous method of solution based on Eqn. A14.14, we must begin at a point with
known shear flow. So we cut the box beam along one web which would make shear flow
zero there. Then we start with stringer A and calculate the shear flow along the 5" length
(i.e., the distance between sections A-A and B-B) by dividing the Delta P of stringer A by
5". This shear flow has to be equal to that in the adjacent web at the top. Since the web is
untapered, the shear flow along all four sides would be equal. We march around the
entire section and find the shear flow in each web. Notice that equilibrium is maintained
in each stringer and in each web as it must. Please note carefully the directions of the
forces and shear flows. You can click on the picture for a more detailed drawing of the
stringers. Each stringer and web is in equilibrium, this can be proven by summing the
forces.
Next, we close the section by replacing the cut web. To calculate the shear flow along the
web that was set to zero, we use the moment equilibrium equation. This equation gives
the constant shear flow qo. This value is then added (with attention to direction) to other
shear flows to obtain the final shear flow pattern at the root, section A-A.
What we just did is the Delta P method in a nut shell. Notice how the shear flows are
exactly the same as found before. Because this beam has no taper along its length, we
could have taken station B-B to be anywhere along the length and still get the same shear
flows at the root. This, however, is not the case in tapered beams, as we will discover
next.
Delta P METHOD: Application Procedure
1. Identify the section (ie station A-A) along the beam where the shear flow is to be
determined (usually the root for a cantilever beam).
2. Choose another station (ie station B-B) in the vicinity of the first one. For tapered
beams, the closer the better.
3. Determine the bending moments at station A-A and station B-B.
4. Determine the normal stress in each stringer, using equation A13.13, at each
station.
5. Determine the normal component of the force in each stringer at each station.
6. Calculate the difference between the axial forces at the two stations for each
stringer. This is the dP for each stringer.
7. If the beam has a closed cross section, modify it to an open section.
8. Evaluate the q' variation at station A-A based on Delta P/Delta L
9. Replace the removed web(s), and calculate the necessary constants (i.e., q01, q02,
q02,...q0n, where n = no. of cells).
10. The vector addition of q' and q0 in each cell gives the final shear flow distribution
at station A-A.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Shear flow distribution and axial force calculations for a transversely
loaded box beam using Delta P method
For the uniform single-cell, skin-stringer cantilever box beam and loading of example 1
in sections A15.9 & A15.10 determine the shear flows in the webs at the root section
using the Delta P method.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
First define stations A-A and B-B. Since we are looking for the shear flow at the root, let
that be station A-A. This is a cantilever beam with constant cross section, therefore
station B-B can be anywhere between station A-A and the tip. Since the cross-sectional
properties are constant along the length of the beam, the magnitude of the shear flows
will be independent of the location of station B-B. In this example, station B-B is placed
at 50 inches from the tip.
Using equation A13.13, the normal stress in each stringer is found (remember that the
stringer coordinates are in reference to the centriod).
The normal force is just the stress times the area.

Now repeat the procedure for B-B. If this cross section and/or the stingers varied with the
length, then the moments of inertia and centroid would need to be calculated again. But
in this case they don't. We just need to recalculate the bending moments as the moment
arms are different for station B-B.
The delta P's (i.e., the difference in the axial forces at the ends of each stiffener between
stations A-A and B-B) are:
Remove the necessary webs to make this an open section. Webs AB (the quarter circle)
and web AB (the interior web) are removed in this example. Now calculate the shear flow
for the cross section. Here is the way of finding the shear flows. Starting at 'A', show the
dP found earlier in the proper direction.
In order to maintain equilibrium, there must be another force in the opposite direction.
This force can either be represented as a force or a shear flow along the right edge of
stringer A where it is attached to a web.
The shear flow in the web that is attached to stringer A is of equal magnitude but of
opposite direction due to equilibrium requirements. The same is seen in stringer C. Note
that since the web is rectangular, the shear flow along all four sides would be equal.
Stringer C has a shear flow of 250 lb/in on the left side. In addition, it has a dP of 694.44
lb. Hence, in order to maintain equilibrium there is a need for another shear flow along
the right edge of stringer C. This shear flow is calculated in the figure below.
This new shear flow is passed onto the bottom web, then onto stringer 'B' which already
has a dP acting on it.
Since B is the last stringer having a free edge on the left, the force acting along that edge
should come out zero. If it doesn't, then something is wrong in the calculations.
Here is a full picture of this process.
It is important to note that the shear flows calculated so far are not the final answers. This
is evident by the fact that these shear flows satisfy only the force equilibrium and not the
moment equilbrium. Now, we replace the webs that were removed earlier and write the
angle of twist equation for each cell in terms of the two unknown constant shear flows
(one for each cell) q1 and q2. Since the angle of twist in cell one is the same as that in
cell two, we get one equation at the end in terms of q1 and q2 only.
Next, we sum the moments about 'A' to get another equation in terms of the two constant
shear flows. Notice that the moment due to external forces is zero due to the location of
the moment center.
Solving the two equations simultaneously gives q1 and q2. The final shear flows at the
root section are given below:
Section IV.6 Shear Flow in Tapered Sheet Panels
From aerodynamic, structural, and performance efficiency standpoints it is very common

