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Suggested citation:
Kam SP, Hoanh CT, Trébuil G, Hardy B, editors. 2001. Natural resource
management issues in the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand: an overview.
Proceedings of the Planning Workshop on Ecoregional Approaches to
Natural Resource Management in the Korat Basin, Northeast Thailand:
Towards Further Research Collaboration, held on 26-29 October 1999, Khon
Kaen, Thailand. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research
Institute. 169 p.

ISBN 971-22-0161-9
ISSN 0117-8180
Natural Resource Management Issues
in the Korat Basin of Northeast
Thailand: An Overview
S.P. Kam, C.T. Hoanh, G. Trebuil, and B. Hardy, Editors

IRRI
INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Contents

PREFACE v

CONVERSION FACTORS vii

SECTION A
The biophysical environment and production Systems 1

Physical factors as related to agricultural potential and limitations in northeast 3

Thailand
Viriya Limpinuntana

Rice-based farming systems in the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand 19

Anan Polthanee

Problems and strategies for agroforestry development in the Korat Basin 27

Monton Jamroenprucksa

Modeling agricultural productivity in northeast Thailand: background, project 39

outline, and prospects
Yasuyuki Kono

Improving livestock production in crop-animal systems in the rainfed 49

agroecological zones of Southeast Asia
C. Devendra

SECTION B
Socioeconomic and institutional issues 53

Human resources and the economy of the Northeast Region of Thailand 55

Preeda Prapettchob

The national and regional farm economy of Thailand 61

Supat Viratphong

Land-use patterns and agricultural production systems with emphasis on changes 67

driven by economic forces and market integration
Sa waeng Ruaysoongnern and Nongluck Suphanchaimart

The people of the Korat Basin and their empowerment 79

Viyouth Chamrustpanth
Roles and activities of institutions in regional development, with emphasis on 89
agricultural development
Kavi Chutikul

SECTION C
Water resources management 97

The potential of water resources in the Korat Basin, northeast Thailand 99

Kriengsak Srisuk, Vichai Sriboonlue, Chalong Buaphan,
and Chamnan Hovijitra

Development and management of water resources in the Korat Basin of northeast 115
Thailand
Sanguan Patamatamkul

Water management in the Korat Basin, northeast Thailand: policy, institutional, 119
and management issues from the farm/village to the region
Siripong Hungspreug

SECTION D
Soil and nutrient management 125

Soil and nutrient management of some major field crops in the Korat Basin of 127
northeast Thailand
Chairoj Wongwiwatchai and Kobkiet Paisancharoen

Nutrient management in rainfed lowland rice-based systems in northeast Thailand 137

Yothin Konboon, J.D. Wijnhoud, and Rod D.B. Lefroy

Management of problem soils in northeast Thailand 147

Arunee Yuvaniyama

Soil compaction and plant growth in northeast Thailand: the case of the Nam 157
Phong soil series
Christian Hartmann, Roland Poss, and Veera Singhatat

Ecoregional natural resource management research of ClAT with special 163

reference to a farmer participatory research project in Thailand
Reinhardt H. Howeler
Preface
Research to enhance the use and management of
natural resources for human needs often focuses on
individual problems and solutions, whether it is for
forestry or agricultural production. Although this
approach has produced significant gains in the
production of specific commodities, it tends to ignore
the interactions and the consequences of often
competing and conflicting demands on the resource
base on long-term sustainable development. This
problem is particularly critical in areas that are not
richly endowed in natural resources and are subject to
increasing development pressure. The Northeast
Region of Thailand is one such area. Accounting for
about one-third of the country's land and its popula-
tion, and despite the increased opportunities for
development since the opening up of the Region
through road infrastructure development in the 1960s,
much of the rural population still lives in poverty
relative to the other parts of Thailand.
The setting up of universities in the Region plus
the injection of agricultural research funds from the
Ford Foundation in the 1980s and from Japanese and
other country sources even today have generated
substantial research findings on agriculture and
forestry specific to the local conditions. Yet the
impact of past research on improving rural liveli-
hoods has not been widespread. A solution to some of
the limitations of past research may be provided by
adopting more participatory and interdisciplinary
approaches in carrying out research and in linking
research efforts more to development activities and to
influence development policy.
This calls for developing research and opera-
tional methodologies that
1. Use a systems approach in characterizing and
understanding the key issues and problems facing
livelihood improvement and natural resource
management, and their interrelationships, at and
beyond the individual farm level.
2. Identify the best-bet intervention paints far
arresting and reversing undesirable trends and
practices that impede proper and sustainable
development for improving rural livelihoods. The
interventions are only technological but may also
be organizational, institutional, or policy-based,
and may be targeted at different levels of social
organization, from individual households to
policymakers.
3. Make knowledge accessible and readily under-
standable to the target users so that they can avail
of options from which they can select what is
best suited to their needs.
4. Provide platforms and/or mechanisms for
communication, consultation, and negotiation
among various interest groups so that decisions
and policies arrived at are more acceptable to the
community at large.
The Ecoregional Initiative for the Humid and
Sub-Humid Tropics of Asia—Ecor(I)Asia—an
initiative of the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centers that is
convened by the International Rice Research Institute,
focuses on developing such research and operational
methodologies and testing them within relatively
homogeneous pilot regions representing different
agroecological types. Started in 1996, Ecor(I)Asia has
begun studies in the Red River Basin of Vietnam
(representing a highland-to-lowland toposequence),
the uplands of northern Thailand (addressing upland
agriculture and soil erosion effects), and the Mekong
River Delta of Vietnam (representing a delta environ-
ment).
In a preliminary consultation with various Thai
agencies in 1998, it was suggested that the
ecoregional approach to integrated natural resource
management (INRM) would be particularly relevant
to the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand. The
planning workshop from which papers were selected
for this book therefore represented a first step in the
pracess of developing an ecoregional initiative for
INRM in the Karat Basin. The planning workshop
was held 26-29 October 1999, with participation
invited from key local government and nongovern-
v
ment agencies concerned with NRM issues in the
Korat Basin and joined by researchers from interna-
tional organizations and advanced research institutes.
A summary of the workshop presentations and
discussions was published by the co-organizers—the
Faculty of Agriculture of Khon Kaen University and
the International Rice Research Institute—and was
made available shortly after the workshop. However,
it was felt that many of the papers presented by the
workshop participants contained information that
effectively reviewed the key issues and problems and
would be of interest to a broad spectrum of readers
concerned with managing natural resources in
northeast Thailand, particularly in the Korat Basin.
Therefore, the decision was made to publish this
limited proceedings, which compiles these papers into
four main sections. Section A has five papers that
highlight the salient features of the biophysical
environment of northeast Thailand and its influence
on the types of production systems that have emerged
using the existing natural resources. Section B has
five papers that highlight the socioeconomic and
institutional issues that influence the changes in land
and resource use. Section C focuses on the manage-
ment of water as a key and scarce resource of the
Northeast Region; the three papers review the status
of water resources and the institutional aspects of
water use and management for agriculture. The five
papers in Section D highlight the problems of
cultivating on soils of generally low productivity and
also the challenges of using problem soils for
agricultural production in northeast Thailand.
This book, and the workshop on which it is
based, would not have been possible without the
dedicated efforts given by many of our Thai and
vi
international colleagues. While it is not possible to
mention all of them, we would like to specially
acknowledge the following:
• The presenters and authors of the papers pre-
sented at the workshop and published in this
book, for the review and research on the variety
of topics covered;
• Mr. George Reyes and the other staff members of
the Communication and Publications Services of
IRRI for layout, proofreading, and the final
production of this book;
• The organizing committee from the Faculty of
Agriculture of Khon Kaen University headed by
Dean Anake Topark-ngarm for its efficient
logistical support in organizing the workshop and
facilitating the collection of manuscripts and
communication with the authors; and
• The IRRI Thailand Office, particularly IRRI
Liaison Scientist Dr. Boriboon Somrith and his
able administrative assistant Ms. Aranya
Sapprasert, for their administrative and logistical
support, particularly in dealing with international
participants.
The workshop could not have been conducted
without core funding from IRRI, particularly the CE6
Project that has the responsibility for convening
Ecor(I)Asia. The European Union, the DGIS of the
Netherlands, and the Government of France are
particularly supportive of the ecoregional program.
Lastly, it is our sincere hope that this book will
be of interest and use to researchers and policymakers
in providing background information, in bringing
some key issues to their attention, and in providing a
rational basis for appropriate interventions for
sustainable development in northeast Thailand.
Conversion factors

1. The Thai unit for land area is the rai, which is equivalent to 0.16 ha.
2. The Thai currency is the baht. The currency exchange rate was around 25 baht to US$1 prior to late 1997
and now fluctuates from 38 to 45 baht to US$1.

vii
 Section A

The biophysical environment

and production systems
Physical factors related to agricultural potential
and limitations in northeast Thailand
Viriya Limpinuntana

This paper describes the geographical differentiation of the Northeast Region of

Thailand based on physical features and its influence on agricultural systems and
their performance. The Northeast Region can be divided into three distinct zones
based on isohyets of mean annual rainfall. Crops planted in the zone with higher
rainfall have higher and more stable yields. Only the mountainous areas of Loei
Province in the far northwest have low temperature (13 °C) in January and can be
planted with temperate crops. The Northeast Region consists of hilly areas, undulat-
ing land, nonflood plains, flood plains, and river levees. It is drained by the Mun and
Chi rivers that flow into the Mekong River, which forms the northeastern boundary
with Lao PDR. The physiographic features, together with the climatic and soil char-
acteristics, constitute the main physical factors the influence land use and the agri-
cultural systems found in northeast Thailand. Because of the undulating topogra-
phy, sandy soils with low water-holding capacity, and a high evaporation rate, only
about 12% of the agricultural land in the northeast is irrigable. Transportation of
agricultural inputs and products is highly convenient as almost all villages are con-
nected to highways by either asphalt or lateritic roads. Electricity is available in most
villages, thus allowing some agricultural-related work at night. However, communi-
cation via telephone is still limited in many villages, causing inconvenience in any
contacts related to agri-business. Solving the problems facing agriculture requires
an understanding of the relationships among physical, biological, economic, and
sociocultural factors at the village and household levels.

Among the four regions in Thailand, northeast
Thailand (NET) (Fig. 1) has the most agricultural
land (9.25 million hectares, Center for Agricultural
Information 1998) and the most farms (2,273,000
million, Center for Agricultural Information 1998). In
contrast, farmers of this region are known to have the
lowest farm income although the average farm size is
not small. The poor physical endowment of the area
has been considered to be the main cause of such low
income. The physical features are poor soil condi-
tions, uneven distribution of rainfall, and limited
irrigation facilities. Nevertheless, some physical
features favor agricultural production, such as the
subsurface water supply, distinct dry season with
relatively low air humidity, and good road conditions.
Furthermore, distribution of the characteristics of any
physical feature in the region is not even. This implies
that the whole region does not have an even physical
endowment. The objective of this paper is to discuss
the limitations, benefits, and distribution of the
physical features of agricultural production in this
region. The outcome of such knowledge may be used
to determine agroecological zones showing related
characteristics and agricultural outputs.
Climate
Rainfall
Although the Northeast Region is known to have
prevailing drought, the total annual rainfall of the
whole NET is not much different from that of the
Central Region. The frequently mentioned drought in
this region derives from the uneven distribution of
rainfall over area, within a year, within a rainy season,
and from year to year.
The mean annual isohyets divide NET into three
zones: 1,400 mm in the north and east along the
Mekong River, below 1,200 mm in the west toward
the Petchaboon mountain range, and a central band of

3
8
 A few areas have sufficient residual soil mois-
ture for another crop after rice, for example, peanut
in Surin and sesame in Buriram.
Upland areas within the nonflood plains are
usually small. The villages are situated on them and
field crops such as cassava, sugarcane, peanut, and
watermelon are grown on small parcels.
Flood plains
Flood plains are found along the Chi and Mun rivers.
Their main features are shown in Figure 15. These
plains are annually inundated by floodwater over-
flowing the river banks. The soils are mostly
Tropaquept along the rivers, but a considerable
portion of the flood plains is covered by Paleaquult
soils.
The pattern of cultivation in these plains is
similar to that in nonflood plains. Rice is the main
crop with a subsequent crop of vegetables, in limited
areas, if farmers are able to dig shallow wells. Many
small pumping irrigation schemes have also been
established along the lower reaches of the Chi and
Mun rivers to provide water for dry-season cropping.
Levee area
Between the flood plain and river is usually a narrow
levee covered by loamy soils (Ustifluvent) with
moderate fertility. The land is planted with bamboo,
fruit trees, vegetables, and dry-season field crops. The
problems in the area are unstable market prices,
occasional flooding, etc.
Irrigation systems
Within NET, several major irrigation schemes are
based on large dams and reservoirs. The soils in
irrigated areas are mostly Paleaquult. Rice is grown in
the rainy season, whereas in the dry season there may
be a second crop of rice, soybean, peanut, sweet corn,
tomato, watermelon, vegetables, etc. The problems
are irregular water supplies and increasingly wide-
spread salinity.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Transportation of agricultural inputs and products by
road is highly convenient as almost all villages are
connected to highways by either asphalt or lateritic
roads. NET has an extensive and high-quality road
network. Figure 19 shows the important highways,
railways, and airports in NET. The Friendship
Highway links the region with Bangkok through cities
of three important provinces and ends at Nong Khai,
located at the northern border. Nine important
highways link the provinces within the region and
three important highways link the major provinces of
the region to other regions. The Friendship Highway
also links the region with Vientiane, the capital of Lao
PDR, through the Thai-Laos Friendship Bridge.
Highway number 217 also links the region with Lao
PDR at Chong Mek, Ubon Ratchathani. Transporta-
tion by railway is rather limited. Only two railways
link eight provinces to Bangkok, with Nakhon
Ratchasima as the common railway station. Air
transport is also available in seven provinces.
However, transport is limited along the Chi and Mun
rivers although ferries have been established across
the Mekong River between Thailand and Lao PDR.
About 99.2% of the villages in NET received
electricity at the end of 1996. Electricity is generated
locally at the Ubonrathana, Sirinthon, Juraporn, and
Nam Phung dams. Eighty percent ofthe electricity
used in the region is still purchased from Lao PDR.
Electricity allows extra hours of work at night, such
as weaving. Most villages can receive radio and
television broadcasts from Bangkok and the major
provinces, More news is also available from daily
newspapers from Bangkok and from many northeast
cities.
Telecommunications
By the end of 1996,319,077 telephone numbers had
been distributed by the Telephone Organization of
Thailand and TT&T private company to households
in NET. The ratio of telephone numbers per 100
people is 1.53. Khon Kaen has the highest ratio at 3.
The wireless telephone is available extensively and is
offered by many private companies, and many relay
stations have been established. However, links to the
Internet are available mostly in Bangkok and a few
major cities. In rural areas, communication via the
telephone is still limited in many villages, causing
inconvenience to agribusiness.
Conclusions
The major physical factors in NET that determine
crops and their productivity are rainfall, soil type, and
topography. At the macrolevel, annual rainfall is
higher along the northeast border next to the Mekong
River than in the interior of the region. Fertile soils
can be found in many places of the western and
southern hills except where the topsoil layers are
shallow or originated from sandstone and calcareous
rocks.
15
References
Asian Institute of Technology. 1978. Water for the
northeast: a strategy for the development of small-
scale water resources. Vol. 1. Main report. Asian
Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
Chantarangsu V. 1979. Agroclimatology. In: Proceedings of
the FAO/Thailand national workshop on research and
development of rainfed crop production, 8-14 January
1979. Department of Agriculture, Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand. (In
Thai.)
Center for Agricultural Information. 1998, Agricultural
statistics of Thailand: crop year 1996/1997. Office of
Agricultural Economics. Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand. (In Thai.)
Farming System Research Institute. 1992. Cropping
systems in agroclimatic zones of Thailand. Department
of Agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture and Coopera-
tives, Bangkok, Thailand. (In Thai.)
KKU-FORD Cropping Systems Project. 1982. An
agroecosystem analysis of northeast Thailand, Faculty
of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand,
Limpinuntana V. 1984. Agroecosystern of northeast
Thailand. In: Proceedings of a seminar on “Viable
farming systems for the infertile uplands of northeast
Thailand.” Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand.
Planning and Monitoring Division. 1995. Approach to
agricultural development in northeast Thailand.
Northeast Regional Agricultural Extension Office,
Khon Kaen, Thailand. (In Thai.)
Royal Irrigation Department. 1995. Statistics of irrigation
projects: year 1994. Information Division, Royal
Irrigation Department, Thailand. (In Thai.)
Royal Irrigation Department. 1998. Master plan for
Thailand irrigation improvement and development,
Royal Irrigation Department, Thailand.
Notes
Author’s address: Department of Agronomy, Faculty of
Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen
40002,Thailand.
17
The rice-livestock system
Formerly, buffaloes and cattle played an important
role in rice production by providing draft power for
land preparation and transportation, farm income, and
manure. Farmers now use a hand tractor to replace
animal power in crop production. The purpose of
raising buffaloes and cattle is to earn income and
obtain manure, particularly for farmers who have only
paddy fields because they don’t have additional farm
income from an upland crop. Raising buffaloes and
cattle can also help farmers hedge against risk.
Buffalo/cattle raising requires low investment (free
grazing area) but more family labor.
The paddy field provides grazing area (grasses
and rice stubble) for buffaloes and cattle during the
dry season. In addition, the paddy field serves as
forage production during the rainy season (farmers
cut grasses from the paddy bund and paddy field).
Rice straw is used to feed cattle during the dry
season. Some farmers also grow short-duration rice
varietios so that the paddy field can be used as a
grazing area earlier,
In general, farmers mention that cattle often have
a longer reproductive cycle, perhaps because of low
feed quality. Therefore, improving feed production
and quality is important for success in raising
buffaloes/cattle.
Rice-fish culture
Traditionally, rice farmers in northeast Thailand have
used their rice fields as a source of fish. Fish move
into rice fields with the floodwater in the rainy season
and, when the water level recedes, they are trapped by
farmers for family consumption or sold in local
markets.
Wild fish stocks have declined while demand by
the higher rural population has increased, particularly
when farmers became aware of the importance of this
protein source. Rice-fish culture has spread among
farmers because of research and extension support
from several agencies.
Craig and Pisone (1988) tested the raising of fish
in paddies under rainfed conditions in Sisaket
Province. The technology is viable in terms of
increasing fish yield and rice yield. An increase in
rice yield comes from increased grain weight,
whereas fish have no effect on tillering or panicle
initiation. This implies that fish affect soil nutrient
availability during grain filling. Results also show that
fish reduce some pests, diseases, and weed species up
to 50%.
Thongphan (1989) tested rice-fish farming in
farmers’ fields, in both rainfed and irrigated areas in
Ubon Ratchathani. He found that several factors
govern the success of such practices, such as species
of fish, stocking density, species composition,
chemical fertilizers, rice varieties, and size of paddy
fields for raising fish fingerlings. Rice yield, on
average, is at least 15% higher than that without fish.
Prasartsri and Maleelai (1989) introduced the
technology of raising fish in rice fields to farmers.
Ditches are dug along four, three, two, or one side of
the paddy field. Ditches dug on two sides would be
more appropriate for raising fish in rice fields and
more accepted by farmers. Fish yield is not signifi-
cantly different among ditches. In general, fish raising
in rice fields under the rainfed system faces a water
shortage in a dry year. Therefore, rice-fish culture
usually works well in areas where irrigation facilities
provide supplementary water.
The future of rice-based farming
systems
A paddy farm provides low profit per unit of land
area. Market prices tend to be relatively low and
unstable. A paddy farm with a typical landholding of
20 rai (which is predominant in the region) earns an
annual net income of about 7,240 baht and 16,240
baht in rainfed and irrigated areas, respectively,
whereas one family has total annual living expenses
of about 23,400 baht. This reveals that total annual
expenses now far exceed income from rice farming.
Therefore, a substantial proportion of household
income is derived from nonagricultural activities. The
paddy production system should be reoriented toward
diversification into high-value products such as fruits,
vegetables, and meat.
In rainfed lowland areas, the possibilities for
seasonal diversification are limited because of the
lack of an irrigation system. During the rainy season,
nonrice crops are unsuitable because of drainage
constraints. The only possibility is to use waterlog-
ging-tolerant crops that are limited in number.
Conversion of a portion of the paddy field into a
farm pond is another alternative for an integrated
farming system in which crops, trees, and livestock
are combined on one farm. Reorientation of monocul-
ture rice production to integrated farming will need
financial support for the initial investment. Farmers
cannot benefit from fruit trees until the trees are old
enough to provide fruit. This indicates that a long-
term loan with low interest should be provided to
farmers who intend to reorient their farming activities.
25
However, not all areas are suitable for farm ponds. An
integrated farming system would depend heavily on
water stored in farm ponds during the dry season. In
general, the most suitable land for a farm pond is
located in the lowland that is also suitable for rice
production. Therefore, competition between the rice
production system and integrated farming system
usually occurs. Considering the long-term perspec-
tive, integrated farming would provide higher
economic viability than monoculture rice. An average
annual net income from integrated farming (5-12rai)
is about 40,000–85,000 baht.
Where farm ponds are not feasible, raising beef
or dairy cattle in a rice-based farming system is an
alternative. In fact, this system has been practiced in
limited areas. Rapid expansion of raising livestock,
particularly beef cattle, should be given priority. The
market price sf beef and milk tends to be relatively
high and stable. At the same time, upper paddy fields
where rice yield is low would be devoted to forage
production, and additional high-nutritive forage
species are also necessary.
In irrigated lowland areas with water from
shallow wells, expansion of perennial trees such as
fruit trees instead of annual crops should be encour-
aged. The drip irrigation technique should be intro-
duced to produce off-season products with a high
market price.
In the state irrigation areas where water is
available and assured in the dry season, market-
oriented exotic crops could be considered.
Finally, appropriate rice-based diversification
depends on specific biophysical and socioeconomic
factors at each location.
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promising processes, methodologies and technologies
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26
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Polthanee A. 1990. Physical, biological, and socioeco-
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Plothanee A. 1998a. Effect of seeding depth and soil
mulching on growth and yield of peanut grown after
rice in the post-monsoon season of northeastern
Thailand. (Unpublished.)
Polthanee A. 1998b. Tillage and mulching effects on
growth and yield of cowpea grown after rice in the
post-monsoon season in northeastern Thailand.
(Unpublished.)
Polthanee A. 1999. Growth and yields of mungbean,
cowpea, and soybean grown before rice at different
moisture regimes under rainfed conditions of
northeastern Thailand. (Unpublished.)
Prasartsri C, Maleelai R. 1989. Farmers’ acceptance of
technology of fish in rice paddy. In: Proceedings of
the 6th Thailand National Farming Systems Seminar.
(In Thai.)
Prucharoenvanich R. 1996. Effect of waterlogging on
growth and yield of kenaf and jute. M.S. thesis. Khon
Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. (In Thai.)
Sandhu KS, Babi DK, Prihar SS, Saggar S. 1992. Dryland
wheat yield dependence on rainfall, applied N and
mulching in preceding maize. Fert. Res. 32:299-323.
Simpson LA, Gumbs FA. 1986. A system of crop and soil
management for the wet season production of food
crops on a heavy clay soil in Guyana. II. Effect of
mulching and tillage on germination growth, nutrient
uptake and yield. Trop. Agric. 63(4):311-315.
Thongphan N. 1989. Rice-fish farming systems in
Northeast Thailand. In: Proceedings of the 6th
Thailand National Farming Systems Seminar. (In
Thai.)
Notes
Aurhor’s address: Department of Agronomy, Faculty of
Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 4002,
Thailand.
Problems and strategies for agroforestry
development in the Korat Basin
Monton Jamroenprucksa

Northeast Thailand, which is often called the Korat Plateau, is one of the most inter-
esting parts of the Kingdom, particularly from the viewpoint of development policy.
The Korat Basin is considered to be a part of this region, which covers the areas of
the Mun and Chi watersheds. Its area is about 120,000 km2 in 15 provinces, which
can be grouped into five classes according to the Watershed Classification Regula-
tion. Classes 1 and 2 are suitable for forestry, whereas classes 3, 4, and 5 are
suitable for agricultural land uses. The forest cover is about 21,265 km2 or 12.6%.
More than 80% of the basin belongs to classes 4 and 5 and is suitable for agricul-
ture. The total population in the basin is approximately 10.5 million people or 2.1
million households of 21,190 villages, Most households (80%) grow rice as the main
staple crop.
The necessity of agroforestry in the area has emerged from many factors stem-
ming from a marked decrease in forest cover leading to environmental and socio-
economic problems. The environmental problems include soil erosion, drought, and
flood. These cause a change in the water regimes toward the extremes. Drought
conditions during the dry season are aggravated, whereas flooding becomes more
frequent and severe during the rainy season. The socioeconomic problem is mainly
caused by increasing demand for wood. The study showed that in the northeast the
total annual demand for fuelwood was 13.17 million m3, whereas the supply was
14.89 million m3, 60% of which comes from agroforestry.
Agroforestry has good potential for improving the viability of forest plantations
and increasing wood production in paddy fields and other cropland. By planting rice,
maize, or other cash crops between rows of planted trees, farmers can obtain an
annual source of income while waiting for the tree crop to reach rotation age. At the
same time, the performance of the tree crop is enhanced by the cultural operations
performed on annual crops. Intercropping can be done only until the tree canopy
closes, but, by properly planning the cropping rotation, farmers can maintain a fixed
area under agricultural crops every year.
Some agroforestry systems are proposed for this region. Government strate-
gies for promoting tree planting on private land are also discussed.

In recent years, Thailand's economic growth has been
phenomenal. It has been fueled by both agricultural
and industrial exports. This development, however,
has had adverse effects on the environment, mainly by
upsetting the land-use balance. The country has been
rapidly losing its forests to agriculture and other land
uses. In 1961, forests covered 53.3% of the land area.
In 1991, they covered only 26.6% and then 25.3% in
1998 (TFSMP 1992, Royal Forestry Department
1998). In addition, many of the remaining forests
have been heavily overexploited, so that they are now
seriously deficient in growing stock.
Northeast Thailand, which is often called the
Korat Plateau, is one of the most interesting parts of
the Kingdom, particularly from the viewpoint of
development policy. It has usually been regarded as
the poorest, least developed, most populous, and most
deforested region of the country. Regional per capita
income in 1989 was 11,981 baht, or about one-third
of the national average (TFSMP 1992). The popula-

27
tion in 1998 was 21.3 million, or 1.26 inhabitants
ha-1, which is the highest density after Metropolitan
Bangkok. In 1961, forests covered 42% of the region,
but declined to only 12.6% (or 21,264 km2) by 1995.
Per capita forest in 1998 was only 0.1 ha.
The Korat Basin is the main part of this region,
which covers the areas of the Mun and Chi water-
sheds. Its area is about 120,000 km2 in 15 provinces
or 70.3% of the region (Forestry Research Center
1996). It is representative of the northeast ecosystem
and provides an appropriate framework for studying
the impact of land-use changes on the socioeconomic
and environmental conditions, especially on the
hydrological behavior of forest lands. The impact of
deforestation can be frequently seen in this area. As.
topsoil from the denuded hills gets washed off into
the rivers, flooding becomes more serious after heavy
rains, and water shortages become more cummon
during prolonged dry periods.
One of the main factors causing the reduction in
forest area in the region is the mismanagement of land
by both the government and the private sector,
including local people. The problem is aggravated by
the increasing number of landless farmers residing in
marginal forests. Normally, agricultural productivity
in the region has been generally low because of poor
soils and erratic rainfall. Increased production has
come from farm land expansion into the forest rather
than from crop intensification. Production of field
crops in the region, such as maize, cassava, sugar-
cane, mungbean, and sorghum, expanded tremen-
dously from 1,440 km2 in 1950 to 21,504 km2 in 1988
(about 15-fold over 38 years). The expansion of
agricultural land into the forest land was mainly done
by landless farmers under the influence of traders. So
far, the government has attempted to solve the
problem by issuing various kinds of land-use certifi-
cates, by restructuring agricultural land use, and by
encouraging landless farmers to perform sustainable
agriculture so that they will not need to expand their
agricultural land into forestry. In 1998, the area of
field crops had diminished to 20,590 km2.
Agroforestry is a form of sustainable farming
system in which trees or shrubs are grown in associa-
tion with agricultural crops, pastures, or livestock. It
may be done by integrating trees and shrubs into the
farms and by introducing cropping or livestock
systems into forest plantations. The agroforestry
development plan has the overall objective of
increasing wood biomass production, maximizing
land productivity, and improving environmental
conditions through tree planting. The problems and
strategies for such a plan in the Korat Basin are
discussed in this paper.
28
Vegetation and land use
The natural vegetation is closely related to the relief,
soils, and hydrology. It consists mainly of a Diptero-
carp forest with predominantly Dipterocarpaceae such
as Dipterocarpus tuberculatus and D. obtusifolius.
On drier and poorer soils, Pentacme siamensis and
Shorea obtusa are more abundant. Other plants are
thorny shrubs, bamboo, and grasses. On hilly areas,
the forests are either mixed deciduous or dry ever-
green forests, have a better growth, and are more
closed. On much of the terrace land, the forest has
been considerably modified by the practice of shifting
cultivation for growing upland crops, such as kenaf,
cotton, and maize. On the alluvial plains and the
lower parts of the low terrace, most of the original
forest has been removed and the land used to grow
rice. It is also a common practice to leave several
large trees standing in the paddy fields, especially in
the less fertile and poorer fields. The vegetative
residues added by the trees increase the organic
matter and mineral content of the topsoil in their
immediate vicinity.
Land use in the Northeast Region compared with
the whole country in 1995 is shown in Table 1. It can
be observed that forest cover of the region is lower
than the average for the whole country. For agricul-
tural land, rice covers more land than for the
country's average (21.3%), with about 35.9% of
paddy land in this region.
Forestry
During 1961-91, the average annual deforestation rate
was about 4,560 km2 and about half of the forest was
cut. The two main underlying causes of deforestation
have been the increasing demand for agricultural land
to meet the needs of the growing population and
commercial logging. However, the increase in
population density appears to have been the most
important underlying cause.
Thailand has several distinct forest types:
tropical evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, dry
dipterocarp forest, pine forest, mangrove forest, and
scrub forest. Table 2 shows the distribution of the
forest types that were in relatively good condition.
The distinct dry and rainy seasons, high tempera-
tures throughout the year, and influences of soil and
groundwater have led to the classification of forest
into three main types with subtypes: (1) evergreen
forest, that is, dry evergreen forest, hill evergreen
forest, and pine forest; (2) mixed deciduous forest;
and (3) dry dipterocarp forest. Of these, dry diptero-
carp forest is the most dominant type in this region,
covering about 53% of total forest area, followed by
 Table 1. Land use of northeast compared with the whole country in
1995.

Whole country Northeast Region

Land use
km2 % km2 %

Total land 513,115 100.0 168,854 100.0

Forest land 131,485 25.6 21,264 12.6
Farm-holding land 211,966 41.3 92,574 54.8
Farm size (ha)* 4.15 – 4.22 –
Number of farms* 5,130,531 – 2,183,557 –
Housing area 5,630 1.1 2,126 1.3
Paddy land 109,268 21.3 60,646 35.9
Field crops 51,218 9.9 20,590 12.2
Fruit trees and tree crops 35,710 6.9 3,812 2.3
Vegetables and flowers 1,533 0.3 390 0.2
Grassland 1,218 0.2 768 0.5
Idle land 5,154 1.0 3,502 2.1
Other land 2,235 0.4 741 0.4
Unclassified land 169,664 33.1 55,015 32.6

Sources: Royal Forestry Department (1998), *Office of Agricultural Economics (1995).

Table 2. Types of forest in northeast Thailand.

Thailand Northeast
Forest type
km2 % km2 %

Tropical evergreen 67,861 43 9,305 36

Mixed deciduous 33,929 22 2,618 10
Dry dipterocarp 48,930 31 13,819 53
Pine forest 2,872 2 144 1
Mangrove 2,162 1 0 0
Scrub 846 1 0 0
Total 156,600 100.00 25,886 100

Source: Royal Forestry Department (1998).

evergreen forest and mixed deciduous forest covering
about 35% and 10%, respectively.
Dry evergreen forests appear along the margins
of the region and to some extent in swampy areas. In
contrast to such forests in the south of Thailand, they
have a less dense cover and are composed of more
moderate-sized trees, occasionally mixed with
deciduous trees. The vegetation has a wide variety of
plants, including ferns, climbers, palms on more open
parts, clumps of bamboo, etc. Besides timber, the
forest yields valuable by-products such as wood oil,
obtained by tapping Yang trees, and the versatile
bamboos. The main species are Dipterocarpus spp.,
Hopea odorata, Shorea spp., Aromadendron elegans,
Afzelia xylocarpa, A. bakeri, Artocarpus lakoocha,
Anisoptera cochinchinensis, Dalbergia
cochinchinensis, Fagraea cochinchinensis,
Mangifera caloneura, Cinnamomum iners, and
Lugerstroemia speciosa. Areas formerly cropped are
now mostly under thick bamboo and thorny shrubs.
Hill evergreen forests cover the mountains in
limited areas of the southern and western ranges at an
altitude of more than 1,000 m, replacing the semiev-
ergreen type. Most of the stocks are not easily
accessible and therefore are of limited commercial
interest. The main species are Schima wallichi, S.
norenhae, Michelia champaca, and Helicia robusta.
Pine forests are confined to the southern part of
the region, where they can be found mainly in Ubon
Ratchathani, Si Sa Ket, and Surin, but also in the
mountains of Loei. Stocks are mainly mixed with
other trees. Among the conifers, Pinus merkusii and
P. khasya prevail. At present, the economic value of
these stocks lies more in the supply of resin than in
the production of soft wood timber. Forest fires
impede regeneration and remove the protective
ground cover so that the ashes, which contain some
valuable nutrients, are washed off by the first rains.
Mixed deciduous forests are characterized by a
seasonal contrast between an almost complete

29
disappearance of the leaves during the dry season and
exuberant foliage during the rainy time. Whereas in
the north of Thailand teak wood (Tectona grandis L.)
occurs naturally in this type of forest, it is not
generally found in the northeast, except in a few
places in the area around Loei. Here, too, different
bamboo species are present. Forest by-products,
which offer additional income to the population, are
tannins, dyes, and crude drugs. Dominant trees are
Xylia kerii, Pterocarpus macropcarpus, Diospyros
mollis, Afzelia xylocarpa, Adina cordifilia,
Tetrameles nudiflora, Albizzia lebbeck,
Lagerstroemia tomentosa, Dillenia obovata, and
Dalbergia spp.
The dry dipterocarp forest is found throughout
the region on very dry sandy soils, which are poor in
plant nutrients, especially in the upper extremely
weathered zone, on rocky plateaus, and on steep
stony slopes. In the open forest, the ground is covered
with grass, often replaced by bamboo, and scattered
thorny shrubs. Annual fires remove the layer of dry
leaves over large areas, burning saplings and destroy-
ing the ground cover. So far, this forest type has been
the main supplier of construction timber, posts, etc.
But now, only trees of certain species and with a
length of merchantable size between 8 and 20 m are
of commercial importance. The most important
species are Shorea obtusa, S. siamensis,
Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, D. obtusifolius,
Terminalia chebula, T. alata, and Sindora siamensis.
Shorea spp. are found predominantly on almost sterile
sandstone soils. The more demanding Pentacme
siamensis prefers the basaltic soils in the south of the
region.
Finally, a specifically northeastern feature may be
mentioned, the so-called “Korat Plateau grass swamp
forest,” which develops almost exclusively in the
northeast on areas flooded during the rainy season by
overflow of the Mekong and its tributaries. It is
closely related to the “Bung” mentioned elsewhere.
These swamps become dry in the dry season. Here
and there on elevated flat places are groups of trees,
chiefly D. obtusifolius. Shrubs occur on the banks of
the streams and thorny bamboo thickets occupy the
tops of the banks.
Besides natural forest, eucalyptus plantations
may be considered as the largest man-made forest.
Eucalyptus is also being planted in the form of farm
farest. Formerly, planting eucalyptus was a controver-
sial environmental issue especially because of soil
fertility maintenance, soil water depletion, and
toxicity of the soil surface, Based on a recent survey
carried out in 1997, eucalyptus plantations in the
northeast covered 207,785 ha, or about 47% of the
30
overall planted area in the country (Sunthornhao
1999). In spite of the controversy, many villagers
plant eucalyptus on their farms because they see
benefit in doing so. They know where to plant it to
minimize adverse effects on their other crops. Other
villagers became opposed to the eucalyptus plantings,
in many cases because they were displaced from the
land that they used to farm.
The existing agroforestry system
Sahunalu (1986) reported seven types of agroforestry
systems in Thailand: modified taungya system,
shifting cultivation/bush fallow crop rotation, crop-
forest complex, farm forestry, multistory planting, the
silvopastoral system, and tree integration on farm
lands. These can be grouped into three categories:
those in forest land, those an agricultural land, and
those on community land,
In the northeast, certain paddy fields have two
basic types of trees. The first type are trees left over
from the original forest or trees growing naturally on
marginal land. The second type are trees planted on
purpose in the paddy fields, particularly on bunds for
supplying food (Le., Cassia siamea, Tamarindus
indica ) and fodder (i-e., Strebulus asper, Samanea
saman) and for multipurpose use (Le., bamboo,
Azadirachta indica), etc. Additionally, trees growing
on bunds can be used for shade, additional income,
medicine, fodder, fuelwood, habitat for animals, and
lumber. In some areas, farmers plant different kinds
of mixed trees around the house as home gardens for
supplying fruits, edible leaves, medicine, and shade.
The composition of trees in home estates in this form
varies from place to place; the most common trees are
bamboo, Mangifera indica, Psidium guajava, A.
indica, etc. The management of the whole system is
not usefully developed. It is necessary to upgrade the
mixed-plant system.
The taungya plantation is another form of
agroforestry in which intercropping is done in the
early stage of tree establishment in government
reforestation areas or on private plantations. Live-
stock or animal raising is sometimes done in the later
stage when trees can withstand the negative effect of
grazing.
Land-user management
Watershed classification
The Watershed Classification Regulation was
intraduced in the late 1970s to classify areas for
watershed protection, praductian forestry, and
agriculture. Factors used to classify the watershed-
class boundaries are slope, elevation, land form,
geology, soil, and forest cover.
Based on an agreement among state agencies,
five watershed classes were characterized as follows:
WSC1—Protection or conservation forest and
headwater sources. Areas under this class are usually
at high elevations, have steep slopes, and should have
a permanent forest cover. There are two subclasses:
WSC1A if the area is wholly undisturbed or WSC1B
if part of it has already been cleared for cultivation.
WSC2—Commercial forest. Areas under this
class may be at high elevations and may have steep
slopes, but their land form results in less erosion than
WSC1, They may be used for logging, mining, or
grazing or for crop production if appropriate soil
protection measures are taken.
WSC3—Fruit tree plantation. Uplands with steep
slopes but less erodible land form than WSC2 may be
used for commercial forests, grazing, fruit trees, or
some agricultural crops if soil conservation measures
are taken.
WSC4—Upland farming. Gently sloping and
suitable for row-planted crops, fruit trees, and grazing
with moderate use of soil conservation measures.
WSCS—Lowland farming. Very gentle slopes or
flat land; suitable for paddy fields and other agricul-
tural crops with few restrictions.
Table 3 shows the size of the areas for each
watershed class in the Korat Basin for the Mun and
Chi watersheds. For the whole basin, 87.6% of the
area could be used for agricultural production.
Forest area zoning
The Royal Forestry Department has established a
forest land classification within national forest
reserves with three zones as follows:
Conservation zone. The land in this zone is
mainly covered by forest trees that are healthy and
suitable for preservation. This area includes national
parks, wildlife sanctuary, and watershed headlands
(WSC1).
Table 3. Watershed classification in the Korat Basin.
Mun
WS Class (km2)
1A 1,353.8
1B 296.5
2 615.8
3 1,391.5
4 13,531.3
5 51,295.1
Reservoir 241.5
Total 68,725.4
Economic zone. The forests in these zones have
been degraded, but the soils' capability assessment
indicates that these areas are suitable for the cultiva-
tion of trees, particularly forest tree plantations.
Agricultural zone. This land has been deforested
and is occupied by permanent settlers. These areas
have been designated for degazettement and the
responsibility for their management is to be trans-
ferred from the Royal Forestry Department to the
Agricultural Land Reform Office.
Table 4 shows the respective sizes of these
different zones.
Problems related to agroforestry
land use
Problems related to land resources
Soil compaction is a significant problem in the
northeast. Because of agricultural production for a
long time, soils are compacted and present hard pans,
especially in the layers from 15 to 40 cm depth from
the surface. Machinery used or cattle trampling is
believed to be the cause of soil compaction or
damage to the soil structure, which hampers crop root
penetration. Moreover, infiltration through the hard
pan occurs slowly, causing surface runoff, which can
wash away the whole fertile surface soils. These kinds
of areas are found everywhere in the region.
Low soil fertility is generally caused by the
parent materials, which are generally composed of
alluvial deposits, or the static weathering of sand-
stone, leading to sandy or sandy loam types of soil
textures. These soil types are commonly low in
available nutrients and have poor water retention.
Plants grown on these soils are always threatened by
water stress during dry spells in the rainy season.
Shallow soils are caused by gravel and rock outcrops.
Saline soils are caused by the weathering of shale and
sandstone where the salt layer is embedded. The salt
is leached by water to lower slopes, foothills, and
Chi Total
(km2)
km2 %
4,965.2 6,319.0 5.3
322.3 618.7 0.5
1,322.0 1,937.8 1.6
1,457.2 2,848.8 2.4
11,815.9 25,347.2 21.4
27,260.4 78,555.6 66.2
2,753.6 2,995.1 2.5
49,896.7 118,622.1 100.0
31
 Table 4. Zoning of national forest land and forest condition.

Whole country Northeast Region

Land use
km2 % km2 %

National forest reserves 235,521 45.9 55,068 32.6

Conservation forests 141,035 27.5 19,358 11.5

Forests in good condition 114,388 22.3 12,692 7.5
Forests for rehabilitation 12,548 2.5 591 9.4
Other land uses 14,099 2.8 6,074 3.6
Economic forests 82,946 16.2 32,737 19.4
Forests in good condition 14,099 2.8 2,877 1.7
Forests for rehabilitation 24,713 4.8 2,653 1.6
Other land uses 44,134 8.6 27,206 16.1
For land reform 11,541 2.3 2,973 1.8
Forests in good condition 256 0.1 32 0.0
Forests for rehabilitation 64 0.0 0 0.0
Other land uses 11,221 2.2 2,941 1.7
Outside forest reserves 277,098 54.0 113,621 67.3
Forests in good condition 7,817 1.5 6,170 3.7
Forests for rehabilitation 2,302 0.5 1,279 0.8
Other land uses 266,980 52.0 106,172 62.9

Source: TFSMP (1993).

depression areas. Moreover, salt may move upward
through soil pores and accumulate at the soil surface
during the dry season.
Land-use problems caused by misuses of land
capability by farmers in several places have generated
low income from farming and have degraded agricul-
tural land, leading to further forest clearing.
Generally, few farmers have their own land
ownership certificate; most of them hold only
temporary land-use certificates, which are not
equivalent to land ownership. Farmers have difficul-
ties applying for credit without this official document
and therefore also have little interest in improving the
land.
Fuelwood supply and shortages
Most of the fuelwood used in rural households comes
from “around the house” and “neighboring land”
(Table 5). In spite of ongoing deforestation, wood
from around houses and fuelwood substitution by
modern energy mitigate fuelwood shortages in rural
areas. In areas with a fuelwood deficit, fuelwood
demand is usually met by overcutting existing
sources, whereas, in fuelwood-surplus localities,
surplus biomass is left unused.
Table 5 shows that agroforestry plots are the
main source of fuelwood and they supply wood at
relatively lower costs. Therefore, tree planting in
open spaces on farms and in homegardens should be
promoted by providing low-cost seedlings of
fuelwood trees. Although the value of forest planta-
tions for fuelwood production is questionable,
households can benefit from limited planting of
fuelwood trees in nearby areas.
Strategies for agroforestry development
Diagnosis of the situation
Many rural development and conservation efforts
appear to be aimed exclusively at “farms,” cropland
plots, or blocks of forest or rangeland. By contrast,
most people in rural areas depend on a complex
pattern of land, water, vegetation, houses, roads,
markets, and public places (Rocheleau et a1 1988).
The arrangement of these features in the larger
landscape reflects the history of the people and the
land.
Agroforestry is based on the careful placement of
trees in spaces shared with crops or livestock.
Therefore, people’s ideas about the organization of
their surroundings and the functions of specific places
may help to determine which land-use practices are
appropriate for particular sites. By learning more
about why land, water, plants, roads, and settlements
are arranged in a particular way, we may be better
able to help choose the right trees for the right places.
In the Korat Basin, depending on the type of
problem, agroforestry development can be conducted
in four different kinds of situations, as follows:
1. Degraded forest land in conservation zone. The
land should be protected and rehabilitated by
reforestation with indigenous planting species
such as those in dry evergreen forest, mixed

32
 Table 5. Supply of and demand for fuelwood in 1990-91.

Whole country Northeast Region

Items
million m3 % million m3 %

Fuelwood supply 46.9 100.0 14.9 100.0

Forest 9.0 19.2 1.8 12.4
Degraded forest 4.5 9.5 0.5 3.4
Range/shrubland 5.3 11.3 3.3 22.4
Tree crops 8.4 17.9 0.2 1.1
Other crops/agroforestry 17.5 37.3 8.9 59.6
Other lands 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.4
Harvested forest plantations 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.1
Residues 2.0 4.2 0.1 0.7
Of which: from farmers' land (t capita-1) 0.5 – 0.5 –
Consumption 44.5 – 13.2 –
Surplus 2.38 – 1.72 –

Source: TFSMP (1993).

deciduous forest, and dry dipterocarp forest. This
should be done under the responsibility of a
government agency. Community participation in
this activity is a key factor for success.
2. Degraded dipterocarp forest. The land should be
reforested with economic fast-growing species
such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Acacia sp., A.
indica, etc., for the short-term supply of wood
materials.
3. Degraded upland farm. Fast-growing species,
especially indigenous species, should be planted
and various kinds of incentives should be
provided to growers.
4. Paddy land. In nonirrigated paddy land, tree
planting along the farm boundary and bunds is a
potential source of wood supply. Some fast-
growing species such as E. camaldulensis or
Acacia mangium can be grown to solve wood
shortage problems.
Adoption of agroforestry systems
The adoption of any agroforestry system depends on
its acceptance by the local people who are going to
practice it. The sustainability of agroforestry also
depends on the management capability of farmers
who adopt the technology, which in turn depends on
their familiarity with the species and cropping-system
practices and on the economic benefit they receive
from agroforestry. Generally, local people will not
easily accept new plant species and new agricultural
technologies except if they have seen how these can
help them to obtain higher economic benefits, They
usually overlook the effect of this system on environ-
mental conditions. On the other hand, the majority of
people always have difficulty accepting an
agroforestry system that is efficient in improving
environmental conditions. Therefore, the criteria for
setting up agroforestry systems acceptable to local
people may be as follows:
• The proposed agroforestry systems could be
managed under a subsistent economy and not be
commercial-oriented ones;
• The size of the agroforestry farm should be
small;
• Agricultural crops, including fodder crops, must
be considered as the principal ones, whereas tree
crops should be considered as intercrops. This
means that planting of tree crops, fruit trees, and
bamboos has to be done as intercrops in food
crops and not the contrary.
Proposed agroforestry systems for northeast
Thailand
Based on the abovementioned criteria, six
agroforestry systems that could be considered as
applicable for northeast Thailand conditions are
proposed (Forestry Research Center 1990):
1. Mixed planting of trees in home gardens. The
criteria for selection of a suitable area for this
system are shortage of fuelwood for household
consumption, shortage of farmland, need for
supplementary food or fodder from trees, and
enough homeyard with moderate soil fertility.
The system therefore emphasizes growing edible
tree crops and medicinal plants in homeyards or
homegardens and, at the same time, tree crops
will provide wood for home use. Tree species for
this system can be fast-growing species such as
Azadirachta indica, Leucaena glauca, Cassia
siamea, Sesbania grandiflora, Moringa oleifera,
Phyllanthus acidus, Tamarindus indica, and
Bambusa spp. Fruit crops can be mango