to find tapered wings in both civilian and military aircraft. Tapered wings have an
advantage over non-tapered wings. From an aerodynamic standpoint, they have lower
drag which allows for faster speeds and a better lift distribution over the surface of the
wing. Tapered wings are structurally more efficient with root section, having to support
more load, being the section with the largest moment of inertia. Tapered wings are also
used for improved maneuverability in military aircraft.
In tapered web-stringer sections, the stringers relieve some of the shear load carried by
the webs. This can be shown by the following example.
Below is a planview of a flat, rectangular stiffened web. By simple summation of

moments and forces, the axial forces in the stringers and shear flow in the web can be
determined.
Now, for a tapered stiffened web of the same length we have
We observe that while stringer B has no slope in x-y plane, stringer A does. As a result,
the axial force in stringer B is the same as its x component, while the axial force in
stringer A is the summation of its x and y components shown above. As shown below,
the shear force in the web at the left end is no longer equal to P as in the untapered
section, but rather is less - with the difference picked up by stringer A.
In tapered box beams, we must pay close attention to the slope of each stringer to
determine its axial force. Also in tapered webs the shear flow is no longer the same along
two adjacent edges, as is the case with untapered webs.
With respect to the use of Delta P method for calculating the shear flow distribution at a
desired section, we realize that the accuracy of the method is decreased if the two
adjacent sections along the beam (i.e., sections A-A and B-B shown in the figure below)
are too far apart. This is especially true when we have a beam with nonuniform taper (one
with the stringers and webs changing dimensions at a different rate from root to tip).
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Shear flow distribution and axial force calculations in a tapered two-
cell box beam using the Delta P method

We would like to reduce the weight of the two-cell box beam in the previous example by
tapering the webs from root to tip. The tapering of the box beam tends to increase the
axial force in the stringers as they pick up a portion of the transverse shear force that
would otherwise be carried by the webs. Due to manufacturing requirements we will keep
the cross sectional areas of the stringers constant along the span.
• Using the Delta P method over the distance of 5 inches from the root, determine
the shear flows in the webs at the root section of the tapered box beam.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
The centroid and the moments of inertia at station A-A are given below.
Use equation A13.13 to find the normal stress (i.e., that along the 'z' axis) for each
stringer. Notice that the product of inertia is not zero since neither x nor y centroidal axis
is an axis of symmetry.
The z-component of each stringer force is just the stress times the area of each stringer.
You should notice that these are the same values as found in Section IV.5 Example 1.
Now repeat the procedure for B-B. Although the cross-sectional areas of stingers do not
change, the moments of inertia and the centriod of the cross section do change because of
taper in the webs. Therefore, they need to be calculated again. To start, we need to know
the new coordinates of the stringers. This calculation is shown below for the stringer A.
Stringer C is done in a similar manner.
The centriod location and moments of inertia are
The stresses along the 'z' axis and the corresponding forces are:
The difference in the z-component of force at sections A and B gives the Delta p for each
stringer. Because we are dealing with a box beam with tapered webs, the Delta p values
are identified by subscript Z indicating the difference in z-component of the force in
stringers.
Now the Delta P along each stringer axis must be determined in order to do an accurate
shear flow analysis. This can be done by using the geometric concept of similar triangles.
For this cross section it will be easy because each stringer has a nonzero slope in only one
plane as shown in the figure below.
That is, stringer A in the 'y-z' plane and stinger B in the 'x-z' plane. If a stringer has
nonzero slopes in two planes, the same approach can still be used.
Starting with stringer A we have
The Delta P for stringer B is the same as Delta Pz because the stringer is along the 'z'
axis. At stringer C we have
Remove two webs to make this an open section. Webs AB (the quarter circle) and web
AB (the interior flat web) are removed in this example. The shear flow for the cross
section is calculated much in the same manner as in the last example. The difference is
that the webs are tapered and although the shear flow is still constant along a particular
side, the shear flows along two adjacent sides are not the same.
We start at stringer A and obtain the shear flow along its length.
This shear flow is transferred to the top web