33
 (Mangifera indica), guava ( Psidium guajava),
citrus (Citrus aurantifolia), rose apple (Eugenia
jumbos), custard apple ( Annona squamosa),
jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus), coconut
(Cocos nucifera), banana ( Musa sapientum), and
papaya ( Carica papaya).
2. Mixed planting of fruit trees and tree crops
intercropped with upland crops. The criteria for
the selection of suitable areas for this system are
shortage of fuelwood/charcoal and small produc-
tion of construction wood, shortage of farmland,
shortage of food and need for supplementary
income, and annual rainfall of more than 1,500
mm with more than 120 rainy days per year.
Therefore, this system integrates tree planting
with fruit and field crops within a piece of land
for producing food crops or cash crops and wood
for fuelwood/charcoal for home use or construc-
tion. Each family could have about 5 plots, 40 x
40 m in size each, with one plot being planted
every year.
Tree species for this system can be fruit
trees, such as mango and sweet tamarind
(Tamarindus indica) as a first tree layer. Fast-
growing species such as Eucalyptus
camaldulensis are planted as a second tree layer
for wood production. Acacia mangium is planted
as a third tree layer for fuelwood production and
soil improvement. Field crops to be grown
between young trees from the first to the third
year could be groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea),
mungbean (Phaseolus aureus ), maize ( Zea mays)
in the rainy season followed by onion (Allium
asscalonicum), garlic ( Allium sativum), water-
melon (Citrullus vulgaris), and tobacco (Nicoti-
ana tabacum) in the cool season. In the fourth
year, pineapple (Ananus comosus) or mulberry
(Morus alba) could be planted. The annual crops
should be grown 50 cm apart from the row of the
tree crop in the first year, and this distance must
be increased by 50 cm during every following
year. The three kinds of trees are planted
alternatively within each row, with 4 m between
trees in the row and 8 m between rows.
Suitable zones for this system have a flat
topography, are not flooded, and planting can be
done around June-July.
Every year, branches of tree crops are
pruned to keep about 2/3 of the crown height in
order to make enough open space for sunlight to
reach the ground. When they are 3–4 years old,
Acacia mangium trees are felled for fuelwood
production, by leaving about 1-m-height stumps
for producing sprouts. When 5–6 years old, E.
34
camaldulensis trees are felled for producing
construction materials by keeping the stump
height as low as possible and not more than 10
cm aboveground to accelerate its ability for
sprouting. After 6–7 years, some 15 fruit trees are
kept in each plot with the spacing of 8 x 16 m.
During this period, field crops may be inter-
cropped in the available spaces among fruit trees
until the fruit trees are felled and replanted for
the next rotation.
3. Planting of tree crops in paddy fields. Criteria
for the selection of suitable areas for this system
are shortage of wood for home use, shortage of
tree-planting area, and paddy field mounds are
wide enough for planting trees. The system is
based on some fast-growing tree species planted
in the bunds of the paddy field or on termite
mounds. The size of the planted area is at least
about 1 ha per family according to the need of
the people for wood products and the available
farmed area. E. camaldulensis and A. mangium
alternate on the termite mounds with 4 m
between trees and following the east-west
direction. The distance between two mounds
must be at least 40 m to reduce the competition
for water, nutrient, and light between trees and
rice. Branches of both tree species must be
pruned every two years. Branches and leaves
should be taken away from the field to avoid
water pollution during their decomposition.
When they are 5 years old, some trees can be cut
for fuelwood production and the remaining ones
should be kept at a regular spacing to promote
tree growth to the desirable size for their use in
making construction materials. Both kinds of
trees should be clear-cut when they are 8 years
old. Stumps may be used to produce sprouts and
small-sized fuelwood, but, if large-sized wood
materials are needed, new trees must be planted
in the available space between stumps left after
the first cut.
4. Mixed planting of tree crops, field crops, and
fodder crops in the same area. Criteria for the
selection of suitable areas for this system are
shortage of fuelwood/charcoal and construction
materials for home use, shortage of farming land,
shortage of food and animal feed, average annual
rainfall of at least 1,500 mm with more than 80
rainy days per year, and upland fields on hilly
lands with undulating topography. This system
aims at producing food, wood for fuel and small-
scale construction, and fodder within the same
piece of land. The total area could reach 4 ha
divided into five plots, one being planted every
 year. E. camaldulensis is planted for construction
materials and alternates with Acacia
auriculaeformis or A. mangium for fuelwood
production. Each plot is planted with groundnut,
maize, or upland rice (Oryza sativa) in the first
year and with kenaf (Hibiscus canabinus) or
cassava (Manihot esculenta) in the second year.
In the third year, pineapple or mulberry can be
grown and fodder produced in the fifth to sixth
year using Stylosanthes hamata. To reduce the
horizontal growth of tree roots, trenches 50 cm
wide and 75 cm deep should be made on both
sides of tree rows and at a distance of 1.5 m from
the trees during the year. In the fifth and sixth
years, cattle can graze in the plots; after which,
from the sixth up to the tenth year, they are fed
with fodder harvested fram the plats.
Acacia mangium can be clear-cut when it is
4-5 years old and E. camaldulensis can be cut
when it is 10 years old. If wood for construction
is urgently needed, it may be cut when 5 years
old at the same time as A. mangium by cutting in
alternate rows.
5. Strip planting of tree crops alternating withfield
crops. Criteria for the selection of suitable areas
for this system are a shortage of fuelwood, need
for charcoal and construction materials in rural
areas, a cooperative reforestation scheme at the
community level, the community needs the
products of field crops as much as those of tree
crops, and average annual rainfall of the area is
about 1,500 mm with more than 80 rainy days
per year. The topography is rather flat, undulat-
ing, or hilly slopes. This system aims at produc-
ing both agricultural and forestry products with
an equal amount of both for community use. The
area used for this system can be community land
or public land. The total area should not be less
than 4-8 ha and be divided into five plots, one
being planted every year.
Species to be planted are E. camaldulensis
and A. mangium.
From the first to the fifth year, field crops
such as groundnut, upland rice, maize, kenaf, or
cassava are grown.
In the fourth and fifth year, all trees in the
outer rows should be cut, one row per year for
wood collection. At the same time, this operation
reduces the competition for light between trees
and annual crops. The stumps left after cutting
are used for sprouting. Each row of remaining
trees should be kept until it is 10 years old and
then cut for the production of construction
materials. The felling cycle of trees, which is
fixed at a 10-year interval, is considered to be
long enough for soil amelioration if fast-growing
tree species are planted, especially those belong-
ing to the Leguminosae family such as Acacta
auriculaeformis, A. mangium, and others.
6. Planting of bamboo mixed with trees for multiple
purposes. The criteria for the selection of
suitable areas for this system are a shortage of
bamboo, fuelwood, and wood products for
construction in rural areas; shortage of food and
limited farming area for the rural people; and
soils with moderate fertility. The system aims at
producing food and raw materials for home use,
such as for handicrafts made from bamboo
shoots and culms; wood production for construc-
tion materials from the second tree layer with
species such as Eucalyptus; the production of
fuelwood from the third tree layer and sail
improvement with species such as A.
auriculaeformis or A. mangium; and the praduc-
tion of field crops in the space available among
trees. This could be done an private land,
nonfarm land, or public land with a total size of
1-4 ha divided into five plots, one being planted
every year. In a small area of 40 x 40 m, three
perennial species are grown. A first layer is made
of several species of bamboo such as Paitong
(Dendrocalamus asper), Pai sang (D. strictus),
Pai ruak (Thrysostachys siamensis), Pai rai
(Oxytenanthera albociliata), and Pai bong
(Bambusa natans). A second layer is planted to
Eucalyptus spp. for the production of construc-
tion materials. A third layer is planted to A.
auriculaeformis, A. mangium, or Cassia siamea
for fuelwood production and soil improvement.
From the first to the third year, groundnut,
mungbean, upland rice, or maize can be grown. In the
fourth year, pineapple or sugarcane (Saccharum
officinarum) can be planted.
In the third and fourth year, Acacia spp. trees are
clear-cut for fuelwood. In the fifth and sixth year,
Eucalyptus sp. is clear-cut for construction materials.
In the sixth and seventh year onward, bamboo is kept
at 15 clumps per plot, spaced 8 x 16 m, and becomes
the principal species for subsequent cutting and use of
its shoots for food consumption or for sale. The
sprouts of Eucalyptus sp. and Acacia spp. will be
used as fuelwood or small construction materials.
Available space between bamboo rows can be planted
to upland crops or herb species.
Where good-quality timber for construction is
required, the first tree layer could be changed to teak
wood, Yang na (Dipterocarpus alatus), Krabak
(Anisoptera glabra), Daeng (Xylia kerrii), Pra doo
35
(Pterocarpus alatus), Maka mong (Afzelia
xylocarpa), Ching chan ( Dalbergia oliveri), or
Payoong (Dalbergia cochinchinensis).
Farm forestry promotion program
The Royal Thai Government has attempted to reforest
part of the northeastern region for more than 30 years
with various species, including native species such as
T. grandis, P. macrocarpus, A. indica, Melia
azedarach, etc., and fast-growing species such as
Leucaena leucocephala, A. mangium, E.
camaldulensis, etc. The total area that has been
replanted is less than about 1 million ha, which is still
very far behind the objective of reforestation on about
3-5 million ha. This may take more than 50 years to
be achieved at the present rate of reforestation.
Unsuccessful reforestation programs carried out by
the government mainly resulted from a lack of
participation of the local people in tending and
protecting the tree seedlings. To realize the potential
of the role of the private sector, especially farmers,
the government launched a farm forestry promotion
program in 1994. It has involved farmers who are
willing to plant economic trees on their own land. The
government provides them with technical support and
a subsidy. Farmers will receive US$490 ha-1 for
reforestation activities during five years. The criteria
for subsidization are as follows:
– Farmers must have a land title deed and the size
of the plot must be larger than 2.4 ha.
– They will receive $130 ha–1 in the first year if
they finish planting the trees, then $115, $100,
$80, and $65 ha–1 for the following years.
– They must plant at least 625 trees ha–1.
– The tree species must be included on the list
provided by the Royal Forestry Department for
this program. Eucalyptus is not found on the list
because it already receives enough incentives
from the wood-based industry.
– Farmers can plant their annual crops in between
the trees.
– All benefits from the plot belong to the farmers.
Table 6. Status of tree planting under the farm forestry promotion program implemented
for five years (1994-98).
Farmers involved Planted area
Region
no. % ha
North 63,909 31.1 126,840
Northeast 120,102 58.4 285,976
Central 13,926 6.8 46,816
South 7,624 3.7 15,694
Total 205,561 100.0 475,326
Source: Patanakosai (1999).
36
Table 6 shows the results of this program. Table
6 shows that the Northeast Region has the highest
promotion in terms of number of farmers involved
(120,102) and planted area (3% of the regional
farmland). However, the area withdrawn from the
program (76% of the planted area in the first year)
was also the highest in the northeast as many planta-
tions failed. Several factors may have caused the
failure of the promotion, such as
– Lack of careful planning: because of rapid
implementation of the program, several key
activities were not included in the plan, such as
defining the suitable area for each species,
zoning the area suitable for tree planting, training
and extension, etc.
– No marketing incentives: many farmers planted
trees just to get the subsidies. So, when they
considered other investments that could give
them a higher benefit than keeping the land with
trees, they often changed their land use.
– Lack of long-term credit: tree plantations are
long-term investments and require many years of
tending; therefore, long-term credit is necessary,
especially for small-scale farmers.
– Lack of knowledge in tree production.
Conclusions
The Korat Basin is the main part of the Northeast
Region and comprises forest and agriculture as major
land uses. It is representative of the northeast ecosys-
tem and provides an appropriate case for studying the
effect of land-use changes on socioeconomic and
environmental conditions. The development of the
agroforestry program needs to understand the
situation of the current land-use system. Land use
must be identified, categorized, and grouped accord-
ing to the similarity of problems encountered and the
needs of farmers. Different agroforestry systems must
be designed and evaluated. Strategies must be
developed and should involve multi-institutional
Withdrawn area Remaining area
% ha % ha %
26.7 32,315 11.6 94,525 48.0
60.2 216,416 77.7 69,560 35.3
9.8 22,469 8.1 24,347 12.4
3.3 7,327 2.6 8,367 4.3
100.0 278,527 100.0 196,799 100.0
collaboration. The long-term commitment of signifi-
cant financial and institutional resources is a key
factor for successful implementation.
References
Department of Agriculture. 1992. Cropping system in agro-
climatic zones of Thailand. Farming System Research
Institute, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
Department of Agriculture Extension. 1999. Information on
October 1999 from Web site http://www/doae.go.th.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Forestry Research Center. 1990. Agroforestry system: cases
of Lampang Nan and Ubon Ratchathani. Final report
submitted to the National Economic and Social
Development Board.
Forestry Research Center. 1996. Assessment of risk area on
flood and natural calamity in northeast watershed.
Final report submitted to the Office of Policy and
Environmental Plan.
Office of Agricultural Economics. 1995. Agricultural
statistics of Thailand. Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
Patanakosai V. 1999. Strategies for promoting private
reforestation and farm forestry. Lecture note, Division
of Private Reforestation, Royal Forestry Department,
Bangkok, Thailand.
Rocheleau D, Weber F, Field-Juma A. 1988. Agroforestry
in dryland Africa. International Research Council in
Agroforestry. Nairobi, Kenya.
Royal Forestry Department. 1998. Forestry statistics of
Thailand. Data Center, Information Center, Royal
Forestry Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
Sahunalu P. 1986. Agroforestry in Thailand: present
condition and problems. In: Comparative studies on
the utilization and conservation of natural environ-
ment by agroforestry systems. Monsoon Asia
Agroforestry Joint Research, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kyoto University, Japan.
Sunthomhao P. 1999. Supply of eucalyptus material under
private sector in Thailand. Master Thesis, Graduate
School, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.
TFSMP. 1993. Subsectoral plan for production and
utilization. Thai Forestry Sector Master Plan, Volume
6, Royal Forestry Department, Ministry of Agriculture.
Bangkok, Thailand.
Notes
Author’s address: Assistant Professor, Department of
Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University,
Bangkok Thailand.
37
Modeling agricultural productivity in northeast
Thailand: background, project outline,
and prospects

Yasuyuki Kono

Kyoto University, particularly the Center for Southeast Asian Studies and Graduate
School of Agriculture, has been engaged in research related to natural resource
management in northeast Thailand since the early 1980s. This work can be roughly
divided into four projects.
The first project was the Don Daeng village study carried out from 1981 to 1985.
This project selected a village in Khon Kaen Province and focused on village-level
population dynamics such as fertility, mortality and migration, the hydrological set-
ting of agricultural production, technology of rainfed agriculture and stability of pro-
duction, the subsistence and market economy including nonrice-farm activities and
nonfarm activities, and the balance among population, land, and food.
The second project was the Yasothon project carried out from 1989 to 1994.
This was an umbrella project and several small projects were conducted mostly in
Yasothon Province under the umbrella project. The research topics of the small
projects were food and population under subsistence rice farming, surplus rice pro-
duction, changes in rice-growing technology, expansion of cottage industry, expan-
sion of arable land and its cessation, upland use and forest land management, nutri-
ent balance in the paddy field, and mapping the village database.
The third project is an on-going project titled Modeling Agricultural Productivity
in Northeast Thailand, the MAPNET project, which started in 1995. This project at-
tempts to develop a method for evaluating regional land productivity of rainfed agri-
culture. The framework of the method is a combination of a geographic information
system and crop modeling supported by field surveys and experiments.
The fourth project is a newly set-up project titled People, Environment, and
Land Use Systems in Mainland Southeast Asia, the PELUSSA project. This project
will focus on environmental stress and agricultural productivity, ecological risk and
environmental conservation, integrated analysis of agricultural production and envi-
ronmental conservation, and local socioeconomic systems.

Kyoto University, particularly the Center for South-
east Asian Studies, one of the research centers in
Kyoto University, has vast experience in natural
resource management research in northeast Thailand.
Research conducted during the last two decades
can roughly be divided into three phases. The first
phase was the Don Daeng village study, which was
carried out at one village by an interdisciplinary team
from 1981 to 1985. The project aimed at gaining a
basic understanding of the dynamics and structure of
rural society in northeast Thailand. It focused on
almost all aspects of village life, including fertility
and mortality, migration, environment, technology
and productivity of rice cultivation, occupations other
than rice growing, subsistence and market economies,
and population, land, and food (Fukui 1993). The
outcome of the Don Daeng village study was holistic
and thorough, but we faced the difficulty of extrapo-
lating the applicability of our experiences and
knowledge to other villages in the region.
The second phase was therefore designed to
cover a lager area, the province level, to analyze
various types of villages. We selected Yasothon
Province as a study area and began the Yasothon
project in 1989. This umbrella project covered
several subprojects including food and population

39
under subsistence rice farming (Konchan et al 1995),
surplus rice production (Nakada 1996), changes in
rice-growing technology (Miyagawa 1995, Konchan
and Kono 1996, Miyagawa 1996), expansion of
cottage industry (Ikemoto 1996), expansion of arable
land and its cessation (Fukui 1996), upland use and
forest land management (Kono et al 1994), nutrient
balance in the paddy field (Nakamura and Matoh
1996), and mapping the village database (Nagata
1996a). These subprojects were carried out at
selected villages in Yasothon Province until 1994 and
revealed a wide range of village types and associated
modes of natural resource management.
The third phase, the Modeling Agricultural
Productivity in Northeast Thailand (MAPNET)
project, started in 1995 and continues. The concepts
and methodology of this project are significantly
different from those of the first and second phases.
First, research topics were chosen not only from the
local viewpoint but also from a global viewpoint, as
explained below. Second, we are trying to observe
and describe all of northeast Thailand rather than
villages selected for case studies. Third, research
techniques such as the use of geographic information
systems (GIS), remote sensing, crop modeling, digital
image analyses, and field experiments have been
applied to supplement data collection by means of
conventional fieldwork.
Background and objectives of the
MAPNET project
In developing countries such as Thailand,
overexploitation of land resources, such as overgraz-
ing and overintensification of cultivation, leads to
irreversible deterioration of the natural environment,
The local population generally tends to focus on
short-term increases in agricultural production and
income, even at the expense of the natural environ-
ment. The government also gives priority to ensuring
an adequate food supply and economic growth over
conservation of the natural environment. In contrast,
more remote agricultural areas have not been fully
intensified or have been abandoned due to limited
access to markets, shortage of labor, andor unsatis-
factory living conditions. Evaluation of potential and
actual land productivity will provide key information
to rectify the problems of overexploitation and
underuse of land resources.
Many methods of evaluating land productivity
have been proposed, at both the global and continen.
tal level, and at the individual farm level. However,
40
few applicable methods have been proposed for the
regional level, at which both quantitative analysis of
agricultural production and mechanistic analysis of
crop growth and cultivation techniques must be
considered. In monsoon Asia, rainfed agriculture is
still widespread. The increasing demand for fresh
water from industries and urban populations will limit
the expansion of irrigated land and anticipated
climatic changes are also expected to affect rainfed
agriculture severely. Therefore, water availability is,
and will be, one of the major determinants of agricul-
tural production.
The MAPNET project attempts to develop a
method for evaluating regional land productivity of
rainfed agriculture in northeast Thailand. Land
productivity is evaluated in terms of potential and
attainable productivity. The former is limited only by
temperature and solar radiation, whereas the latter is
also limited by water availability. Paddy, sugarcane,
cassava, and maize were selected as target crops in
this project.
Method for evaluating land productivity
A combination of GIS and crop modeling supported
by field surveys and experiments was adopted as the
framework for the method. First, a source GIS of
agricultural resources was made, which included the
results of field surveys, questionnaire surveys, and
secondary data (Table 1). Second, crop production
models and a crop distribution model were developed
and potential and attainable yields and potential area
planted were estimated. Third, by incorporating the
results of the estimation, an integrated GIS of land
productivity was created.
The crop production model has three modules:
water, cropping calendar, and yield. The water
module simulates daily soil moisture content based on
climatic data (Fig. 1). Fields were classified in terms
of land form, soil texture, and soil depth and each
type of field was given a set of land- and soil-related
parameters. The parameter values were validated by
field survey results. The cropping calendar module
estimates the date of planting. The conditions of
planting are assumed to follow the common practice
of farmers in the study area. The yield module
simulates crop growth and yield formation from
climatic data, estimated date of planting, and daily
water conditions during the growing period (Fig. 2).
The paddy yield module was developed by adding
three water functions for nitrogen intake, dry matter
increase, and harvest index to the simulation model
Table 1. Layers of GIS of northeast Thailand.

Original data
Category Contents Type of data Data source
scale

Land and soil Soil map (soil series) Vector 1:100,000 Department of Land
Development
Land suitability map Vector 1:50,000
Land elevation 500 m grid

Climate Daily temperature (1979-98) 3 min mesh Estimated from data

obtained from the
Department of
Meteorology
Daily solar radiation (1979-98)
Daily rainfall (1979-98)

1997 cultivation Paddy, cassava, sugarcane, and Vector Subdistrict Original

maize (Fig. 1) level

Agricultural production Area and yields of paddy and sugarcane Vector Provincial and
district level Agricultural statistics
Cropping calendar of various Vector District level Northeast Regional
crops (1993-96) Office of Agricultural
Extension

Socioeconomic conditions NETVIS a (population, public facilities, 3 min mesh Village level KCC2K b
electricity, transportation, Iiving (see Nagata 1996b)
conditions, source of Income,
agricultural activities, Iivestock, home
Industry, education, hyglene, work
away, and so on)

Potential yields Paddy (1979-98) 3 min mesh Original

Sugarcane (1979-98)

Attainable yields Paddy (1979-98) 3 min mesh Original

Sugarcane (1979-98)

Present crop distribution Paddy field 3 min mesh Original c

Upland field

Potential crop distribution Paddy field 3 min mesh Original

Upland field
a
NETVIS = northeast Thailand village information system.
b KCC2K = Kho Cho Database, for data collected at village level every two years, starting in 1984.

for rice-weather relationship (SIMRIW) (Onishi et al Results and discussion

1999). A similar calculation is applied in the sugar-
cane yield module (Watanabe et al 1999).
The crop distribution model estimates actual and
potential distribution of paddy and upland fields (Fig.
3). Actual crop distribution was estimated based on
land-form classification because of the difficulty of
identifying land cover from satellite images of the
erosional geomorphic surface that covers the majority
of northeast Thailand. The results were validated by
the northeast Thailand village information system
(NETVIS) (Nagata 1996b). Potential crop distribu-
tion was estimated from spatial analysis of actual crop
and attainable yield distributions.
Potential and attainable yields of paddy and sugar-
cane were estimated for 20 years from 1979 to 1998.
Figure 4 shows these average yields. Figure 5 shows
potential, attainable, and actual yields and the
differences between potential and attainable yields
and between attainable and actual yields of paddy in
1997.
Potential yields do not differ greatly between
areas within northeast Thailand. This reflects the
homogeneous temperature and solar radiation
conditions of the region. In contrast, attainable yields
show a wide range of spatial and yearly variation

41
from no harvest to no damage. This clearly indicates
that the productivity of rainfed agriculture is vulner-
able to rainfall fluctuation. The gap between attain-
able and actual yields, caused by such factors as
inadequate cultivation technique and insufficient
fertilizer application, is greater in the northern and
eastern parts of northeast Thailand and smaller in the
southwest. This may reflect different economic
conditions of the rural areas such as land/population
ratio, farm economy, and availability of agricultural
inputs.
An estimation of actual and potential crop
distribution reveals that little land is left for paddy
field expansion. However, the potential for upland
field expansion is high, particularly in the eastern half
of the region (Fig. 6). Also to be considered is the fact
that, in practical terms, upland fields and forest land
compete for land use. Consequently, accurate
determination of the possibility of upland field
expansion must include an evaluation of forest
resources,
Conclusions and prospects
The MAPNET project has developed a method for
regional evaluation of land productivity of rainfed
agriculture and applied it to northeast Thailand. The
overall outcome satisfactorily fits the empirically
understood conditions of the region, although minor
modification of the method is desirable, particularly
for field type classification and land- and soil-related
parameters. Another important task that remains is the
synthetic analysis of agricultural productivity and
economic development. We have now set up a new
project titled People, Environment, and Land Use
Systems in Mainland Southeast Asia (PELUSSA),
partly in order to apply the method developed to
neighboring regions such as the northern part of Lao
PDR and Vietnam. We are also planning to incorpo-
rate slope, in addition to water availability, as a
measure of environmental stress in determining
agricultural productivity. This work is expected to
improve the proposed methodology and create a
strong tool for the appropriate evaluation of agricul-
tural production and technology, and for the establish,
ment of a food security policy that harmonizes with
environmental conservation of dominantly rainfed
regions.
48
References
Fukui H. 1993. Food and population in a northeast Thai
village. Honolulu, Haw. (USA): University of Hawaii
Press.
Fukui H. 1996. Expansion of arable land and its cessation:
the case of Northeast Thailand, Southeast Asian
Studies 33(4):675-702.
Ikemoto Y. 1996. Expansion of cottage industry in
Northeast Thailand: the case of triangular pillows in
Yasothon province. Southeast Asian Studies
33(4):640-655.
Konchan S et al. 1995. Food and population under
subsistence rice farming in three villages in Yasothon,
Northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies
33(3):340-362.
Konchan S, Kono Y. 1996. Spread of direct seeded lowland
rice in Northeast Thailand: farmers’ adaptation to
economic growth, Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):523-
546.
Kono Y et al. 1994, Dynamics of upland utilization and
forest land management: a case study in Yasorhon
province, Northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies
32(1):3-33.
Miyngawa S, 1995. Expansion of an improved variety into
rain-fed rice cultivation in Northeast Thailand,
Southeast Asian Studies 33(2):187-203.
Miyagawa S. 1996. Recent expansion of nonglutinous rice
cultivation in Northeast Thailand: interregional
variation. Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):547-574.
Nagata Y. 1996a. Mapping the village database: spread of
economic growth to rural areas of Northeast Thailand.
Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):656-674.
Nagata Y. 1996b. Northeast Thailand village information
system (NETVIS) material 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992.
Kyoto (Japan): Organizing Committee for Global Area
Studies.
Nakada Y. 1996. When does a farmer sell rice?: a case
study in a village in Yasothon province, Northeast
Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):609-624.
Nakamura K, Matoh T. 1996. Nutrient balance in the paddy
field in Northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies
33(4):575-587.
Onishi M et al 1999. Modeling and evaluation of produc-
tivity of rainfed rice in Northeast Thailand. Proceed-
ings of the International Symposium on World Food
Security. p 173-176.
Watanabe K et al. 1999. Sugarcane yield modeling based
on water balance. In: Can biological production
harmonize with environment? Tokyo (Japan): Asian
Natural Environmental Science Center. The University
of Tokyo. p 43-46,
Notes
Author’s address: Center for Southeast Asian Studies,
Kyoto University.
Improving livestock production in crop-animal
systems in the rainfed agroecological zones of
Southeast Asia

C. Devendra

Mixed farming is the backbone of Asian farming systems, within which crop-animal
systems are especially important. Development has overemphasized the use of low-
land irrigated areas to the limits of productivity, primarily for rice production. The
area under rainfed agriculture in Asia represents nearly two-thirds of the total arable
land and this area supports more than 50% of the human population, about 73-95%
of whom are resource-poor smallholders. Improving crop-animal systems in rainfed
areas is therefore important and it is also the primary focus for increasing ruminant
livestock production. Improved understanding is required on how integrated crop-
livestock systems function, how subsystems interact and contribute to one another,
how technology and policy interventions modify system attributes and roles, and
how to identify recommendation domains for promising technologies. The CASREN
project seeks to address these issues and conduct collaborative, multidisciplinary
research to generate technology and policy options to increase the productivity of
smallholder crop-livestock systems in five countries in Southeast Asia: Vietnam,
Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, and China. The specific objectives are to (1)
develop and adapt improved feed production and use technologies for ruminants for
improving productivity and protecting the natural resource base of smallholder farm-
ers, (2) identify and communicate to policymakers appropriate macro and sector
policy options to improve the incentives of smallholder farmers for ruminant live-
stock production, and (3) improve systems-oriented livestock research capacity of
national agricultural research systems.

Increasing food production in Asia is urgent because
of several factors inter alia: rising populations, higher
incomes, urbanization, and changing consumer
preferences. These factors will fuel increased demand
for animal products. Approaches to increase animal
protein supplies will necessitate a reassessment of
prevailing animal production systems, current
patterns in the management and use of natural
resources, and opportunities for research to improve
the productivity of animals and enhance food security.
The International Livestock Research Institute
(ILRI) has a global mandate to provide leadership in
animal agriculture on behalf ofthe Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research
(CGIAR). The definition of this global agenda
involves the development of agroecological zones
(AEZs). This task was facilitated by a regional
consultation process and identification of the require-
ments for livestock research in the different regions
(Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, West Asia
and North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa [ILRI
1995a] and Southeast Asia [ILRI, 1995b]). To
provide a sharper focus on the research priorities and
programs, ILRI proposed a detailed assessment of the
research and development needs that will lead to the
formulation of research proposals for the improve-
ment of livestock production in crop-animal systems
in the rainfed lowlands and uplands of Southeast
Asia.
Importance of animals
Animals already make a very important economic
contribution to Asian farming households, producing
food (meat, milk, and eggs), income, employment,
and draft power. In Southeast Asia, they are espe-
cially valuable in sustaining rice-based agriculture
because of the interdependence of crops and animals
through draft power, manure, and the recycling of

49
nutrients. Prevailing crop-animal systems in the
lowlands and uplands involve several million
resource-poor farmers who are much poorer than
those in the irrigated areas. Animals are often the
main means to generate income in these situations
(e.g., in Lao PDR and Cambodia, animals contribute
45-50% of total farm income).
Current urban demand is mainly met by the
commercial pig and poultry industries, but the
smallholder system will in the future be expected to
increase supplies, principally from the intensification
and specialization of mixed farming systems, How-
ever, the region as a whole has a deficit in animal
protein supplies, notably those of beef, milk, goat
meat, and mutton. Most governments in the region
therefore give priority to developing ruminants.
Target agroecological zones
Agriculture has tended to emphasize crop production,
notably rice, based on high inputs and intensive
systems, resulting in enormous benefits through the
Green Revolution. The focus has mainly been on the
irrigated areas, which are already intensively used. To
further increase food production and sustain the
farming systems of the region, emphasis must now be
given to the neglected lowland and upland
agroecological zones. In this context, advantage can
be taken of significant populations of animals on
mixed farms to enhance the sustainability of food
crop systems. This is seen in the large concentrations
of ruminants in these areas of from 51% to 55% of
the total populations of cattle, and goats and sheep,
respectively, in Asia (Table 1). Unfortunately, no data
exist for the size of the nonruminant populations, but
significant populations of native pigs and poultry are
found here. Major research and development opportu-
nities exist to increase productivity from these AEZs,
as well as to address concerns of equity and the
environment.
The uplands are contiguous with, and include,
rainfed lowlands, and refer to nonirrigated land up to
1,100 m above sea level. In terms of soil moisture
stress, the rainfed lowlands approximate more humid
areas and the uplands subhumid areas. Rice and cash
crops are grown in the lowlands but perennial crops,
such as coconut, oil palm, and rubber, are more
common in the uplands. In both situations, mixed
farming with ruminants and nonruminants is common.
The uplands are generally more fragile because of a
combination of rising populations and shifting
agriculture. Environmental degradation is an increas-
ingly serious concern in the uplands because of
“slash-and-burn.” Integration and improved use of
animals are important options to sedentarize agricul-
ture. There is also a need to manage common
property and provide equity of access to resources.
These issues have policy implications that need to be
addressed.
ILRl project objectives
In view of these considerations, ILRI has imple-
mented a project on “Increasing the Contribution of
Livestock to Improving Productivity of Crop-
Livestock Systems in Southeast Asia” involving
China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and
Vietnam, with funding support from the Asian
Development Bank. The proposed project has three
sets of activities as follows:

Table 1. Human and animal populations, food demand, and land use in the lowland and upland
agroecological zones of Asia.

Lowlands Uplands % of Asia in

Item both zones
Amount/number % of Asia Amount/number % of Asia

Human population in 1990 (106) 960.4 35.1 441.8 16.1 51.2

Human population in 2010 (106) 1,264.5 34.4 588.8 16 50.4
Food demand in 2010 (106 TGE) a 383.9 35.8 175.5 16.3 52.1
Production of food crops (106 TGE) 262.7 35.9 167.2 22.8 58.7
Production of cash crops (106 TGE) 89.7 37.9 62.8 26.5 64.4
Cattle population na na na na 51
Small ruminant population na na na na 55
Agricultural land (106 ha) 284 29.3 112.6 11.6 40.9
Arable land (106 ha) 123.4 26.7 73.1 15.8 42.5
Rainfed arable land (106 ha) 86.1 26.3 55.2 16.9 43.2
Permanent cropland (106 ha) 17.8 69.7 4.2 16.7 86.4

aTGE = tons of grain equivalent. na q not available.

Source: TAC (1982, 1884).

50
1. Research and development
a. Assemble and interpret biophysical and
socioeconomic information, using geo-
graphic information systems and modeling,
characterize production systems, determine
factors related to the intensification of
livestock production, and diagnose con-
straints to and opportunities for increasing
livestock productivity.
b. Conduct an ex ante assessment of the
biophysical and socioeconomic implications
of interventions in available feed production
and technologies of use to define their
recommendation domains.
c. Assess alternative new strategies for feed
production and use to improve livestock
productivity, and optimize nutrient cycling to
maintain the integrity of natural resources.
d. Quantify the effects of macro and sector
policies on the competitiveness of the
smallholder livestock sector, study the
efficiency of livestock and feed markets, and
identify options to improve efficiency.
e. Conduct on-farm research to validate
identified promising technologies and assess
their potential and constraints for adoption.
2. Research capacity building
a. Support the production, dissemination, and
sharing of information products for better
research on improved ruminant production.
b. Conduct training courses for national
agricultural research system (NARS)
scientists, particularly those involved in this
collaborative project, on systems analysis
with a focus on livestock and impact
assessment.
c. Conduct workshops and a round-up sympo-
sium to facilitate information transfer to
policymakers and to share the results of
collaborative research with other countries in
the region, development agencies, and
donors that might be interested in dissemi-
nating generated technologies.
3. Monitoring and evaluation
a. Conduct project implementation and review
workshops to monitor progress and impact.
b. Conduct a round-up symposium,
Benchmark sites
To begin the work, key benchmark sites (BMS) were
selected in participating countries. The process was
undertaken through wide discussions within the
country, extensive visits in each country, and consen-
sus on the BMS.
Criteria for the selection of BMS were devel-
oped, shared with participating countries, and finally
used in individual situations. Both macro criteria and
the kind of information required for BMS site
characterization were considered (Table 1). The main
elements are as follows:
1. Rainfed area (humid/subhumid)
2. National priorities, priority by province/country
3. Animal population density
- Ruminants and nonruminants
- Market access and market pull
4. Poverty and food security
- Extent
- Ethnicity
5. Accessibility
6. Institutional factors
- NARS capacity
- Linkages
- Other agencies, such as nongovernment
organizations
7. Perceived research constraints
- Such as resource degradation
- Dry season
- Introduction of fodder trees
- Nutrient recycling
8. Potential impact
Table 2 summarizes the final choice of BMS in
individual countries.
Relevance to the Korat Basin
in Thailand
The choice of Mahasarakam in the northeast as the
BMS in Thailand is of relevance to the planning
workshop on ecoregional approaches to natural
resource management, as the work there is typical of
the prevailing situation in this area, involving dairy
cattle production integrated with rice, sugarcane, and
cassava cultivation. The complementarity of these
efforts and the implications of crop-animal interac-
51
tions are therefore important. As a start, detailed
characterization of the BMS is now under way to
formulate appropriate interventions. A major problem
that needs to be addressed is feed shortages during
the critical dry season of 6–7 months. Various
activities in Thailand and the other four countries will
then be undertaken within the newly established
network, called the Crop-Animal Systems Research
Network (CASREN), in the project.
Table 2 indicates three important observations
within the specific focus on the subhumid/humid
agroecological zone. First, the continuum of lowland
and upland rainfed ecosystems provides a mix of both
ruminants and nonruminants, involving buffaloes,
beef and dairy cattle, goats and sheep in the former,
and pigs and poultry in the latter. Second, rice-based
cropping systems are common, also including other
annual crops and tree crops. The presence of both
animal and crop diversity thus provides a variety of
crop-animal interactions, the effects of which on
productivity, livelihoods of people, and sustainable
agriculture provide major opportunities for research
and development activities. Third, all the BMS have
an overriding major constraint in 5-7 months of dry
periods. This particular situation presents major
challenges to the efficiency of use of natural re-
sources in these environments and protection of the
environments.
More important, the need to address the totality
of feed availability (forages, crop residues,
agroindustrial by-products, and nonconventional feed
resources), the possibilities of increasing feed
production, synchronization of feed availability to
match species requirements, and methods of conser-
vation present important research opportunities, the
resolution of which can produce major impacts on the
productivity of animals and improved livelihoods for
the resource-poor farmers in these areas. Improved
feeding and management practices also provide the
key to significantly enhancing existing productivity
gaps. The identification of feeding and nutrition as
the most important constraint and research opportu-
nity is consistent with the findings on research
priorities in Southeast Asia (Devendra et al 1997).
References
Devendra C, Thomas D, Jabbar MA, Kudo H. 1997.
improvement of livestock production in crop-animal
systems in the rainfed agro-ecological zones of
Southeast Asia. Nairobi (Kenya): International
Livestock Research Institute. 107 p.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1995a.
Global agenda for livestock research. Gardiner P,
Devendra C, editors. Nairobi (Kenya): International
Livestock Research Institute. 114 p.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1995b.
Global agenda for livestock research. Proceedings of
the Consultation for the Southeast Asia region.
Devendra C, Gardiner P, editors. Nairobi (Kenya):
International Livestock Research Institute. 276 p.
TAC (Technical Advisory Committee). 1992. Review of
CGIAR priorities and strategies. Part 1. TAC Secre-
tariat. Rome (Italy): Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion of the United Nations. 250 p.
TAC (Technical Advisory Committee). 1994. Review of
CGiAR priorities and strategies. TAC Secretariat.
Rome (Italy): Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations. 229 p.
Notes
Aurhor's address: International Livestock Research
Institute, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya. Contact
address: 130A Jalan Awan Jawa, 58200 Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia.

Table 2. Choice of benchmark sites in rainfed areas in individual countries.

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Location Dong Tam, Bin Phuoc Mahasarakam Cilawu, Garut Don Montano, Bixi Xiang,
Pangasinan NanJian
Distance (km) 110, Ho Chi Minh City 90, Khon Kaen 180, Bogor 220, Manila 380, Kunming
Rainfall (mm) 2,170 1,500 2,200 2,300 760
Climate Humid Humid Humid Humid Subhumid,
subtropical
AEZa Lowlands Lowlands Uplands Lowlands Uplands
Animalsb BC, Pi, Po DC, Pi, Po BC, Bu, S, G, Fi BC, Bu. G, Pi, Po BC, Bu, G, Pi,
Po
Type of crop-animal Rice, cash crops, Annual and cash Rice, cash crops, Rice, cash crops, Rice, tea, and
system and perennial crops crops, fruit trees and fruit trees and fruit trees fruit trees
Dry season (mo) 6 6-7 5-6 6 7

a AEZ = agroecological zone.

b BC = beef cattle, DC = dairy cattle, Pi = pigs, Po = poultry, G = goats, S = sheep, Fi = fish, Bu = buffalo.

52
 SECTION B

Socioeconomic and institutional issues

Human resources and the economy of the
Northeast Region of Thailand

Preeda Prapertchob

The Northeast Region is considered the most backward in Thailand mainly because
it is poorly endowed in natural resources, particularly unproductive soils and erratic
rainfall patterns. In 1998, it had a population of 20.75 million, or one-third of the
country’s population, of which 94% is rural. Agricultural growth in the past mainly
came from area expansion at the expense of forest area rather than increases in
productivity. This has resulted in environmental problems such as soil erosion and
increased frequency of flash floods and droughts. The share of agriculture in the
regional gross product declined from 57% in 1961 to 19% in 1994. Labor force par-
ticipation in agriculture declined from 85% in 1970 to 70% in 1995. The latter figure
includes part-time farmers who migrate out to work off-farm during the dry season.
Although a majority of the present labor force has a low educational level, the rate of
school attendance and level of educational attainment have improved markedly
among the younger generation. This increases the marketability of the labor force
for off-farm employment opportunities outside the region. Off-farm employment ac-
counts for two-thirds of the total income of farm households.
The out-migration of northeasterners may be either seasonal (i.e., during the
slack season) or full-time. Farmers select crops or farming techniques that optimize
their opportunities to pursue off-farm employment. Cassava was therefore attractive
as a cash crop because it needed low inputs and care and fetched sufficiently high
prices until recently. Similarly, farmers switched to direct seeding of rice to reduce
labor needs and to maximize their time away from the fields. The high dependence
on off-farm income also made the regions’s economy vulnerable to the economic
recession of 1997-98. Poverty incidence In the region, whlch has generally been
among the highest in the country, increased from 19% in 1996 to 23% in 1998.
The decline of the Thai baht is favorable for agricultural commodity exports;
hence, the 1997 recession would have had a positive effect of rejuvenating the ag-
ricultural sector and the rural economy could have acted as a social safety net for
the displaced labor returning to the countryside. However, because the rural sector
had been excluded from the mainstream of development, the impetus for agricul-
tural development to take up the economic slack could not happen fast enough.
Official statistics show that per capita government development expenditures in the
Northeast Region have been the lowest in the country. The prospects for economic
development of the northeast, which is rich in human resources, are discussed in
the light of a change in development orientation from purely economic growth to
livelihood and quality of life improvement. A brief analysis of the economic prospects
for crops other than rice, such as soybean, silk, and dairy production, shows that
farmers in the Northeast Region need to be more adaptive and more efficient to be
competitive in this age of economic globalization.

The Northeast Region is known as the most back- the region is largely due to its unfavorable endow-
ward region of Thailand. It is the biggest region in ment in natural resources, such as poor soils and
terms of population, with as much as one-third of the erratic patterns of rainfall. Throughout the past, labor
whole kingdom’s population. The backwardness of migrated from the northeast to Bangkok and other

55
regions of Thailand, as well as to foreign countries.
The laborers from the northeast aye widely known as
being cheap, hard-working, highly loyal, and quick at
learning new skills and not making trouble. However,
they generally have a low level of education and are
deficient in necessary skills. Nevertheless, the
northeast, in spite of its poor natural resources, if
properly developed, could become a region rich in
human resources.
The northeast: its land and economy
The Northeast Region, including the Korat Plateau, is
drought-prone and characterized by a rolling surface
and undulating hills in its northern and western parts
and flat plains in the eastern and southern parts. The
Northeast Region covers a land area of 168,874 km2,
or about 32.9% of the kingdom of Thailand. Admin-
istratively, the region is divided into 19 provinces;
Nakhon Ratchasima or Korat, Khon Kaen, Ubon
Ratchathani, and Udon Thani are the major provinces
of this region.
Harsh climatic conditions often result in floods
and droughts. Rice is the main crop planted on 70%
of the arable land in the region. The other major
crops are kenaf, cassava, sugarcane, and groundnut,
and their volumes of production in the northeast
amount to 94.0%, 61.0%, 30.6%, and 33.6% of the
total national production, respectively (Table 1).
In the past, regional agricultural growth mainly
came from the expansion of planted area. For
example, the area planted to rice almost doubled
between 1960 and 1980, but productivity growth was
rather low. The planted area of upland crops also
expanded rapidly largely because of the encroach-
ment of forest land. As a result, the forest area
dwindled from about one-half of the gross regional
area at the beginning of the 1960s to only 12% now.
The reduction in the forest area of the Northeast
Region is causing a vast devastation. The droughts
Table 1. Evolution of planted area for major crops in
northeast Thailand, 1960-97. Million rai.
Crop 1960-61 1971-72 1980-81 1991-92
and floods that have occurred more frequently in
recent years are seen as the outcome of shrinkage of
the forest land. Soil erosion, which has become a
major agricultural problem in the region, is also
attributed to the decrease in forest. There is some
substitution of area planted to upland crops. For
example, area planted to kenaf peaked in the early
1970s, but declined gradually from the mid-’70s. On
the other hand, cassava was planted on a limited area
when kenaf was popular, but rapidly replaced kenaf
after the mid-’70s. In the 1990s, when marketing
problems affected cassava production, sugarcane
moved in to replace cassava.
The share of the agricultural sector decreased
from 57.1% of the regional gross product in 1961 to
only 19.0% in 1994. The manufacturing sector
represented 7.9% in 1961 but increased to 10.2% in
1994. In terms of employment, those who were
engaged in farming were as much as 8.5% of the
regional labor force in 1970 but were only 70% in
1995. It should be noted that this number includes
part-time farmers who migrate to work off-farm,
particularly in the dry season. Recent statistics show
that, in 1995, the income from off-farm employment
represented as much as 62% of the total income of
farm households.
In many cases, rice production provides the
staple food for household consumption and farmers
produce upland crops such as cassava, sugarcane,
maize, and kenaf for cash income. Rice productivity
is lower than the average for the whole country
because the irrigated area has only 7% of the planted
land. Therefore, farming in the region is at the whim
of nature. Because of the fast reduction in forest land,
the region now faces more frequent natural calamities
of alternate droughts and floods. Previously, the
region was the major supplier of livestock, particu-
larly buffaloes and cattle, for the country. Because of
the shortage of herders who took care of livestock
and the progress of farm mechanization, the number
of buffaloes and cattle decreased rapidly. The region
turned to a new pattern of livestock farming such as
poultry farms under the contractual arrangement,
dairy farming under the cooperative system, and
commercial and large-scale cattle raising.
1996-97

Rice 14.6 21.5 28.2 29.8 31.7

Maize 0.5 0.4 2.3 2.5 2.3 Human resources
Kenaf 0.8 2.3 1.1 0.6 0.4
Cassava 0.0 0.2 4.5 5.8 4.7 The Labor Force Survey Round 3 of the National
Sugarcane 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.0 2.0
Peanut 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 Statistical Office in August 1998 found that the
Mungbean 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 population of the Northeast Region was 20,747,000,
or about 34.8% of the total population of the country,
Source: Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives, 1998. and its annual growth rate was approximately 0.6%.