We calculate similarly the shear flow along the lower web at section B, and get
Now replace the two webs that we had removed, and use the angle of twist equation to
obtain one equation in two unknowns (one for each cell). Note the 250 lb horizontal force
at stringer C and the 1000 lb vertical force at stringer A at the root. These components are
present because the axial forces in the stringers A and C are not normal to the plane of
cross-sectional view. Therefore, they must be included in any moment summation.
By summing the moments about 'A' we get another equation relating the two constant
shear flows.
There are now two equations and two unknowns. Solving for the unknown shear flows
gives
Just add up the respective shear flows (while paying attention to their directions) to
obtain the final shear flow distribution at the root.
Section IV.2 Statically Determinate Box Beams with Constant-Shear-
Flow Webs
The box beam shown in the figure below has three stiffeners and three constant-shear-
flow webs, as a result, there are 6 unknown loads (i.e., 3 shear flows qAB, qBC, qAC and
3 axial forces FA, FB, and FC).
Since for a non-concurrent, non-coplaner (general) force system we have 6 equilibrium
equations, we should be able to use these equations to solve for the 6 unknown loads.
Hence, in statically determinate box beams, we do not need to use the procedure
involving the general shear flow equation as described in previous section.
If we were to modify the box beam by including an additional stiffener, then the problem
becomes statically indeterminate as there would be 8 unknown loads to solve for as
opposed to 6 in the previous case.
Under these conditions, we rely on the procedure described in the previous section based
on the general shear flow equation. The solution procedure becomes much simpler,
however, as the shear flow along each web is constant.
The example below describes the method of solution for statically determinate stiffened
box beams. The discussion of statically indeterminate box beams will be given in the next
section.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Shear flow distribution, axial force calculation, and shear center
location in a single-cell 2-flange cantilever beam

For the single cell, 2-flange cantilever beam shown, determine:
• (a) The shear flow distribution at the root section due to the vertical load of 500 lb
acting at the tip.
• (b) The axial load carried by flanges A and B if the beam has a length of 100 in.
• (c) The horizontal position of the shear center, ex.
EQUATIONS USED
and equations of equilibrium
SOLUTION
(a)
In this problem there are 4 unknown force quantities, 2 shear flows and 2 axial loads.
Therefore, we can use the equations of equilibrium. But first, the force in each web must
be determined. Recall from section A14.9 that the magnitude and location of the resultant
force of the shear flow in a web are found using
For this problem, it is nessecary to leave 'R' in terms of the shear flow 'q'.
Now sum the moments about point 'o'. Note that since R1 passes through this point, q1
will not appear in the moment equilibrium equation. Hence, we can directly solve for q2.
Now sum the vertical forces to solve for q1.

The shear flow diagram is shown in the figure below.
(b)
The calculation of axial forces in the flanges or stringers is fairly straight forward. We
first draw the free-body diagram of the box beam by separating the webs and flanges as
Knowing the direction of shear flow in each web, the direction of shear flow in the
flanges can be determined. The axial force in each flange will be the sum of shear flows
acting on it multiplied times the length. Notice that there is no axial force at the tip end of
each flange.
Now we have determined all the unknowns asked for in the problem statement. Take a
moment to go back and review the solution procedure to make sure you understood all
the steps involved.
You should have noticed that we only used three of the six equilibrium equations. It
would have been possible to calculate the forces PA and PB without having to draw the
free-body diagrams. We could have just summed forces along the length of the box beam
to obtain one equation in terms of PA and PB. This equation would have indicated that
PA = PB immediately. Then, we would have used a moment equation about a horizontal
line perpendicular to the length of box beam and passing through either point A or B.
This way we could find the magnitude of the unknown force. Try this approach to make
sure you will get the same answer as shown in the solution.
(c)
To determine the horizontal position of the shear center, we assume that the vertical force
of 500 lb is acting at a distance of ex to the right of stiffeners. The following procedure is
used to determine the value of ex.
Recall that by definition, if a transverse force passes through the shear center of a section,
it will cause the beam to bend without twisting. Therefore, if the 500 lb force is passing
through the shear center, as considered in this section, then the angle of twist, theta,
should be zero.
We begin by writing the summation of moments about point A
500(ex) - R1(3) - R2(2 pi) = 0