56
Out of this regional total, 5,305,000 were under age
13. The total labor force (people over 13) was
11,237,000, but the actual number of those employed
was 10,781,000. The population in urban areas was
1,290,000 (6.2%), whereas 19,458,000 (93.8%) lived
in rural areas. The labor force with no education
numbered 229,000 (2.5%), whereas 7,710,000
(82.4%) received primary education, 842,000 (9.0%)
had secondary education, 129,000 (1.4%) had
vocational education, another 202,000 (2.2%)
received teacher training, and those with a university
education represented 246,000 (2.6%) of the total.
Therefore, most of the labor force in the northeast
had a low level of education, mainly at the primary
level. However, the recent trend indicates improve-
ments. The rate of school attendance for children
increased from 80% two decades ago to about 98%
now, The rate of children who continued secondary
education was 72% in 1992, but increased rapidly to
82% in 1996. The number of children who proceeded
to upper secondary education in 1996 was as high as
44.4% of those who graduated from lower secondary
schools. Of these, 67% went to general courses,
whereas 33% chose vocational courses.
The increasing rate of the young generation in
higher education might not have a direct benefit for
rural and agricultural development but it has an
adverse effect on farming. This is because it is quite
common that farming does not appeal to young
people, particularly those who have a good educa-
tion. Most of the youth who graduate from high
school in the local areas prefer to move to town,
either for advanced studies or for employment. Those
who do farming are people who are mainly in their
late thirties or forties. This causes a lack of energetic
forces and new initiatives in farming. During the
slack season, if one visits villages in the northeast,
one might find mainly young children and older
family members. Even those who do work in farming
would move out of the village to seek a better fortune
in town. They should not be blamed because they
really do want to work and earn an income and do
not want to live idly in villages without employment.
The shortage of irrigation water does not make
farming possible during the dry period of the year.
Moreover, ample possibilities exist for people to seek
employment in the major towns or in metropolitan
Bangkok.
The northeast has been well known for its
migrations of laborers. It is a large source of labor for
Bangkok and other regions and countries. Laborers
from the northeast, though mainly unskilled, are
praised for being hard-working and fast-learning,
having fewer problems, and demanding low wages.
This region is therefore the largest for labor supply
nationwide. It is estimated that Bangkok alone has as
many as 1.2 million northeastern workers and about
400,000 northeasterners work abroad (Research and
Development Institute 1997).
The out-migration of northeasterners may be
either seasonal (mainly during the slack seasons) or
for the full year. Farmers are very adept at choosing
crops or farming techniques that will make their out-
migration possible. Therefore, it is no surprise why
farmers choose cassava for their upland crops.
Besides its market availability, the crop requires less
attention and low inputs, and it allows farmers to
work off-farm or even migrate for some months
before returning at harvesting time. Direct seeding of
rice (or seed broadcasting) is another farming
technique used by farmers to replace the labor-
intensive transplanting method of crop establishment.
With this technique, farmers might have more time to
work off-farm. Income from off-farm activities in
many cases has become the essential part of the
household income. This includes remittances of
income sent back home by the younger generation of
workers who left the farm almost permanently.
Income earnings of each household member vary and
depend heavily on education. Table 2 shows that
household members working as wage earners who
have a high school or vocational education earn more
than those who completed only their primary
education. They even get more if they work for a
nonfarm business.
Even if the people work strenuously, it was
found in 1988 that almost half of the total population
of northeasterners was living in poverty. Recently,
the situation improved and in 1996 this proportion
dropped to as low as 19.4%, but it surged up again
after the recession and reached 23.1% in 1998. This
rate of poverty should be compared with those of the
central region (7.7%) and for metropolitan Bangkok
(only 0.5%) (Table 3).
These data show that the effect of the recent
economic recession was felt most in the northeast.
Table 2. Off-farm and nonfarm income by educatlon
level and occupation (baht person-1 year-1).
Education Farming with Nonfarm Not
Wagea
off-farm activity business specified
Lower than 11,533 15,427 19,877 11,466
compulsory
Primary 11,076 10,945 21,233 10,208
Secondary 21,605 13,889 25,325 8,527
Vocational and 19,250 41,018 60,748 9,600
University
aIncluding farm and nonfarm employment.
Source: levllanonda et al (1999).
57
Table 3. Recent evolution of poverty rates (%) by region in urban employment led to a large-scale return
in Thailand.
migration to the countryside and greatly reduced
Metropolitan urban-to-rural remittances. At the same time,
Year Center North Northeast South
Bangkok however, the exchange rate moved favorably for
1988 26.5 32.0 48.4 32.5 6.1
traded commodities and the agricultural sector once
1990 22.2 23.2 43.1 27.6 3.4 again became a savior for the national economy.
1992 13.2 22.6 39.8 19.7 1.9 More farm exports were expected and the promotion
1994 9.2 13.1 28.5 17.2 0.8
1996 6.3 11.2 19.4 11.5 0.6
of agribusiness resumed. Though the countryside
1998 7.7 9.0 23.1 14.8 0.5 could act as a social safety net for a large number of
people, this would not last long because the rural
Source: Data are from the National Labor Force Survey, National
Statistical Office (1999). Analyzed by the Division of Development sector had been discarded from the mainstream of
Evaluation, NESDB (1999). development for some time when the government
spent much effort on industrial development. The
agricultural infrastructure is not yet well developed,
Income was reduced throughout the country but the particularly for irrigation facilities.
worst drop occurred in the northeast. This reduction The irrigated area in the northeast is still
because of the recession reached as much as 32.4% minimal. Because of the shortage of appropriate sites
in the first round of the survey (February 1998) and and the opposition of some groups of people, the
37.4% in the second round (August 1998). This pattern of irrigation development also had to switch
should be compared with the whole kingdom average from a large project approach to a smaller one,
of 19.2% for the first round and 24.8% for the second mainly at the farm level. The King himself tried to
round. promote irrigation on-farm through farm ponds and a
Table 4 shows government development new farming system based on the self-sustenance
expenditures for the people in the northeast com- principle, widely known as the “new theory” system.
pared with those of the other regions of the kingdom. This system will be beneficial to many small farmers.
It shows that the public investment in human But it will operate properly only if it has good
resource development is lowest in the northeast support in technology and organization. More
(2,520 baht capita-1). important is the basic concept of development that
It should be noted that the very high figures must be changed for both government officials in
mentioned for metropolitan Bangkok do not have charge and the people themselves. The growth-
much meaning since they also include contributions oriented development pattern should be changed
made to the central administration, which may serve toward the proposed quality-of-life-oriented one.
all regions. This changing attitude toward life is not a simple task
for both the government authority and the people.

The agricultural economy in the future: The world of free trade

the age of globalization
The effect of recession
The recession that started in 1997 pushed Thailand
into a deep economic crisis, which has had an
enormous effect on the rural sector. A sharp decline
The effect of the commitment of the Thai govern-
ment to the World Trade Organization (WTO) will be
felt in the northeast. Rice, for example, which is the
major agricultural product in this region, might
receive higher prices that would increase rice
farmers’ income. But the effect might not be great,

Table 4. Government expenditures per capita for the 1998 fiscal year (in baht).

Region Agriculture Education Public health Social services Total

Center 616 375 410 718 3,296

East 720 894 547 1,228 4,196
West 638 1,083 671 1,512 4,610
North 338 802 461 1,101 3,361
Northeast 231 696 320 921 2,520
South 474 833 411 1,076 3,406
Metropolitan Bangkok 4,342 19,440 4,063 4,674 75,108
Total 871 2,984 947 1,456 11,807

Source: The Office of Budget Bureau.

58
since farmers who have a marketable surplus
represent only a fraction of all farmers. But there are
some other commodities for which the region does
not have a comparative advantage, notably, soybean,
silk, and dairy products. For soybean, the northeast
has a planted area of 289,977 rai (1996-97 crop
year), or about 17% of the total planted area in
Thailand. The average yield of soybean in this region
is only 225 kg rai–1, which is much lower than yields
in the United States, which are as high as 376 kg
rai–1. Moreover, the costs of soybean production in
the United States are much lower, so that Thailand
cannot compete in the world market. Therefore,
soybean would be among the first crops to disappear
if the enforcement of the new regulations of the
WTO would become effective. Sericulture and silk
production, which involve more than 300,000
farmers in the northeast and provide a supplementary
income, are other farm enterprises that lose their edge
on other major producing countries such as China,
Vietnam, and Brazil. Since farmers who will be
affected are those who produce hybrid varieties
(about 10,000 farms), if they cannot increase their
productivity, they will have to change their profes-
sion.
During the past decade, the northeast became the
new frontier land for dairy cattle and the number of
farmers raising milk cows increased substantially.
However, although it is expected that the enforce-
ment of the new trade rules would increase the
international price of powdered milk, this could still
lower the price of milk produced in Thailand. The
given tariff quota of 55,000 tons, on which a tariff of
5% is levied, is not enough for the domestic demand;
therefore, there is still some room for the domestic
production of milk. However, in the long run, it is
essential for Thai dairy farmers to increase their
productivity so that they can compete with foreign
competitors.
Research and development in agriculture
The effects of the globalization of agriculture imply
that Thai farmers cannot simply continue farming as
in the past. They must be more efficient than before
so that they can compete with others. They have to be
well informed and knowledgeable about modem
technology and well aware of what is going on in the
world market and of consumer demand. These are
challenges to both Thai farmers and concerned
academics and administrators who are involved in
agricultural research and development.
The growing awareness of health and environ-
mental problems may create both favorable and
unfavorable conditions for Thai farmers. Genetically
modified organisms (GMOs), which were expected
to bring a second Green Revolution, are now a
controversial issue. Some farmers were expecting
that this technological breakthrough would increase
their productivity and reduce their production costs,
whereas many scholars and NGOs are arguing about
environmental effects and sustainability of produc-
tion. Some maintained that GMOs would increase the
monopolistic power of giant global agribusiness
firms. The government should be impartial and fair to
both sides. Strictly controlled experiments should be
implemented by competent research authorities to
verify the effects of this new technology.
Government research agencies can still work in
many different areas to try to boost productivity and
increase responsiveness to health and environmental
concerns of the public. Much research on organic
farming and biological control may not be attractive
to global agribusiness, but it may benefit both
producers and consumers and be friendly to the
environment. Thai farmers, if they stand firmly in
their efforts to save the environment, though produc-
tivity might not be very high, will find ways for
many products to take their place on the world
market under the new rules of globalization of
knowledge and information and more awareness of
health care.
References
Isvilanonda S, Tongpan S, Sukkumnoed D. 1999. Study on
major causes of inter-regional income disparity
problems in agricultural sector and development
strategy for their solution. Report presented to the
JICA Thailand Office by the Center for Applied
Economics Research, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand.
NESDB. 1999. Situation and economic and social impact.
Seminar Document on Agricultural Adjustment of
Thai Agriculture for the Next Decade. Organized by
the Agricultural Economics Association of Thailand
and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. (In
Thai.)
Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives. 1998. Agricultural statistics of
Thailand, crop year 1996/97. Bangkok, Thailand.
National Statistical Office. 1999. Labor force survey round
3 (August 1998). Bangkok, Thailand.
59
Research and Development Institute, Khon Kaen Univer- Notes
sity. 1997. Human resources development as a base
for industrial decentralization in the northeastern Author’s address: Department of Agricultural Economics,
region of Thailand. A research report prepared for the Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University,
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Thailand.
Research and Development Institute, Khon Kaen Univer-
sity, Department of Agricultural ExtensiodMinistry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, and the UPLB
Alumni Club. 1997. Proceedings of a seminar on the
Direction of Rural Development on the Basis of Self-
Sustenance Economy. (In Thai.)

60
The national and regional farm economy
of Thailand

Supat Viratphong

This paper summarizes the findings from socioeconomlc surveys conducted by the
Office of Agricultural Economics, showing that three decades of socioeconomlc de-
velopment under the National Economlc and Social Development Plan seem to have
widened the gaps in income and living standards across regions, between the farm
and nonfarm sector, and between irrigated and rainfed areas in the farming sector.
The Northeast Region has a predominantly rural population dependent on the poor
natural resource base for agricultural production under rainfed conditions. Net cash
income per farm for the region in 1998 was half that of the national average. Rice
production gave the lowest net income. Rural households would have to depend on
other farm activities, such as cash cropping and dairy farming, to generate higher
farm income. Even so, farm poverty incidence is high at 25%, compared with the
national average of 18%. Rural households became increasingly dependent on off-
farm earnings as the economic expansion in the 1980s and early '90s provided
more employment opportunities in other regions and in the cities. This led to mas-
sive labor out-migration. Of the total labor outflow of 2.3 million people in the country
in 1998,65% originated from the Northeast Region. This out-migration of the younger
and more highly educated labor force causes problems such as agricultural labor
shortages and difficulties in the transfer of technology to an aging farm workforce.
The Agricultural Development Plan formulated under the current Eighth Na-
tional Economic and Social Development Plan aims to eliminate Income disparities
in the Kingdom by providing more economic opportunities for rural communities,
particularly in the regions that have fallen behind in economic development. The
development strategy undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
for the Northeast Region is to generate opportunities (1) for restructuring agricultural
production to give more economic return, (2) to impart technical and agribusiness
management skills to young farmers, and (3) to strengthen farmers' institutions.
These are accompanied by policies to diversify beyond rice farming, increase input
efficiency, improve the quality of agricultural products, encourage rural savings, and
promote proper management of natural resources,

The Korat Basin is located in the lower part of
northeast Thailand. This region consists of 17
provinces, occupying one-third of the total area of the
country, and is mainly populated by farmers. Approxi-
mately 41% of the total agricultural area of the
country is in this region. However, sandy or saline
soils and rainfall variability are the main factors
causing low productivity. Only drought-tolerant crops
such as cassava and sugarcane have been suggested as
possible upland crops. Poor resources lead to lower
household farm income and labor migration to the
nonfarm sector. Most of the labor force migrating to
cities comes from this region and off-farm employ-
ment is a major source of supplementary household
income.
Previous development efforts aimed at raising
low rural income by promoting income generation
and economic activities for regional and provincial
areas. In spite of successes in general economic
growth, the income gap between urban and rural
people, as well as among regions, widened. Com-
pared with those of other regions, the incomes of
northeast households appear to be low. Therefore, the
concept of development has been adjusted by shifting
from its previous growth orientation to a more
people-centered approach.

61
 This paper presents information, from a socio-
economic survey conducted by the Office of Agricul-
tural Economics (OAE), based on data collected from
the second to eighth development plan. The survey
results describe farm household income, farming
systems, and labor employment. Finally, some
policies and measures for agricultural development
will be discussed.
The farm economy
particularly between farmers in irrigated and rainfed
areas. Obviously, in the Northeast Region, which is
mainly under rainfed conditions, farming produced
lower cash income than in other parts of the country.
The shortfall in farm income was covered by nonfarm
earnings. From the fifth to the eighth plan, nonfarm
income gradually increased as the economic expan-
sion provided more off-farm employment opportuni-
ties. Over the whole period for northeast Thailand,
nonfarm income has increased dramatically relative to
farm income (Table 1).

From the second to eighth development plan
The OAE started conducting socioeconomic surveys
in the middle of the second National Economic and
Social Development Plan. The main purposes were to
investigate the use of agricultural resources, farm
income and expenses, and the living conditions of
farming families. Basic data on farm households were
used to monitor the evolution of a series of economic
and social indicators of farmers’ situations. These
data were also used to guide the formulation of
agricultural policy and development measures to
improve farmers’ standard of living.
It has been found that past economic develop-
ment has benefited only some groups of people in
some areas. The income gap between the farm and
nonfarm sector tended to increase from the first to the
seventh plan periods. lncome disparity also appeared
to have increased within the farm sector itself,
National and regional farm income
and expenditures
In crop year 1998-99, the OAE conducted a socioeco-
nomic survey on income in 14,000 sampled farms
across the country. The national average cash farm
income was 68,084 baht per farm, but only 38,227
baht in the northeast. Income from crop sales contrib-
uted the largest portion, accounting for 69% of total
sales nationwide, whereas 259% and 6% of the rest
were derived from livestock and other farm products,
respectively. The average cash farm expenses reached
39,355 baht nationwide and 23,813 in the northeast,
resulting in a net cash farm income per farm of
28,729 baht and 14,411 baht nationally and in the
northeast, respectively. This farm income amounted to
about half of the nonfarm cash income, estimated at
55,031 baht nationally and only one-fourth in the
northeast (Table 2).

Table 1. Farm cash income and expense; Plan II-VIII.

Plan II Plan III Plan IV Plan V Plan VI Plan VII Plan Vlll
Item
(US$1 = B20.8) (US$1 = B20.5) (US$1 = B20.6) (US$1 = B24.15) (US$1 = 625.5) (US$1 = B25.2) (US$1 = B38.6)

National average
1. Farm cash income 3,825 7,752 16,777 18,794 32,555 61,818 68,084
2. Farm cash expense 2,390 3,017 7,605 9,378 17,448 32,006 39,355
3. Net cash farm income 1,435 4,735 9,172 9,416 15,108 29,812 28,729
4. Nonfarm cash income 2,096 3,902 8,842 13,629 19,630 51,059 55,031
5. Nonfarm cash expense Na 7,697 15,340 19,901 28,849 59,722 59,855
6. Household cash income 5,921 11,654 25,619 32,423 52,185 112,877 123,115
7. Household cash expense na a 10,714 22,945 29,279 46,297 91,728 99,211
8. Ratio of farm cash income 1.83 1.99 1.90 1.38 1.66 1.21 1.24
to nonfarm income

Northeast
1. Farm cash income 2,078 4,324 9,371 11,257 18,165 31,191 38,227
2. Farm cash expense 1,195 1,984 3,932 5,052 9,216 19,386 23,816
3. Net cash farm income 884 2,340 5,439 6,205 8,949 11,805 14,411
4. Nonfarm cash income 1,132 3,121 7,208 11,888 16,907 50,891 53,439
5. Nonfarm cash expense na 5,157 10,772 15,085 19,601 44,480 47,220
6. Household cash income 3,210 7,445 16,579 23,145 35,072 82,082 91,660
7. Household cash expense na 7,141 14,704 20,137 28,817 63,886 71,036
8. Ratio of farm cash income 1.84 1.39 1.30 0.95 1.07 0,61. 0.72
to nonfarm income

a na= not available.

Source: Socioeconomic survey, crop year 1998/99.

62
Table 2. National and regional farm household income
(in baht per household), crop year 1998/99.
Item National level Northeast
1. Cash farm income 68,084 38,227
2. Nonfarm income 55,031 53,439
3. Product/consumption 5,119 6,678
4. Property margin 11,780 12,700
(ending-beginning)
5. Farm expense 39,355 23,816
6. Nonfarm expense 59,855 47,220
7. Net cash farm income 28,729 14,411
Source: Socioeconomic survey, crop year 1998/99.
Farm income varied from region to region
depending on available agricultural resources and
climatic conditions. The northern, southern, and
central regions generated cash furm income per farm
of61,568,93,266, and 447,497 baht, respectively,
The progressive Central Region shows a significant
income advantage, with a farm income that can
exceed household expenditures. By contrast, the
average cash farm income in the northeast reached
only 38,227 baht (Table 2). As this is insufficient to
cover household consumption expenses, farm family
labor needs to seek supplementary income from
sources other than farming activities. Clearly, the
living conditions of farm families in the northeast
depend mainly on their nonfarm income and this
situation leads to extensive farm labor migration to
the cities.
Income disparities among types
of farm production
Besides this interregional income gap, productivity
and income differences are observed between types of
farming system and other factors. The general survey
of 12,533 farms conducted by the OAE in 1995-96
revealed that rice farming provided a net national
average farm income of 24,680 baht per family. This
income was estimated at 873 baht per rai (1 hectare =
6.25 rai) and around 7,195 baht per farm labor unit.
Prawn and dairy farming derived the highest income,
followed by other categories of farm products.
Similarly, rice farming in the northeast earned a net
farm income of only 441 baht per rai and 3,248 baht
per farm labor unit. In this region, dairy farming
earned the highest net farm income. Other types of
farm activites provided more income than rice
production. It is obvious that differences in farm
activity have significant effects on farm income.
However, rice is still the dominant crop for northeast
household self-consumption. Only about 30% of the
total production would be put on the market, whereas
about 37% would be stored for food security pur-
poses because of frequent crop damage by floods and
droughts. The last third of the total production will
need to be used for family consumption and other
purposes such as seeds.
Farm poverty incidence
Based on the farm data collected in 1995-96 and the
OAE's estimation of poverty in 1996, the minimum
level of per capita income of rural households in the
country was 9,781 baht. It was also observed that,
nationwide, the rate of poverty incidence on farm
households was 18% for the total sampled farms. In
the northeast, however, farm poverty incidence was as
high as 25% reflecting a larger shure of poor people
in this region,
Mlgratlon of rural poor
Problems related to low income associoted with
uncertainty of agricultural revenues have caused more
farm laborers to leave their farms and resort to new
job opportunities. This out-migration, in the form of
both rural-to-rural and rural-to-urban migration, is
widespread in the northeast. The 1998-99 farm survey
indicated that, for the past decade, the outflow of
farm family members was about 2.3 million people.
About 1.5 million, or 658 of this total, originated in
the northeast.
This outflow may be classified into three
categories: the first is :he out-migration of the entire
farming family, the second is a seasonal outflow, and
the last is an outflow of an individual person within
the farming family. The first category usually com-
prises poor farmers who might form the urban poor
sector in large cities. The last category is creating a
problem of decline in the availability of labor in farm
operations, particularly during rapid economic growth
periods. In the northeast, the outflow of seasonal off-
farm workers is estimated to represent 4% of the total
workforce. Approximately 10% of the total of out-
migrating people is individuals within the farming
family who left the farm for a period of one to five
years.
A mass outflow of labor from agriculture has
caused a labor shortage and difficulties in the transfer
of technology to a more aging farm workforce.
Hopefully, the current older, less educated generation
of farmers will be replaced by a new, more successful
and better educated one. However, labor migration to
63
the nonfarm sector is common among young laborers
aged 15 to 30, and this will continue to take educated
persons away from agriculture.
The Eighth National Economic and Social
Development Plan (1996-2001) seeks to eliminate
disparities in income in the Kingdom and ensure that
all Thais can obtain an equal share of the prosperity
and other benefits resulting from development. By
giving regional and rural people wider economic
opportunities, particularly in terms of employment, it
is hoped that the foundations for sustainable develop-
ment can be laid. To generate wider employment
opportunities, the interrelationships among people,
communities, local areas, and their existing develop-
ment potentials must be taken into account. TO
provide greater overall economic opportunities for
regional and rural people and their communities, it is
necessary to extend all activities related to local
economies, social services, and education into these
areas. This eighth development plan particularly
emphasizes establishing closer links between rural
and urban communities and suiting projects to local
areas’ real development potentials. The main target
groups are rural farmers and the urban poor.
Agricultural development plans and
economic policies of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives
As part of the Eighth National Economic and Social
Development Plan, the Agricultural Development
Plan is the broad framework for developing agricul-
ture in Thailand. This plan establishes a target for
expansion of the agricultural sector at approximately
2.9% annually and designates three development
strategies:
1. To ensure the competitiveness of Thai agricul-
tural products, agricultural development will aim
to bring adjustments to the agricultural sector in
response to the changing global economic
situation.
2. To conserve natural resources and promote
sustainable development, importance will be
placed on the conservation and use of natural
resources conforming to their capability, to
ensure an ecological balance and prevent
damaging the environment.
3. To develop human resources and farmer institu-
tions, emphasis will be given to imparting
knowledge and transferring appropriate technolo-
gies to farmers.
64
The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
(MOAC) has adjusted its economic policies and
action plans for implementation during the period of
the eighth plan:
1. To maintain growth in the agricultural sector,
2. To accelerate the increase in farmer income,
3. To increase the capacity of the agricultural sector
to be competitive,
4. To accelerate the export of agricultural products,
5. To stimulate domestic production to substitute
for imports,
6. To adjust agricultural systems to absorb unem-
ployed laborers returning to rural areas, and
7. To prepare for global climate change.
Some key aspects of the main economic policies
put in place by the MOAC are briefly presented
below.
Agriculture restructuring policy
Designate large ureas for establishing specialized
agricultural production activities focusing on
integrated production linked to markets and process-
ing, similar to the production of important agricultural
products for agroindustries. Incentives to encourage
the private sector or foreign investors are offered,
such as tax measures and the revision of laws in the
designated areas, especially in cooperative land
settlements, land reform areas, and land consolidation
areas.
Reduce risks for small farmers and ensure food
security at the farm level by focusing on support for
ecologically and environmentally nondamaging
activities, as well as increasing the value of products
produced locally.
Policy on increasing productivity and
reducing production costs
Do research and develop appropriate technologies to
increase productivity and reduce production costs.
Implement a “products champion” pilot project
under the MOAC that includes para-rubber, durian,
longan, and orchids, emphasizing yield, marketing,
and integrated processing.
Expand the base for producing raw materials for
agroindustries. Negotiate with neighboring countries
in an effort to reduce obstacles to investing in the
production of raw materials for agroindustries.
Policy to improve quality
Establish appropriate quality standards for agricul-
tural products for export. Focus on operating a “one-
stop service,” with private-sector participation in
providing services and issuing certificates to entrepre-
neurs who volunteer to adhere to quality standards.
Develop agricultural production systems that
have fully integrated quality control, starting with
production at the field level, by focusing on quality
and product standards that conform to international
sanitary and phytosanitary standards.
Encourage agricultural organizations to expand
their participation in inspecting and guaranteeing
product quality, through government promotion of
infrastructure that will facilitate marketing and ensure
the quality of products being held for sale, such as
warehouses and cool storage units.
Support safe agriculture and natural agriculture
for domestic consumption and for export to specific
markets.
Pollcy to restructure the MOAC
Restructure the administration of the MOAC to
enable it to provide services in an integrated manner,
efficiently maintain and rehabilitate natural resources,
directly provide information to farmers, and more
efficiently undertake research with academic institu-
tions and the private sector.
Reduce the official role in providing services at
the subdistrict level through the decentralization of
authority to local organizations.
Policy on rural savings
Campaign to promote rural savings through agricul-
tural cooperatives with the objective of increasing the
potential for farmer groups to help themselves
through simple processing of farm products and
seeking alternative occupations at the household
level. The campaign will be undertaken in collabora-
tion with the Government Savings Bank, operating
the savings program as a community bank. Parallel
financing will be arranged if necessary to support
group activities. Farmers will participate in adminis-
tering deposits and by formulating policies for use
and recovery.
Policy on fertilizer and agricultural chemicals
Use chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals
more efficiently by applying them with organic and
biological fertilizers to improve soils and increase
yields. Employ natural methods to control crop pests
to reduce imports of fertilizers and agricultural
chemicals. Improve soils and the environment in rural
communities over the long term.
Use refuse and wastes from agriculture by
encouraging private-sector production of organic
fertilizer and biofertilizers and other products used in
the agricultural sector, thus helping to reduce farmers’
expenditures on imported fertilizers.
Policy for management of forest, soil, water,
coastal area, and biological resources
Identify vacant land and extend land tenure rights to
solve the problem of availability of land for subsis-
tence, by revising the Land Tax Act and the Rental of
Land Act.
Implement a project to reserve and control
conservation areas, including appropriate activities
related to land allocation, forest fire prevention,
rehabilitation of natural resources, and surveying and
using forest resources.
Conserve and rehabilitate degraded ecosystems
in coastal areas and resolve coastal aquaculture
problems, particularly those affecting coastal environ-
ments. Take precautions to prevent problems that may
arise from environmental actions linked to the export
of Thai agricultural products to foreign markets.
Undertake appropriate development of natural
resources for nature-based tourism (ecotourism) and
promote tourism in agricultural areas, including
developing local products for marketing.
Develop agricultural potential in irrigation
command areas by producing agricultural products
more efficiently, while mitigating pollution problems
that affect the environment in these areas.
Development options in the Northeast
Region
The economic policies of the MOAC have generally
provided development guidelines and measures,
Based on survey findings, some suggestions follow,
Need to restructure agricultural production
In some areas, farming activities should be improved
and adjusted in line with local conditions and market
demands to generate more economic returns. This can
be done by shifting away from rice farming to other
farm enterprises. This is because, in spite of the
importance of rice production for home consumption,
its productivity is relatively low and not competitive.
Adjustment of the production pattern will involve
providing long-term credit at low interest rates and
necessary inputs for poor farmers.
Training in technical and agribusiness
management skills for young farmers
Young farmers should be trained to approach farming
as a business. Technical and entrepreneurial skills
would lead to increased productivity and income.
65
This may be a viable remedy to the problems of low Bibliography
farm income and out-migration.
Isvilanonda S. 1998. Income distribution and poverty
Strengthening farmers’ institutions incidence. Center for Applied Economic Research,
Farmers’ institutions are extremely important for Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
fostering farmers’ efforts to increase production and Thailand.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 1997/1998.
income. Many farm products and activities need to be
Economic policies of the Ministry of Agriculture and
integrated into an organizational network having the
Cooperatives.
capacity for investment, facilities, and working Office of the National Economic and Social Department
capital necessary to serve farmers. During the past Board, Office of the Prime Minister. The Eighth
three decades, farm development research conducted National Economic and Social Development Plan.
by the OAE in the northeast led to a significant The Farmers’ Rehabilitation and Development Fund Act.
increase in farm income for hog-raising groups and 1999.
underground water users. These groups were man- Viratphong S et al. 1998. Productivity of farm size and
aged by young farmers. Dairy farming is another type type. Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of
of production that requires the integration of milk Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
production and marketing operations. Viratphong S et al. 1998. Structure of farm household
income and expenses. Office of Agricultural Econom-
An important law now provides an opportunity
ics, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives,
for farmers to organize themselves under the Farmers’
Bangkok, Thailand.
Rehabilitation and Development Fund Act of 1999.
The main reason for the enactment of this new
law is the need to promote farmers’ participation in Notes
the design and implementation of policies and
programs that affect their production and well-being. Author’s address: Office of Agricultural Economics,
It is believed that, without the process of people’s Ratchadamnoennok Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
participation, the conventional problems of Thai
farmers can never be alleviated. Consequently, it is
necessary to establish an organization that will take
responsibility for rehabilitating and developing the
farmers’ socioeconomic conditions in a continuous
and free manner. This may be done through close
coordination among policymakers, practitioners,
technicians, and farmers. Who will be authorized to
formulate policies to implement the Farmers’ Reha-
bilitation and Development Fund? Among other
functions, the Fund will provide an opportunity for
resource-poor farmers to organize themselves and
could formulate programs and projects to be financed
by the Fund. Once the required funding is allocated to
a specific program or project, a well-structured
monitoring and evaluation system will have to start
functioning to help achieve the objectives.

66
Land-use patterns and agricultural production
systems with emphasis on changes driven
by economic forces and market integration
Sawaeng Ruaysoongnern and Nongluck Suphanchaimart

This paper reviews the major economic forces that have affected land-use patterns
in the Korat Basin. This basin, often called the Korat Plateau, covers a major part of
northeast Thailand. The information presented is drawn from secondary sources.
The land-use patterns in the Korat Basin have changed gradually since the con-
struction of the railway into the Korat Plateau 100 years ago, and can be divided into
three phases: subsistence, semisubsistence, and commercial farming. The railway
construction made inroads into this isolated part of the Kingdom. Early expansion
provided a marketing route to merchants to trade limited consumer goods for some
surplus rice. Farming at this time was referred to as mainly for subsistence. Major
development programs started in the early 1960s when the Thai government, with
assistance from the US. government, constructed the Friendship Highway and other
development projects. This highway helped facilitate transportation and provided an
opportunity for commercial logging and market expansion. Meanwhile, the demand
for cassava exports started around the 1970s because of the Common Agricultural
Policy of the European Union to support cereal prices in the European Union. The
high price of wheat and barley in the Union created demand for imported cassava
for an animal feed substitute. Cassava cultivation expanded rapidly into upland ar-
eas of the Korat Basin because it was suited to the sandy loam soils, and gradually
encroached into forest land. Farming during this period was semisubsistence since
cassava production was for cash, whereas rice was mainly for home consumption.
At the same time, the sharp fail in agricultural prices during this period aggravated
rural poverty in this region. Insufficient income pushed farmers awayfrom rural hard-
ship to seek off-farm work in Bangkok. During this phase, rice and cassava were the
most suitable crops because they allowed farmers to work off-farm during slack
seasons. The use of chemical fertilizer and tractors for land preparation became
widespread. The last phase of commercial farming started in the late 1980s when
the world economy started to recover, and the industrial countries relocated their
labor-intensive industries to countries with a cheap labor supply such as Thailand.
The large inflow of foreign investment during 1988-95 enabled the nonfarm sector to
expand. Consequently, this provided job opportunities for rural workers. Income from
off-farm work provided farmers with capital for investment and served as an engine
of growth because of the increased demand for food. Meanwhile, the farm-restruc-
turing program launched by tho government in 1990 to reduce cassava planted area
had started various kinds of commercial farming in the Korat Basin, such as dairy
farms, integrated farming, and orchards. Other market-oriented products were also
promoted by the private sector through contract farming of seed production, broil-
ers, and flsheries. The economic crash in mid-1998 caused a setback to many gov-
ernment programs because of the budget deficit. Opportunitles for agricultural de-
velopment resurfaced, with government emphasis on farmIng as a fallback to boost
the country’s economy. It is anticipated that, in the present and foreseeable future in
the economics of agricultural production in the Korat Basin, rice will remain 8 subsis-
tence crop together with more intensive land use in crop and livestock production, in
response to market needs both domestically and around the globe. However, the
optimum use of land in the Basin in the future can be assured only if farmers are
allowed to make decisions under free trade conditions and can participate in eco-
nomic and social decision making.

67
Basically, land is the main resource for social and
economic development. Patterns of land use are
crucial parameters for indicating agricultural develop-
ment. The physical environment, people, and the
economy are also indicators that influence past and
existing resource potential of an area. The Northeast
Region, often called the Korat Plateau, is certainly an
important region of Thailand in terms of area and the
people. The region used to be landlocked before
transportation development took place. Historically,
the people in the northeast were isolated from the
central Thai government. Development in the region
was primarily meant for security and survival. Donner
(1978), in his book, described the past situation of the
region as such: “. . . the north-easterners grew rice
under unfavorable conditions because if they had
grown other crops they would not have had a market
to exchange them for food. Even when Bangkok
pushed the railway through the northeast, rather as a
response to French-Indochinese activities, it never
gave any incentive to use this means of transportation
for development. Only the Chinese traders followed
the rail and, for the first time, a limited offer of
consumer goods and textiles appeared in the north-
eastern markets and some surplus rice found its way
to Bangkok.” Geographical drawbacks and political
tensions of the region can be traced back to the late-
1950s. Later, the government, with assistance from
the United States, started massive development
programs in the 1960s, especially the Friendship
Highway, which succeeded in connecting the north-
east to world markets. This market integration
through a good transportation system enabled
northeastern farmers to respond to the markets.
Consequently, the land-use pattern in the region
changed rapidly over time from subsistence to
semisubsistence and commercial farming. Therefore,
a chronological analysis of the evolving land-use
pattern is essential to direct proper social and
economic development planning (Takai 1985,
Tongpan 1988).
Many factors affect the land-use pattern; popula-
tion pressure, market demand for food, infrastructure
development, and other macroeconomic shifts.
Primarily, population growth led to an expansion in
land use. Despite the successful program of family
planning in Thailand, the population in the northeast
increased by 60% during the past three decades
(Table 1). The need for more food led to an expansion
in paddy land over time. There were strong interac-
tions of land-use pattern with infrastructure develop-
ment, especially transportation and communication
systems. Improvement in the transportation network
enabled farmers to fully respond to the market
demand for food and fiber. It also led to information
and resource exchanges of agricultural produce for
consumer goods, agricultural equipment, modern
housing material, education, and modern medicine.
The increased demand for cassava in the Euro-
pean Union was the most important factor explaining
the drastic increase in area of cassava growing in the
Basin during the 1970s and ’80s. Other macroeco-
nomic shifts such as higher investment of the central
government in irrigation development, the farm-
restructuring program during the early 1990s, and the
increase in private-sector investment resulted in a
greater degree of commercialization of agriculture in
the Basin.
This analysis of land use in the Korat Basin,
which is primarily a review of secondary data,
reports, and direct research experiences, attempts to
link changes in cropping over the last three decades
with major macroeconomic shifts and important
government interventions. Because of data limita-
tions, the analysis focuses on the Northeast Region as
a whole and deemphasizes minor crops that are
specific to certain parts of the region such as tobacco
and pineapple.

Table 1. Structural change in the economy of northeast Thailand from 1970 to 1990.

1970 1995
% of whole % of whole
Subject
country country
Northeast Thailand Northeast Thailand

Population (million persons) 12.0 34.4 34.8 20.2 59.4 34.0

Gross domestic product (million US$) 556.0 3,369.8 16.5 8,299.0 105,070.9 7.9
Agricultural (000 ha) 6,855.6 15,234.7 45.0 9,257.5 21,196.6 43.7
Woodland and forest (000 ha) 10,508.5 41,866.7 25.1 2,126.5 13,148.5 16.2
Rice planted area (000 ha) 3,273.6 7,527.2 43.5 6,064.6 10,926.8 55.5
Irrigation area (000 ha) 210.6 1,991.7 10.6 756.1 4,527.6 16.7
Pump irrigation (000 ha) n.a. n.a. n.a. 160.4 318.6 50.4

Source: Office of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Statistics of Thailand, various issues.

68
The three phases of agriculture
in the northeast
Mainly subsistence
The physical resources of northeast Thailand are
characterized by extensive sandy soils and erratic
rainfall (Pairintra 1985). Traditionally, the bimodal
rainfall distribution has been sufficient for lowland
rice production; the first peak is usually suitable for
nursery preparation and the second peak for trans-
planting (Vorasoot et al 1985). Despite the sandy soil,
it is fortunate that the plowpan or compacted subsur-
face from long-term disturbances through land
preparation has allowed farmers to grow lowland rice
using short-term availability of standing water. This
traditional practice of rice cultivation could have
evolved from either (or both) adaptation of rice or of
farmers to the existing poor agricultural resource
situation (Kyuma and Pairintra 1983). Even to the
present day, rice is regarded as the main crop of the
Korat Basin despite its infertile soil and unfavorable
price incentive. Farmers in the old days subsisted on
cropping of rice and cotton and salt and livestock
production for home consumption and for barter.
Available statistics show that rice covered more than
3.2 million ha and yielded about 4.5 million t, or 1.4 t
ha-1, at the beginning of the 1970s. The traditional
technique of transplanting was practiced with minimal
use of fertilizer.
Two main types of rice, glutinous and
nonglutinous varieties, are planted in the Korat Basin.
Glutinous rice is regarded as the staple food of most
northeastern people. During this phase, nearly two-
thirds of the total rice area was devoted to glutinous
rice, which accounted for more than 73% of the total
production (Table 2). Traditionally, glutinous rice
provided more yield than nonglutinous rice and this is
one reason that farmers continue to grow this kind.
Besides, this crop required a shorter growing period
(Donner 1978).
Table 2. Glutinous rice in northeart Thailand.
1970
Variable
Glutinous
Area (000 ha) 2,140
Production (000 t) 3,460
Yleld (t ha-1) 1.62
Sources: 1870 date drived from Donner (1978), p 802, 1998 data drawn from the Office of
Agricultural Economics (1997).
An important field crop grown during this phase
was kenaf, which covered about 0.2 million ha, the
second largest area after rice. For rice and maize to be
transported during those days, it was necessary to
develop gunnysacks for packaging, made out of kenaf
fiber. This requirement created an opportunity for
farmers to produce an upland crop such as kenaf that
could be productive in poor soil areas (Theerasasawat
and Srisontisuk 1986). Although the crop can be
grown under limited water conditions, the processing
of the fiber requires plenty of water and this posed a
serious problem in many areas. Price fluctuations and
competition with synthetic packaging material were
the two main factors that caused kenaf to disappear
later. Other field crops were maize, peanuts, sugar-
cane, and cotton, covering another 0.2 million ha.
These crops were grown partly for home use and
partly for sale. Sugarcane was the only crop that had
commercial links with the only two factories in the
Basin. During this phase, there were only 10,000 ha
of cassava, indicating that the crop was introduced
during the late 1960s (Table 3).
Livestock has been an important component in
this subsistence farming, for both production savings
and traction power (Phalaraksh 1988). Water buffa-
loes were used for land preparation and cattle were
used to pull carts and were exported in quantity to the
Central Plain. Not only are these animals easy to
raise, feeding on grasses, but also the manure they
produce is essential for soil improvement. Smyth
(cited by Donner 1978) wrote, “In the future a large
export of buffalo and oxen may be looked for, as the
plateau is eminently suited for rearing cattle, and it
has already a good reputation in this respect.”
Another adaptation to such a poor agricultural
resource environment was hunting and gathering from
the uplands. All of these practices constituted
strategies to cope with uncertainty and extreme
conditions (Rambo 1991).
1996
Nonglutinous Glutinous Nonglutinous
1,060 2,452 2,618
1,000 3,428 4,043
0.94 1.50 1.55
69
Table 3. Forest, rice, and main field crops in northeast Thailand (1969-97).

1969 1985 1997

Crop
Area planted (ha) a Production (t) Area planted (ha) Production (t) Area planted (ha) Production (t)

Forest 10,508,540 – 2,262,400 – 2,126,475 –

Rice 3,245,113 4,787,775 4,605,160 7,053,559 5,070,174 7,977,991
Kenaf 228,649 292,705 160,642 157,247 66,971 93,634
Make 103,567 129,440 461,864 1,053,843 372,174 1,078,241
Peanuts 33,933 42,098 29,469 33,152 3,292 45,138
Sugarcane 33,831 757,135 78,904 3,326,988 326,203 17,782,489
Cotton 29,401 22,429 12,605 13,091 8,430 11,067
Cassava 9,952 109,414 885,179 10,963,965 759,182 10,533,410
Sorghum n.a. n.a. 28,974 46,770 2,288 4,360
Soybean n.a. n.a, 20,019 23,214 55,938 71,619
Shallot n.a. n.a, n.a. n.a. 4,274 54,151
Garlic n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.514 7,067
a n.a. = not available.

Farmers obtained goods that were not available
locally by bartering with merchants and travelers
(Dixon 1978), Goods obtained by barter could be
categorized by value, for example, cooking salt for
rice and cattle for hardwoods. Other local products of
high value for barter were silks and forest spices,
stick lac, and tobacco. Another strategy for coping
with a limited-resource area is rural solidarity, as
indicated by the common practice of labor exchange
during the subsistence phase. This exchange reflects
mutual dependency among the rural communities.
The dependency also extended to resource sharing
and various buffering systems in their livelihood
(Rambo 1991).
Semisubsistence
During the early stage of infrastructure development,
there was a gradual increase in access to knowledge
and information on modernization of livelihood
systems (Brown 1988). Early changes from subsis-
tence to semisubsistence were driven by internal and
external factors. The main internal factor was related
to the need to adjust production systems, such as rice
and livestock, to achieve higher productivity for cash
generation. The external factors were very much
related to market demand at all levels. For example,
forest encroachment, referred to in some literature as
migration to the forest, started in the early 1970s to
produce cassava. This forest clearing was facilitated
by concessionary logging. This eventually led to
illegal invasion into the forest areas for both logging
and crop production (Pinthong 1991), the latter
resulting in the emergence of village settlements in
forest areas.
The high demand for cassava far export could be
considered as an important factor causing a drastic
increase in cassava production at the expense of
forest exploitation. As Table 3 shows, the area
planted with cassava during the 1980s was nearly 1
million ha, compared with 10,000 ha in 1969. The
Northeast Region produced almost 11 million t,
accounting for 51% of the country's production, and
almost entirely for export. The production of field
crops was strongly supported by good transportation
networks of railway and roads. During this phase, the
area planted with some other field crops such as
cotton, peanuts, and sorghum gradually declined,
mainly because of unfavorable prices and pest
problems, especially for cotton. On the other hand,
maize and sugarcane production increased. It is very
clear that kenaf was replaced by cassava during this
phase because of yield decline, price fluctuations,
and relatively lower income than cassava. However,
cassava was later partly replaced by sugarcane in
some areas, mainly because of better income from
sugarcane production (Ruaysoongnern and
Limpinuntana 1996). Because of general forest area
shrinkage, hunting and gathering became less
important, although household demand for forest
products remained. As availability of resources
dwindled, bartering for locally unavailable resources
increased correspondingly (Pinthong 1991).
The beginning of commercial farming
For almost two decades, there have been a lot of
changes in agricultural production in tandem with the
development process in response to export demand
and changes in natural resource endowment (NESDB
1987, Wright 1991). Although changes in field crops
occurred, rice remained the predominant crop in
lowland areas. The area under rice remained as high
as 5 million ha, with production above 7 million t. A
recent change in rice planting can be found in the
higher proportion of nonglutinous rice in total rice