=> 500 ex - 24 q1 - 50.27 q2 = 0 (1)
Next, we sum forces in the vertical direction.
R1 - R2 - 500 = 0
=> 8 q1 - 8 q2 - 500 = 0 (2)
The last equation is that for the angle of twist
(5+5)q1/.05 + (4pi)q2/.032 = 0
=> 200 q1 + 392.7 q2 = 0 (3)
Solving equations (1) through (3) simultaneously gives
ex = -.133 in, q1 = 41.41 lb/in, & q2 = -21.09 lb/in.

Now, we have found the horizontal position of the shear center. The negative sign
indicates that the shear center is to the left of stiffener A and not to the right as originally
assumed. We have also determined the values of the shear flows in the two webs when
the transverse shear resultant passes through the shear center.
VI. INTERNAL PRESSURE
In this section we will consider the analysis of pressurized structures. Examples of these
structures are found in fuselage of high-flying aircraft that are required to be pressurized for
passenger comfort. We will consider both monocoque and semi-monocoque pressure vessels. The
method of analysis is confined to plane-stress problems of cylindrical and spherical pressure
vessels with the shell treated as an elastic membrane incapable of supporting any bending loads.
SECTION VI.1 MEMBRANE EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

FOR THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS
Pressure vessels are shell-type structures. Thin walled implies skin thickness is much less
than the radius of curvature. The most common shapes used for pressure vessels are
cylinders and spheres. Spherical pressure vessels are the most efficient. The skin is
usually very thin, it cannot sopppurt any bending, only membrane stress. In these
problems, the plane stress condition is assumed.
Unstiffened (Monocoque) Cylindrical Pressure Vessels
Hoop Stress
Axial Stress
Maximun Shear Stress
Unstiffened Spherical Pressure Vessels

Due to symmetry, the stresses exerted on all four faces of the element must be equal.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Membrane stress calculations in a cylindrical pressure vessel
• Example 2 Design of a spherical pressure vessel
• Example 3 Design of an idealized monocoque fuselage structure
SECTION VI.1 EXAMPLE 1

For the monocoque cylinderical pressure vessel shown, determine the
• (a) hoop stress

• (b) axial stress
• (c) maximun shear stress
If the pressure was increased to 20 psi, what should be the thickness of the skin to
maintain the same level of hoop stress as found in part (a)?
The pressure shown is the gauge pressure.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
(a) The hoop stress is given as
(b) The axial stress is found by
(c) The maximum shear stress is determined as
If the pressure was increased to 20 psi, the new skin thickness to maintain the same level
of hoop stress would be found as follows
Therefore, it takes 36% more skin thickness to carry 36% more pressure for the same
level of stress in skin.

A spherical pressure vessel is made of aluminum that has the following properties: the
ultimate normal stress is 68,000 psi and the ultimate shear stress is 41,000 psi. Determine
the minimum skin thickness if the gauge pressure inside is 14.7 psi and the diameter is 6
ft.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
The skin thickness based on ultimate axial stress is
The skin thickness based on ultimate shear stress is
The largest of the two will be the minumum skin thickness that would be used based on
the material ultimate strength values.
Notice that no factor of safety is used in this example. Normally there is a factor of safety
associated with every design. For example, if we were to use a factor of safety of 2 for
normal stress and 3 for shear, we would use 68000/2 = 34000 psi for max allowable
normal stress and 41000/3 = 13666.67 psi for max allowable shear stress. Under these
conditions the minimum allowable skin thickness would be twice as large as the one
found earlier. i.e., tmin = .007782"