70
produced. The area under nonglutinous rice has
expanded, whereas that under glutinous rice has
remained much the same. This caused the share of
rice area under glutinous varieties to drop to 48% in
1996. This was a response to market demand since
nonglutinous rice has a wider international market. A
comparison of glutinous rice production with the
growing population in the region indicates reduced
per capita glutinous rice available for the northeastern
population.
The area planted to kenaf dropped to only about
70,000 ha, whereas cassava remained high at 759,162
ha. The slight decline in cassava planted area was
replaced by sugarcane in response to the increase in
sugar factories. It is important to note that cassava
production remained as high as 10.5 million t despite
a decline in area. The use of chemical fertilizer and
improved varieties of cassava helped maintain
cassava production. Other crops also gained impor-
tance for cash earnings, such as shallot, garlic, and
other vegetables. Livestock production changed from
small herding of each farm to a more confined pasture
ranch. The drop in the number of buffaloes occurred
mainly because farmers increasingly adopted two-
wheel tractors for land preparation.
Although livestock numbers in the region
increased over time, the rate of increase varied by
type of livestock. During this phase, the number of
buffaloes declined by 25% compared to the previous
phase despite an increasing number of farm house-
holds (Table 4). This is due to the more widespread
adoption of the power tiller. Many farmers therefore
found it hard to keep small herds of buffaloes.
However, some households could keep buffaloes and
tended to build up larger herds. It is important to note
that cattle, pig, and poultry numbers had been
increasing, especially chickens and ducks, because of
contract farming to produce broilers.
A drastic decrease in forest area in the northeast
has negative effects on the supply of forest products
while demand expands. However, many villages have
limited access to other resources but still have some
access to natural forests, and are mainly engaged in
Table 4. Livestock In Northeast Thailand, unit: head.
Type of animal 1969 1985 1995
Water buffalo 655,921 4,428,732 3,213,215
Cattle 527,571 1,726,261 2,686,326
Pigs 563,792 1,093,387 1,291,623
Poultry 21,694,760 28,981,074 39,689,143
Source: 1969 data were based on the National Statistics Office as
cited in Donner (1978), p 145-153.
collecting forest products for sale (Dixon 1978).
Recently, some localized expansion of homegrown
herbal medicine took place at a small commercial
scale. This activity could indirectly reduce natural
resource degradation and land-use pressure in natural
forests (Theerasasawat and Srisontisuk 1986).
Bartering for locally unavailable resources was still
practiced using rice as the main commodity for
exchange. Most farmers still believe that bartering is
one way to support others who do not have enough
rice for household consumption. Therefore, bartering
with rice at a small scale continues to occur despite
the full development of rice marketing and commer-
cial farming in the area.
Dairy farming is one enterprise that has been
promoted by the government under the farm-restruc-
turing program of 1993. As a result, more than 30,000
dairy cows (10% of the total cows in the country) are
raised in the Basin, compared with none during the
subsistence phase. Dairy farming needs intensive care
and technical training and requires that farmers
operate through a cooperative system for economies
of scale (Suphanchaimat 1997). The enterprise brings
opportunities for farmers to manage pasture and
animal health and experiment on feed substitutes and
general farm sanitation.
Another fascinating change was the rapid
increase in farm ponds in the Basin following the
government farm-restructuring program. During
1994-96, more than 65,000 farm ponds were con-
structed in the region (OAE 1997). Water from farm
ponds is used not only to supplement rainy-season
rice production but also to help improve the local
food supply and increase the prevalence of mixed
farming. Vegetable growing, fruit tree production,
some inland fisheries, and native chicken rearing are
the usual combined enterprises around the ponds.
These small-scale production units help provide
household food and small cash income in addition to
supporting mutual cooperation among farmers.
This phase also saw substantial movement of
labor between agriculture and other sectors. Migra-
tion in the past was mainly confined to middle-aged
men. Nowadays, both male and female young workers
are attracted away from farming because of better
income opportunities in the industrial and service
sectors (Ritcher et al 1997, Prapertchob et al 1993).
Many migrants went as couples, leaving their children
with the grandparents, and only a small percentage of
migrants came back to help with rice cultivation. A
study by Bon (1998) showed that labor migration was
prevalent even within irrigated areas because of low
cropping intensity, About one-third of the households
71
had at least one member who had migrated. Not all
migrants send money home, but, for those who do,
the remittances average US$500 per year. Although
this amount is not high, it does provide the family
with cash for daily expenses. Circular migration
seems to be one strategy to reduce risk and to
maintain farming under unfavorable conditions,
Labor migration drives up agricultural wages and
makes it difficult for farmers to exchange labor.
Therefore, wage employment in farming gradually
replaces the traditional practice of labor exchange in
the Basin.
Factors affecting changes
and development
Since the beginning of the Korat Basin development,
various government programs and external driving
forces have interacted and led to the changes in land
use described above. These main factors follow.
Transportation and communication
An early development was the railroad system,
constructed in the early 1900s, which helped facilitate
transportation and communication to the northeast.
This development created localized development
around the stations along railway lines. Early extrac-
tions from forest resources were timber for railway
sleepers and firewood for engine boilers (Lovelace
and Panya 1988). Timber was extracted under
concession to logging companies. Tracks to gain
access to forest areas were constructed to transport
forest products to the railways. Farmers used this
improved access to expand their hunting and gather-
ing using ox-drawn carts.
A later development was a big expansion of main
roads and feeder roads in the region for both security
and economic purposes (NESDB 1987). This
catalyzed the expansion of the export marketing
system for rice and kenaf. With improved public road
transportation, local people could also travel farther
for hunting and gathering. This prompted a gradual
migration of the population to suitable locations and
the emergence of new settlements. The preferred sites
for new settlements were areas with both suitable
lowlands for rice production and some type of “rich”
environment (Rambo 1991). The increased mobility
of farmers was also caused by improved security and
preventive medicine. This expansion had a large
effect on resource use and market integration. Forest
area dwindled dramatically after road expansion
(Pinthong 1991). On the other hand, later develop-
ment of village roads to facilitate communication and
72
transportation did not have a direct effect on resource
use. However, because of these changes, farmers
needed to generate more cash from existing resources
to meet a growing demand for modern consumer
goods. Modes of private transportation changed from
bicycles to motorcycles and then to agricultural
trucks. Local transportation later improved as pickup
trucks and larger ones became used when off-farm
activity increased during the past 10 years. This
period is associated with industrial development in
Thailand (Wright 1991). The access of rural dwellers
to transportation is now comparable with that of city
dwellers. Both private and public transportation
facilities exist; therefore, land use in the region is not
limited by the physical context but rather by social
and cultural contexts.
After the mid-1990s, the government was able to
extend better telecommunication systems to rural
areas. The availability of telecommunication facilities
in rural areas, including mobile phones, is an impor-
tant development that could have leverage on market
conditions in the northeast. Nowadays, crop prices,
purchase orders, and production can be monitored
through telecommunication systems. With well-
developed transportation and communication
systems, the land-use pattern in the northeast can
probably respond promptly to global market needs.
The Common Agricultural Policy of the
European Union
Because of the linkage between international market
demand and food and fiber production of the people
in the Korat Basin, any changes in policies of trading
partners have repercussions on rural producers. Up
until now, northeastern farmers have been highly
dependent on trading primary agricultural goods with
the outside world. Therefore, it is important to review
the policies in agricultural trade of the EU, the largest
importer of Thai cassava.
Prior to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),
the EU produced and used three important grains:
wheat, barley, and maize. It was estimated that each
year the EU would need around 230 million t of
grain, or about 80% of domestic production. Because
of a grain supply shortage, the CAP began to subsi-
dize farmers in the EU in 1962 through internal grain
price supports. As a result, wheat and barley prices
became higher relative to those of other feed substi-
tutes (EC 1996). After the CAP, livestock-producing
countries of the EU had to import maize and soybean
cake as protein substitutes and cassava and molasses
as carbohydrate substitutes, The import of Thai
cassava in the form of pellets gradually increased
over time. For example, in 1988, the export volume
of cassava pellets to the EU reached 9 million t,
which was equivalent to 20 million t of fresh roots,
before it dropped to 4 million t in 1997. In response
to this high demand for cassava, northeastern farmers
expanded cassava planting from 10,000 ha in 1969 to
almost one million ha by the mid-1980s, before
production started to decline in the mid-1990s. After
the grain price subsidization, the EU countries were
able to produce 120% of their domestic grain
demand. This progress brought new problems. First,
there was an overburden on the EU budget to support
the aid schemes. Second, there was a gap between the
kind of products available and what consumers
wanted. Over time, the steady increase in the grain
stock forced the EU to export its surplus at a low
price, which triggered a global trade war (EC 1996).
Finally, in 1992, the EU, or European Community at
the time, decided to reform the CAP to adjust
agricultural supply by promoting the rational use of
land for environmental protection. The reform
included cutting back the cereal price guarantee by
29%, a 15% reduction in planted area, and a reduc-
tion in export grain subsidies by 30% over 6 years.
The new CAP was fully implemented in the mid-
1990s to bring down the grain supply to be in line
with demand. Following this reform, the export
volume of Thai cassava gradually declined from 8 to
4.5 million tin recent years. Agricultural statistics
showed that area planted to cassava in the Basin
diminished correspondingly from the mid- 1990s
onward. By then, farmers were already acquainted
with planting this crop. Hence, when the cassave
price increased because of devaluation of the baht, a
sudden increase in cassava area took place although
cassava was highly susceptible to marketing risk.
Irrigation improvement
The Northeast Region is known to suffer from either
flood or drought because of unpredictable and
uncontrolled surface water. Realizing this problem,
the government developed water control systems as
early as the 1950s (Donner 1978). The early develop-
ment was in the construction of hydroelectric dams to
generate electricity and supply water for agriculture.
By 1970, 11 large irrigation projects covering nearly
300,000 ha had been completed or were under
construction. However, the topography of the
Northeast Region restricts large dam construction to
the limited hilly or mountainous areas. Therefore,
diversion weirs were developed on the plains. Tank
irrigation is another popular strategy as it requires a
shorter time for construction and lower capital
investment. This system consists of a simple earth
dam that blocks and collects rainwater from the
adjoining slope. This water drains into a canal. The
irrigated area varies according to the amount of water
stored. To benefit from this system, farmers have to
become members of the water user group and manage
the system themselves. This irrigation technique
became widespread throughout the Basin and covered
more than 100,000 ha in the early 1970s. A more
recent irrigation technique is the use of electric pumps
to lift water from the rivers. All these irrigation
systems together provided water for dry-season
cropping of more than 1 million ha by 1996 (Table l),
enabling farmers to grow two rice crops or a greater
diversity of vegetable crops, raise fish, or combina-
tions of these activities. Although most of the
irrigation facilities in Thailand are provided by the
central government, water charge systems have never
been seriously discussed. The experience of water
payment can only be drawn from the pump irrigation
system, whereby farmers pay for the cost of electric-
ity.
Industrial boom during the mid-1980s
to 1990s
After the Northeast Region was opened to the world
market, Thailand became a major food and fiber
exporter through area expansion. The gross domestic
product contributed by agriculture was more than
32% in the 1960s, but it dropped to 14% by the mid-
1990s (Nipon 1996). This raised the question as to
whether the agricultural sector could maintain its
importance in the national economy. The decline in
agriculture's share in the GDP was due to two main
reasons. First, the land had reached its frontier and
the sharp fall in agricultural prices during the 1980s
was a disincentive for farmers to remain in farming.
Second was the rapid industrial development in
Thailand following the worldwide economic recovery
in the mid-1980s. Japan began to liberalize its
financial sector, enabling Japanese capital to pour
into Asia in search of higher returns (Muall 1999). In
addition was a need for the existing industrial
countries to reduce production costs by relocating
labor-intensive industries to countries with cheap
labor such as Thailand. This coincided with the
government emphasis on an industrial export program
by providing tax exemptions for imported inputs and
tax refunds for domestic inputs (Teerana 1990).
Consequently, massive flows of direct foreign
investment into Thailand occurred in the industrial,
trading, and real estate sectors. The industrial boom
also led to high labor migration from the farming to
nonfarm sector. Because of the negative expectation
of agricultural potential, the farm-restructuring
program was launched during 1994-96. This program
73
aimed to restrain farmers from growing cassava and
dry-season rice and from planting rice in unsuitable
areas. Alternatives proposed by the program were
dairy farming, mixed farming, vegetable growing,
orchards, and woodlot plantations. In the northeast,
the project had some success in mixed farming and
dairy farming. By the end of the project, more than
65,000 farm ponds, or 60% of the total, had been
constructed (OAE 1997).
Increasing demand for modern consumer
goods
One main social factor affecting land-use changes is
the modernization of the village lifestyle. Some small
changes were reported in the older days, such as
improvements in small, simple agricultural tools
usually made locally, such as hoes, axes, and knives
(Natsupa 1985, Theerasasawat 1988). The advent of
better implements, such as the saw and the iron plow,
did change some agricultural practices, but not clearly
for land-use patterns. An early demand for cash was
probably related to the introduction of the corrugated
iron roof about 40 years ago to replace thatched
grass. This demand was met mainly from forest
extraction or seasonal migration (Chamraspanth et al
1992). One important farm tool is the manual pump
or motor-drawn pump. This tool was a local innova-
tion to improve the efficiency of rice and dry-season
crop production. However, some farmers pointed out
that the depletion of fish stocks in natural water
resources was caused by the use of the water pump.
Another small agricultural tool adopted later was the
manual sprayer, which had less effect on land-use
changes (Ruaysoongnern 1998).
Over the past two decades, farmers have used
chemical fertilizers widely for both lowland and
upland crop production (Takai 1985, Theerasasawat
1988) mainly because of upland soil degradation from
prolonged planting and the adoption of high-yielding
rice varieties. At the same time, the use of tractors
expanded, enabling farmers to do early planting and
to farm on less suitable land. Early adoption of two-
wheel tractors caused a decline in buffalo numbers.
This led to a modification of land and labor use and
cultivation practices and affected nutrient trow in
agroecosystems of the Basin. Some farmers even
integrated the use of the two-wheel tractor with the
portable pump, or attached a trailer to the tractor to
transport materials. As a result, farmers had more free
time for off-farm activities such as working as hired
labor on neighboring farms. Land not used anymore
for animal grazing was used for crop cultivation
instead. However, some richer farmers with ample
land and capital were able to increase their livestock.
74
During the 1980s, average farmers could increase the
value of their small herds by raising improved breeds.
The popular improved breed at the time was known
as Hindu Brazil, which was double the size of the
local breeds. Because of the relatively high invest-
ment required for the fancy breed, farmers had to give
much attention to animal care. Unfortunately, most
farmers lost large amounts of investment in this
enterprise when the cattle price dropped suddenly in
the late 1980s, probably because of an oversupply
(Ruaysoongnern 1993).
With improved road infrastructure over the past
15 years, there has been widespread adoption of the
agricultural truck “E-TAN” for multiple purposes: for
pumping and for transporting people and goods. Such
an innovative adaptation can be considered as
“mechanization development” of the rural farming
system. This creates an opportunity for farmers to
adjust to more advanced machines such as the big
tractor, threshing machines, and even harvesting
machines (Theerasasawat 1988). Expensive farm
equipment is generally deployed in contracting
systems.
During the past 20 years, rural electrification has
also expanded rapidly into every village. This, and a
change in attitude resulting from off-farm migration,
resulted in domestic modernization, including the use
of electrical appliances such as rice cookers, the
refrigerator, and radio and television and also the use
of cooking gas. This modernization has the effect of
improving the living conditions of rural households
rather than improving production activities. To some
extent, cooking gas and the electric rice cooker
reduced the demand for firewood for cooking
(Lovelace and Panya 1988). In addition, health care
improvements, especially the extensive eradication of
malaria, allowed farmers to use resources with fewer
limitations. As such, resource use for cash and the
degree of resource exploitation consequently ex-
panded (Pinthong 1991).
Implications of changing land-use
patterns for economic development
In the past, farmers who opened up into the forest
areas for agriculture adopted low-input production
systems carried over from their ancestors, without any
attempt at soil improvement for a prolonged time.
This attitude prevailed for as long as there were new
lands to be cleared. This kind of practice is consid-
ered as low-input and destructive to forest ecology
(Theerasasawat 1988). However, if we consider the
self-reliance farming systems without much trading
and limited access to modern farm tools as in the old
days, we could imagine that farmers would only be
able to clear as much land as their labor resources
could manage. Without modern, labor-saving machin-
ery such as large tractors for land clearing, rapid
deforestation by local farmers would not be possible.
The development of transportation infrastructure was
an important factor in the expansion of land clearing.
In addition, low product prices constrained farmers
from using soil improvement materials. Therefore,
despite declining soil fertility and land degradation,
farmers still used relatively low or nil application of
soil amendments. If this trend continues, severe soil
and land degradation will continue to occur.
During the past 15 years, industrial development
has had a large influence on every economic sector in
Thailand. It has diverted production resources to
support such a shift. The agroindustrial sector creates
a demand for agricultural products to support
upstream industries. Various marketing systems have
been developed for these purposes, including contract
farming, in addition to the existing open market.
Promotion has largely changed the types of crops
grown from conventional to exotic crops (Fukui
1993). These changes have had both negative effects
such as pollution by agricultural chemicals and
positive effects such as improving the nutrient status
of the nearly depleted soils by increased fertilizer
application. There needs to be more systematic
evaluation of these effects through long-term studies.
As a consequence of industrial development,
there has been a greater demand for labor for the
various industries, at the expense of draining the
agricultural labor force. Many industries such as
construction, textiles, and canning require unskilled
labor and target farm workers. If circular migration
has been practiced, we could anticipate the creation
of a temporary labor force and farm productivity
could be sustained. But rural workers leave their
farms for long-term employment without skill
improvement, while not having the opportunity to
gather traditional knowledge on farming, especially
on proper land management, thus jeopardizing their
future welfare. This is evidenced by the massive
layoff of workers from the rural areas from many
industries during the recent economic crisis of the late
1990s. Many retrenched workers were not able to go
back to farming effectively because of a lack of
experience. In addition, the high income disparity
between farm and off-farm employment during the
industrial boom is a disincentive for farmers to
improve their agricultural enterprise. Besides, labor
for some farms became quite scarce and traditional
labor exchange mechanisms within the community
had practically disappeared. The combination of all
these factors led many farmers to sell their land.
Although there are no specific data to support this
supposition, empirical field observations suggest that
a higher proportion of land has now come under
absentee landlordship, and there seems to be an
increase in farm tenancy. It would be expected that,
under such uncertain circumstances of tenancy, there
would be less concern over longer-term soil improve-
ment. In this respect, the economic crisis in the past
two years provides an opportunity for the system to
adjust itself and helps slow down land speculation
before more farmers in the Basin become landless
workers.
It is important to note that the prevailing attitude
is that education is a ladder for social mobility and
economic improvement. To provide for their
children's education, farmers strive to generate more
income. This can have both positive and negative
effects on the land-use pattern and deployment of
resources (Fukui 1993). On the one hand, farmers
would want to pay more attention to increasing
production, but, on the other hand, expenditures on
education constitute a drain on their resources. This
could be considered as a temporary situation in the
transition for social change. As the existing education
system mainly focuses on continuing studies, students
who drop out may not be motivated to do agricultural
labor. In such cases, there could be double losses for
the family, which would later face higher pressure on
the deployment of existing resources.
Finally, the upcoming free trade agreement, if
ratified, would bring tremendous changes to the
northeast. With the lifting of market distortions and
trade barriers, one would expect more intensive rice
cultivation and reduced area planted to cassava, but
increased planting of sugarcane and an increase in
livestock raising and mixed farming. All these
enterprises will operate under greater market integra-
tion.
Conclusions
From this discussion, it can be concluded that land-
use patterns in the Korat Basin were well integrated
within the sociocultural and economic context of the
existing physical and biological conditions and were
responsive to macroeconomic shifts. Early land-use
changes were minimal, except for the opening up of
forest areas following the development of transporta-
tion systems. Major infrastructure improvement in the
Basin was accomplished during the 1960s and '70s.
Most land was cleared for cassava cultivation in
75
response to high exports. Farming during this period
had become partly subsistence, with rice being an
important staple crop and cassava the major cash
crop. The industrial boom from the mid- 1980s to
1990s brought about substantial land-use changes in
the northeast. The demand for off-farm labor drew
upon the rural labor traditionally engaged in farming.
The expansion in domestic food and fiber demand
and promotion of industrial crops to rural areas all
contributed to more commercial crops and an
increased use of modern agricultural machinery.
Nevertheless, rice cultivation has remained essen-
tially traditional except for improved water manage-
ment through electric pumping systems and the
change from transplanting to the direct-seeding
method of crop establishment. The government’s
farm-restructuring program, which started around the
early 1990s, also facilitated commercialized farming,
such as integrated farms and dairy enterprises.
Contract farming for seed production and broiler
production also expanded through promotion by
private investors. Continued changes in land use are
likely to occur, with the anticipation of a decline in
the export demand for cassava and increasing
demand for sugarcane to support the existing sugar
refineries. On the other hand, the increasing number
of farm ponds would not only help improve ecosys-
tems but would also provide an increasing number of
small-scale production units in the Korat Basin. From
this review, it may be concluded that farmers in the
Basin have been adapting their land use in response
to various external factors, namely, government
policies, macroeconomic shifts, and market respon-
siveness.
In conclusion, the changes in land-use patterns in
the Basin occurred rapidly over the past three
decades. The provision of water, especially during
the dry season, the buildup of soil fertility, and
reforestation are essential for sustaining agricultural
development. Despite good intentions and strong
support from the government, farmers in the Basin
have not been encouraged to be involved in land-use
planning, let alone social and economic decisions.
With the current political reform and decentralization
program, it is hoped that farmers will be more
involved in land-use planning to cope with global
competitiveness. Most of all, it is hoped that the
people can maintain food security while competing
with the world market.
76
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77
 The Korat Basin has about 15.5 million people and people’s ways of life through modernization and
living in 3,130,422 households within 22,952 technological transfer. The development approach
villages, with the share of the female population being used during this period could be characterized as a
slightly larger than that of the male. Eight out of centralized and top-down approach with an aim to
twelve provinces located in the Korat Basin have transform traditional communities into modern
more than one million inhabitants. Nakhon communities according to the objectives of the
Ratchasima has the largest population in the basin, national socioeconomic development plan. Room for
whereas Amnatcharoen Province has the smallest. people’s participation in development was very
The population in the provinces located in the Chi limited because of the undemocratic power structure
River watershed is smaller than that of the provinces of the society. State policy seemed to be the center of
located in the Mun River watershed area (Tables 1 national development. The second part of the
and 2). development process (1981 to present) has changed
the focus and strategies of development toward a
Table 1. Population of the provinces in the Korat Basin people-centered type of development. Popular
by sex in 1998.
participation and bottom-up approaches have become
Province Population Male Female major characteristics of the development strategy
during this period as the power structure changed
Chaiyaphum 1,124,447 561,837 562,010
Nakhon Ratchasima 2,534,287 1,259,424 1,274,803
toward a more democratic political system. Local
Buriram 1,513,889 756,573 757,316 people became the development actors rather than the
Surin 1,382,274 690,744 691,530 target of development, Community culture and quality
Mahasarakham 936,490 406,374 470,116
Kalasin 982,951 491,314 491,037
sf life are the main focus of development activities,
Yasothon 553,794 278,109 275,685 including among the northeastern rural communities
Rol Et 1,321,035 611,211 659,824 and those in the Karat Basin. This means that
Sisaket 1,440,845 720,406 720,541
Amnatcharoen 304,321 183,096 181,225
development activities have to be implemented
Ubon Ratchathani 1,754,910 880,329 874,581 consistently with the community culture. Academic
Khon Kaen 1,730,532 869,006 869,526 institutions and nongovernmental organizations have
TotaI 15,647,775 7,768,423 7,829,454
emphasized four major elements of community
Source: Central Registry Office, Ministry of Interior. culture: village history, local wisdom, community
leadership, and community organizations and
Table 2. Number of districts, subdistricts, villages, and networks. The application of the community culture
households in the provinces of the Korat Basin in 1998.
approach in development reflects the idea of develop-
Province Districts Subdistricts Villages Households ment agencies that local communities are not “empty”
and “backward” but that they are full of knowledge
Chaiyaphum 16 124 1,376 225,294
3,375 572,162
and cohesiveness, which enhance their capability to
Nakhon Ratchasima 32 289
Buriram 23 188 2,392 293,292 determine the goal of local development and the ways
Surin 17 158 2,001 271,467 to achieve it. This development approach has
Mahasarakham 13 133 1,826 180,670
18 134 1,474 198,100
contributed significantly to the empowerment of local
Kalasin
Yasothon 9 78 830 100,566 people.
Roi Et 20 193 2,280 222,540
Sisaket 22 204 2,324 267,167
7 56 573 65,694
Village history
Amnatcharoen
Ubon Ratchathani 25 219 2,422 344,756 Each rural community has its own history and
Khon Kaen 25 198 2,079 388,714 characteristics that development workers have to
Total 227 1,974 22,952 3,130,422
realize and understand. Village history provides a
Source: Ministry of interior. multidimensional analysis of changes that took place
from the village settlement period up to the present.
The analysis may cover changes in the management
Community culture as a development of natural resources, sociocultural aspects, and
approach for strengthening the economic and political transformations of a village.
capability of local people This information helps villagers and development
workers to recognize the potential of local people to
The process of development in Thailand under the solve problems and adjust themselves to changing
national socioeconomic development plan can be environmental conditions. Therefore, lessons can be
divided into two periods. The first period (1961 to drawn from village history so that an appropriate
1980) emphasized the improvement of infrastructure development plan can be formulated.