An idealized transport aircraft fuselage, shown in the figure below, is to be fabricated
from aluminum alloy with the ultimate stresses shown. Knowing that a maximum
allowable gauge pressure of 14.7 psi is desired and factors of safety of 1.5 in tension and
2 in shear are required, determine the minumum allowable skin thickness. The diameter
is 72 inches. The end caps are spherical, and have the same thickness as the cylindrical
section.
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
First, we determine the allowable stresses as
For each section of the fuselage we find the skin thickness based on each equation. The
largest value will be the minimum allowable skin thickness.
Cylindrical Portion:
Spherical Portion:
The minimum allowable skin thickness is

SECTION VI.2 SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN PRESSURIZED CABIN
STRESS ANALYSIS: Axially-Stiffened (Semi-Monocoque) Pressure
Vessels
In an aircraft, the vertical and horizontal tail produce loads that put the fuselage in
bending. An unstiffened pressure vessel cannot carry these loads efficiently. Hence,
stringers are commonly added longitudinaly to support the skin and create a semi-
monocoque pressure vessel. At the point of attachment, the stringer and skin, or shell,
have the same strains, but different stresses. This difference is due to the fact that skin is
in a 2-D state of stress while the stringer is in a 1-D state of stress.
The stress equations are:
where
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• Example 1 Design of a semi-monocoque cylindrical pressure vessel

Consider a semi-monocoque cylindrical pressure vessel with a diameter of 78 inches. The
skin and stringers are made of the same material with an ultimate normal stress of 60,000
psi, an ultimate shear stress of 8,000 psi, and a Poisson's ratio of 0.3. We are using 10
identical stringers with the total area equal to 40% of the skin cross sectional area. For
internal gauge pressure of 15 psi with yield factors of safty of 1.5 in tension and 2 in
shear, determine:
• the pressure vessel's minimum skin thickness

• the cross sectional area of each stringer
EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
We find the skin thickness based on the stress allowables in the skin.
We will repeat the procedure based on the stress allowables in the stringer.
The minimum thickness is then found to be the one that does not violate any of the stress
criteria
The area of each stringer is found using

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II.

Section II.1 Introduction

Note: The linearity of axial strain is a consequence of beam being

Now we impose additional restrictions:

As a result of restrictions (c) and (d), Hooke's law may be used.

I. Elastic, homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section

II. Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section

III. Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section

II. Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section

III. Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section

II. Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section

III. Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section

Sign Convention on Bending Moment Components Mx and My:

SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 1

• (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,

The moment of inertia about the x axis is

This makes the maximum bending stress

SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 2

• (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,

EQUATIONS USED: Eq. A13.13 and Eq. A13.15

The components of bending moment are:

To calculate the rectangular moments of inertia, it is necessary to know the location of

The moments of inertia about the x and y axes are

The results indicate that the maximum bending stress is at point B

SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 3

• (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,

The components of the applied bending moment are determined as

The x component is negative because it causes tension in the first quadrant.

Therefore, point B is the location of maximum bending stress.

Factoring out the common terms and E1 gives

Using the linear normal strain variation we get

Check the stress at the farthest point in the aluminum part.

Use the stress equation and solve for the width

As in previous discussions we will assume that the material can be idealized as an

Neutral Axis Location:

Helpful Observations in Inelastic Bending:

2. If the stress-strain variations in tension and compression are different, then

Determination of a Beam's Moment Capacity:

1. Check the stress-strain variations in compression and tension. Is there a difference

2. Is the moment acting about the axis of symmetry or not?

• (a) the maximum elastic bending moment that can be applied

Therefore, the maximum elastic moment is

The fully-plastic moment is found to be

SECTION II.5 ELASTIC Bending of Curved Beams

a. Beam must have a uniform cross section along its length.

SECTION II.5 EXAMPLE 1

• (a) the centroidal radius of curvature

Therefore, point A has the maximum stress.

(d) The stress variation is shown below.

Section III.2 Shear Center

Section III.3 Flexural Shear Stress and Shear Flow

Relating the bending moment to the applied shear force P gives

Now the equation for equilibrium of forces in the x direction is written as

Now, divide both sides of the equation by x

1. The section has to be homogeneous (made of a single material).

To answer these questions, consider the figure shown below.

In the case of horizontal longitudinal surface, we will be calculating the yx or xy

Shear Stress Components τyx and τzx

Shear Stress Variation:

Shear Flow Variation:

SECTION III.3 EXAMPLE 1

• (a) Maximun compressive stress.

The corresponding compressive stress will be