80
over production activities but none over the other two
components. To strengthen their production capacity
and bargaining power, a community bank has to be
established to mobilize funds from the community
and provide loans to villagers. As far as the marketing
system is concerned, community markets, such as the
cattle, cassava, and kenaf markets, needed to be set
up. These could bring in traders to the community so
that villagers could save the cost of transportation for
sending their products to town, and they would have
more bargaining power in determining prices for their
products.
What has been learned fram these two cases of
Community leaders, Abbot Nan and Mr. Son, is that
community leaders contribute a lot to the well-being
of villagers by employing self-help, self-reliance, and
“thinking and doing together” principles.
Community organizatlons and networks
Community organizations may be established by
government agencies, NGOs, or villagers to perform
certain functions related to defined objectives.
Community leaders play significant roles in operating
community organizations by mobilizing human and
natural resources and by coordinating with the other
organizations concerned to realize the community
organization’s goals. A network of community
organizations that share common interests may be
formulated so that they can exchange ideas and
information, share resources in doing development
work, and learn development experiences from one
another. Community organizations and networks
found in the Korat Basin may be engaged in activities
related to natural resource management, agricultural
production, human rights, and participation in policy
formulation and political decision-making, such as the
community forestry network, farmer group network,
and women’s group network. Since the majority of
the people are engaged in agriculture, community
organizations and networks of farmer groups will be
discussed here.
To improve the agricultural production system,
farmers are encouraged to work in groups. This
facilitates the extension services provided to farmers
by development agencies. Members of a farmer group
can guarantee one another when applying for a loan
from the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural
Cooperatives (BAAC). In addition, by working as a
group, farmers increase their bargaining power when
dealing with development agencies and private
enterprises, More importantly, farmers benefit each
other through group activities, such as revolving
funds, brainstorming, farmer-to-farmer learning
processes, etc.
82
Some community organizations and networks
aim to improve socioeconomic conditions by organiz-
ing activities related to agricultural production
systems. Examples may include networks of the rice-
growing farmer group in Yasothon Province, the
cattle-raising group in Nakhon Ratchasima Province,
the Ponsai rice-growing farmer group in Roi Et
Province, and the integrated farming group in
Buriram Province.
To see how farmer groups work, a brief discus-
sion on the ideas and work of the Ponsai District
farmer group network is presented. This farmer group
network was formed in 1989 by four farmer groups in
Ponsai District, Roi Et Province, Having 1,532
member households of farmers growing aromatic
jasmine rice, the network produces 3,700 tons of
paddy per year in the Tung Kula Rang Hai area,
Having worked successfully in coping with problems
related to fertilizer prices and supplies, the network
shifted its focus to the marketing system for rice
production. Since the rice price and market are
beyond their control, farmers are usually disadvan-
taged. Some years they don’t gain any benefit from
rice farming because of the low purchasing price in
the rice market. Debts have been accumulated since
they don’t have enough cash to pay back their loans.
The leaders of the farmer group network had a
meeting and analyzed the situation. With the assis-
tance provided by GRID (Grass-Roots Integrated
Development), an NGO, and RDI (Research and
Development Institute, Khon Kaen University), a
solution was proposed. A community rice mill should
be set up so that the network could buy paddy from
the members, process it, and sell white rice directly to
consumers. This would generate benefits to both
farmers and rice consumers. Farmers would sell their
products at a higher price than the market price. At
the same time, consumers could purchase rice at a
lower price. This is because the role of the middlemen
in the marketing system, who usually took a large
portion of their benefits out of the rice trade, would
have been cut off. Benefits gained from rice mill
operations would be partly returned to members
based on the number of shares they hold, and be used
to cover the cost of rice-milling operations. The rice
mill started operations six years ago and the network
still maintains its position in the competition on the
rice market, in both Bangkok and other major cities.
The concept of community forest
The community forest is a concept showing the
relationship between the community and the forest in
the sense that community people must rely on forest
resources for their food, medicinal herbs, and wood
for energy and building their houses. When the forest
is destroyed, people’s needs are reduced, thus
affecting their way of life. Each community has
developed a set of mechanisms to manage forestry
use. For instance, some communities may set up a
committee or a conservation group to monitor
forestry use, whereas other communities may have a
belief system as a guideline for forest resource
management. This is because all communities have
their own economic, political, sacial, and cultural
structures that play an important part in stipulating the
relationships with and the use of the forest: for
example, the belief in ancestral spirits makes people
use the forest appropriately. Thus, the concept of
community forest discloses the roles of community
people in the management of forest use to meet their
needs. This agrees with the definition given by
Komon Praekthong (1990), which says that commu-
nity forestry is the management of the forest, which
forms its objective from the fact that people need to
rely on the forest and allows the beneficiaries to set
up a plan and monitor its implementation to bring
about continuous and regular benefits to the commu-
nity. FAO defines the community forest as follows:
the management of community forest will include all
forestry management activities involving local
people. These activities are the rehabilitation or
development of forest conditions in areas where wood
and other forest products are in short supply, or the
planting of perennials in crop fields. Community
forest could also mean the transformation of products
from the forest, as operated at a household level or as
a small-scale community industry. Private organiza-
tions dealing with social development and environ-
mental conservation explain community forest as the
conservation and development of forest resource use
by the community, for the utmost economic benefits
of the community, and to sustain the local ecological
system, which will be the foundation for various
economic benefits for the community in the long run.
The concept of community forestry is based on
the concept of decentralization of authority to a
people’s organization having power to manage its
own community forest. This sort of organization is
run by local people for their own general benefits. In
addition, the concept reflects the acceptance of the
community potential for managing the community
forest in common property. Although private indi-
viduals can make decisions on the use of their own
property, any decision on common property needs to
be approved by the different groups of people
responsible for that property. An individual usually
takes full advantage of common property only to
satisfy his or her needs. This has an impact on other
people’s benefits (Uphoff 1986). It is therefore
necessary for the community owning the common
property to establish certain social sanctions in
response to individual behaviors and to prohibit
overuse of that property to the extent that the others
might lose their advantages. These sanctions can be a
system of beliefs, local conventions, and regulations
such as those mentioned earlier. However, the local
management of community forest consists of three
elements: people’s participation, the community’s
social organization, and the creation of motivation,
Theoretically, popular participation is the
process in which people initiate activities. All people
have a right to express opinions and participate in
different activities so as to stipulate the way they
choose to live their own lives. The state supports
them as necessary, without monitoring their activi-
ties. Popular participation in the management of
community forest may begin from a brainstorming
session to detect the problems or needs of the
community as regards the forest, and is then followed
by planning implementation of activities and finally
the maintenance and use of the forest. Participation at
different stages, however, requires community
ordering and motivation.
The social organization of the community for the
management of the community forest may be
composed of different working units, from house-
holds, groups, and institutions and from the commu-
nity itself, all of which depend on the community’s
collective action. This collective action is viable only
through systematic community organization. Com-
munity organization is a process by which the
community stipulates the people’s needs and objec-
tives. Both external and internal resources are
compiled so as to achieve the objectives and meet the
needs of the community. It is expected that this
process will help develop the attitudes and collective
action of the community members (Mack and Pease
1973), that is to say, people with a common interest
usually work toward the benefits of the group as a
whole because each person is well aware that, when
he or she can make the group achieve common
benefits, his or her needs will also be satisfied. The
working units believe in customary laws, the laws
formally established by the group or community
organization, and the laws enacted by the state as the
means to manage community forest and to assemble
people in the community to participate in the
management of the community forest.
83
 As mentioned earlier, to assemble people to
participate in social forestry management, some sort
of motivation must be created to encourage the
community members to participate in various
activities. Each person must be motivated to become
enthusiastic and work toward the common objectives.
Motivation can be extrinsic, arising from external
incentives that move a person to act toward the goals.
These incentives may be something valuable in terms
of economics, for example, money, food, and clothes,
or noneconomic incentives such as a certificate of
merit, uniforms, or praise given in a meeting or
training. The second type of motivation is intrinsic,
which arises within oneself and urges one to act with
faith and love. Intrinsic motivation is more stable and
permanent than extrinsic motivation.
The three elements are very interdependent in the
management of community forests that calls for
people’s participation and aims for the common
benefit of the community. Broadly viewed, commu-
nity forest management of each community has an
impact on the natural environment of the society and
the world as a whole.
The management of community forest in
rural areas
Traditional management of community forest
through a system of beliefs
Traditional means of community forest management
depended on a system of beliefs that could have been
supernatural or based on religious practices. This
influenced people’s behavior in their relationship with
nature. Various types of beliefs enabled people to
appropriately use natural resources. However, when
times and social conditions changed, natural re-
sources were reduced, whereas people’s need for
them increased. Now, people have found that beliefs
alone are no longer sufficient for them to use natural
resources appropriately. Society must invent different
regulations to supplement these beliefs in managing
community forest. In this section, the influence of
beliefs in ghosts and the principles of practices in
Buddhism on community forest management is
presented.
The management of ancestors’ forest, in which
both the land and trees belong to and are for the
community’s benefit, has been done by community
people through their beliefs in ancestral and super-
natural spirits. These beliefs enabled people to order
the relationships among themselves and between them
and nature. The beliefs and the relationships between
people and the supernatural could be perceived by
84
looking at people’s rituals, led by “jam.” Acceptance
of supernatural power, in this case the ancestral
ghosts, affects the suitable stipulation of relationships
between the villagers and nature. Although they use
the ancestral forest in several ways, the forest itself
has become the villagers’ symbol of worship of their
ancestors. The ancestors have been psychological
supporters of the villagers in their search for solutions
to problems. When they are in trouble, the villagers
make a request to their ancestral ghosts, accompanied
by a vow promising an offering of thanks if that
request is granted. Apart from receiving benefits from
the forest as their mental supporter, the villagers rely
on the forest for their food, fuelwood, wood for
construction, and environmental conservation. Their
beliefs make them use the forest reasonably, with
consideration and respect for their ancestors whose
souls they believe are still in the forest. This has been
traditionally practiced for a long time. Any villager
seeking fuelwood or mushrooms for cooking, or trees
for public use, always makes a plea to the ancestral
spirits. This can be witnessed in the dry and tiny
branches of trees taken out from the forest for
cooking. The villagers believe that violation of
traditional practices will result in different kinds of
punishment. It can then be said that this type of belief
motivates the villagers in general to help maintain the
ancestors’ forest and use it appropriately.
Because society has changed because of the
increase in population, unfortunately, more and more
contacts are made between the villagers and the
outside world while urban society expands. The belief
in ancestral ghosts has become less important.
External institutions are taking more of a role in
managing the ancestors’ forest, especially forests
close to towns. This affects the forest one way or
another, even though the community still tries to
maintain the pattern of its beliefs. More trees are cut
and more are used from the forest for one’s own
advantage. This makes the influence of the belief in
the ghosts less important in the management of
community forest.
In terms of forest temples, the belief in Buddhism
of forest dwellers results in proper forest maintenance
by monks, so as to retain a peaceful and shady place
around the temple for their perseverance with
precepts and meditation, which are successful thanks
to the peace and quiet of the forest. Monks of this
doctrine often travel into forest land to find such a
place. It can then be seen that these beliefs and
Buddhism’s principles are in accordance with the
nature of the forest, where dharma (“give merit”) can
be well practiced. The practices of monks never
destroy the forest. On the contrary, they have a good
effect on forest conservation. Therefore, monks
derive benefits from their forest conservation, both
spiritually and through other things, such as the use of
wood for construction and the use of the forest for
herb gathering. Villagers are welcomed by these
monks to use forest resources. The management of
forest by a forest temple can be classified into two
aspects: the conservation of the former forest where
the temple is situated and the planting of more trees
around the temple. The monks usually lead the
villagers in planting and looking after the trees, They
use their faith in Buddhism and their belief in the
usefulness of trees to motivate the villagers to
contribute to the work. For themselves, the monks
have as their motivation their belief and faith in the
principles and practices of Buddhism to manage the
forest. Thus, the practices of these forest-dwelling
monks have an effect on forest conservation and are
examples of mutual interdependence between people
and nature.
Although environmental resources are decreas-
ing, the demand of communities for them is increas-
ing. Forest temples now receive pressure from such
demand of communities in the vicinity. It seems
obvious that the villagers will eventually acquire the
resources of the temples. Thus, forest temples adjust
their strategy in managing forest resources by
allowing villagers to use the forest, but without
destroying the resources. This strategy requires the
temples to call for participation from the villagers.
The villagers are asked to plant and maintain the trees
so that they can use the forest. Establishment of
regulations, understanding, and conventions between
the temple and the villagers cannot be avoided if
proper forest use is to be aimed at. Villagers’ partici-
pation and proper understanding save some temples
from having to build a fence around them to prevent
tree cutting. The villagers themselves are like a forest-
protecting fence, which costs nothing and is more
permanent than fencing materials. This “fence” stands
on a foundation of understanding, faith, and coordina-
tion of benefits from forest management.
The management of community forest
through social power
Another type of community forest management is
management that relies on the power of villagers as
the major mechanism in the planning, implementa-
tion, and maintenance of the forest. The goals of this
management are conservative and developmental,
However, notwithstanding whether it is for any
specific purpose, much community forest, which
should not be overlooked by authorities, should be
strongly supported, The management of community
forest by the power of the community is presented
here, with discussions of the management of forest for
conservation and for development purposes. To
illustrate the presentation, examples taken from field
case studies are given.
Management of community forest for conserva-
tion purposes. The management of the community
forest for this purpose arose from the villagers’
observation and perception of the deterioration and
reduction of the forest, to the point at which they
believed that their community should carry out
conservation practices to maintain the remaining
forest for the community in the future.
One good example of forest conservation is
located at Dong Jung Harn Forest, in Ban Non
Muang, Dong Ling Subdistrict, Kamalasai District,
Kalasin Province. A field study reveals that the
conserved forest area of Dong Jung Harn now covers
about 48 ha, serving the villagers from three villages.
In the past, many trees were cut down for wood for
construction of houses and temples. More impor-
tantly, a group of villagers invaded the forest to slash
and burn the land for a sugarcane plantation. In
addition, the villagers whose crop fields were
adjacent to the forest often expanded their fields into
the forest. However, when this problem was realized,
the villagers all agreed to conserve Dong Jung Harn
for younger generations to see the conditions of the
forest in the past. In their conservation implementa-
tion, the villagers stipulated a set of regulations to be
followed by all villagers; for example, no one can
invade the conserved area to use land and no one is
allowed to cut trees, collect resins, or burn the forest.
Villagers from the three villages are asked to guard
against violations, a case of which must be reported to
the village committee, which will consider the
punishment. If the case is not serious, the offender
will be warned. When the case is serious, for ex-
ample, cutting wood for sale or for personal use, the
committee will call the villagers to a meeting to ask
for a public resolution concerning punishment. Public
resolutions must be strictly followed; otherwise, the
committee will transfer the case to the district.
However, the committee usually asks for opinions
from a group of elders before a resolution is made.
This measure prevents the villagers from violating the
set regulations. Speaking with the villagers discloses
the fact that the villagers are afraid of being judged at
a meeting of so many people. Besides being ashamed,
the offender is also psychologically punished by
being disliked by friends and other people,
Nevertheless, the community does not aim to
maintain the forest to the point at which it cannot be
entered. On the contrary, the community allows the
85
villagers to use the forest of Dong Jung Harn within
the set regulations. Villagers can collect mushrooms
and find fuelwood, herbs, and forest items for their
consumption. They can also let their cattle graze on
the forest land if they wish. In addition, the village
committee may decide to cut down some trees in the
forest for certain common and useful purposes for the
village, such as repairing the temple’s pavillion, the
child development center, the village hall, or the
village newspaper stall. The villagers all hold the
concept of cutting trees only when necessary. It is
delightful to learn that the village committee has
decided with the villagers to plant more trees in the
conserved area, aiming at those species that are useful
as materials and food sources, for example, bamboo,
neem tree (Azadirachta indica), cassia (Cassia
siamea), olive (Spondias pinnata), and Leguminosae.
This community has considered the stability of the
forest in the long run and understands clearly how
forest conservation will bring benefits to people’s
well-being.
Management of community forest for develop-
ment purposes. Besides the conservative management
of community forest, the community also manages its
forest on the basis of development purposes. This
type of management calls for the establishment of a
community forest committee as the essential mecha-
nism in creating community forest, a tool leading to
community development or the development of the
villagers’ quality of life. This means that community
forest is one method of community development. This
type of community forest management can be seen at
Khok Pi Ba, Ban Lao Subdistrict, Kosoompisai
District, Mahasarakham Province. Here, villagers
from the three villages of the subdistrict, Ban Yang
Sinchai, Ban Nong Hard, and Ban Don Kloy, joined
together to grow a forest in a public area of about 80
ha at Khok Pi Ba, with support from the Department
of Forestry, in 1982. The majority of the trees grown
were eucalyptus trees and other fast-growing species.
The purposes were to produce fuelwood and to sell
eucalyptus logs. The villages set up a community
forest committee and appointed representatives of all
three villages as members. The members are respon-
sible for maintaining the created forest by building a
fire-protecting fence, replacing dying trees with new
ones, destroying weeds, setting up regulations
concerning the use of social forest, and sharing
benefits from selling eucalyptus wood. The commu-
nity forest management of the committee has been
quite successful. Eucalyptus trees have been cut for
sale many times. The money has been shared among
the three villages to establish a village development
86
fund. Loans may be taken out of this fund by villagers
in need of investment money at a low interest rate, or
money may be used to purchase fertilizers, which are
in turn sold to the villagers at a low cost. Sometimes
villagers borrow the money to build latrines. The
head of a “khum” (a group of houses) first screens the
applicants and finally the committee approves the
loan. It is evident that the community has an ability to
manage its own community forest and to use the
forest as a method to develop the village and the
quality of life of the villagers. This means that the
community has integrated community forest activities
into its developmental process. Considering long-term
development, it can be seen that this committee has
sufficient potential to pursue the management of the
community forest in a sustainable way for the
common good. The establishment of a village
development fund with the revenues of wood sales
and the regulations for administering the fund indicate
that the fund can satisfy the needs of the villagers and
is growing, bringing about long-term benefits to the
villagers. More importantly, this type of management
is actually based on mutual assistance among the
villagers.
Conclusions
The population of the Korat Basin represents a larger
portion of the total population of the Northeast
Region than that of the Sakornakorn Basin. Three
main ethnic groups live in the basin: the Laotian,
Khmer, and Korat. To empower local people, changes
in both the ways of thinking of development workers
and approaches used are necessary. Bottom-up
approaches have been proved by several studies to be
appropriate for realizing people’s potential. The
community culture and community forestry ap-
proaches have been applied in many areas of develop-
ment activities, such as economic development,
human resource development, and forest resource
management. Several case studies demonstrate that
local people are capable of doing development work
if provided with opportunities and support from the
development agencies involved. Two important
lessons have been learned from the application of
these two approaches:
1, Development work or community organizations
initiated with the full participation of local
people seem to be sustainable and beneficial to
their livelihood.
2. Going back to the community roots, village
history, local wisdom, community leadership, and
 organizations and networks can increase Viyouth C et al. 1990. Community forests managed by
villagers’ self-confidence in determining the local organizations. Khon Kaen (Thailand): Social
direction of local development based on their Forestry Research Project, Khon Kaen University.
Yaowalak A et al. 1999. Learning patterns related to Thai
needs, knowledge, and experience.
rural community in the northeastern region. Khon
Kaen (Thailand): Faculty of Humanities and Social
Sciences, Khon Kaen University.
References

Komon P. MPP. 1990. Concepts of community forest in

Notes
Thailand community forest. Bangkok (Thailand):
Thailand Agricultural Cooperative Assembly Press
Author’s address: Assistant Professor, Department of
Company Limited.
Sociology and Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities
Mack RW, Pease J. 1973. Sociology and social life. 5th ed.
and Social Sciences, Khon Kaen University.
New York, N.Y. (USA): D. Van Nostrand Company.
Sompan Techa-atig et al. 1994. Potentiality and network of
local leaders. Khon Kaen (Thailand): Research and
Development Institute, Khon Kaen University.
Uphoff N. 1986. Local institutional development: an
analysis sourcebook with case studies. West Hartford,
Conn. (USA): Kumarian Press.

87
Roles and activities of institutions in regional
development, with emphasis on agricultural
development
Kavi Chutikul

Agricultural development is an important component of northeast regional develop-

ment in Thailand. Many institutions, government and nongovernment, are involved.
Almost all of the ministries have a role, but the Ministry of Agriculture and Coopera-
tives, with offices at the regional, provincial, district, and subdistrict level, has a ma-
jor responsibility. Universities and institutions of higher learning have a significant
role in training and they provide considerable assistance in research and develop-
ment.
The government has long recognized the necessary role of the private sector in
agribusiness and agroindustry. A joint Public/Private Sector Consultative Committee
was set up to facilitate active participation by the private sector. In addition to the
national-level committee, regional and provincial committees were also established.
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in Thailand are diverse. They are clas-
sified into two major categories: foundations and associations. In terms of activities,
few are considered as development NGOs. Development NGOs have assisted the
government in regional development for many years but the scope of their work is
limited by the lack of resources. The Coordinating Committee for Rural Develop-
ment NGOs has a network of regional committees to promote development activi-
ties.
The government sector has a major role to play in providing infrastructure, tech-
nical support, and incentives. For income generation activities, the private sector,
with its network and business skills, should have a more active role. Businesses
should be partners in development. To mobilize resources from the public sector, the
private sector, and the communities, development NGOs have a strong potential to
act as catalysts and facilitators. The case of the Population and Community Devel-
opment Association is given as an example.
Sustainable regional development requires efficient management of resources
together with effective participation and cooperation of the people involved in the
process. For this to happen, the government should allow greater participation of
NGOs, the private sector, communities, and the people involved in regional devel-
opment. To link and provide effective communication between/among participating
institutions is a challenge for all.

Agricultural development, as an important component (1997-2001) included among its development

of regional development, is a complex process. It
involves many agencies, government and nongavern-
ment, and many people, The public sector, with many
ministries and state enterprises, has a leading role to
play. The private sector and nongovernment organiza-
tions (NGOs), however, could assist in regional
development and play a more active role. The Eighth
National Economic and Social Development Plan
strategies the promotion of popular participation in
development through the empowerment of commu-
nity organizations, the promotion of the role of the
private sector and NGOs in job creation, and the
empowerment of NGOs to play a greater role in
national development (National Economic and Social
Development Board 1996).

89
Public-sector institutions involved in
regional development
The Royal Thai Government organizational structure
comprises the Office of the Prime Minister and 14
ministries. In addition, there are 10 independent
public agencies and 60 state enterprises. At the
national level, the Office of the National Economic
and Social Development Board (NESDB), the Office
of the National Education Commission (NEC) under
the Office of the Prime Minister, and the National
Research Council of Thailand under the Ministry of
Science, Technology, and Energy are responsible for
overall policies and planning,
At the regional level, five ministries have major
roles in agricultural development: the Ministry of
Finance, the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of
Education, the Ministry of University Affairs, and the
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC),
The Ministry of Finance supervises the operution
of the Bank for Agriculture and Cooperatives
(BAAC), a state enterprise. BAAC has branches in all
provinces and mast of the districts in agricultural
areas. The Northeast Region has 21 provincial-level
branches, 141 district-level branches, and two central
farmer markets (BAAC 1997). BAAC is the major
source of agricultural credit, especially for small
farmers. In addition to providing credit, BAAC also
promotes and develops farmer institutions such as
agricultural cooperatives for marketing to be more
efficient in production and agribusiness.
Local administration in Thailand is under the
supervision of the Ministry of Interior, which is one
of the largest ministries. Provincial officers of every
ministry report to the governor of the province. The
provincial governor’s office is the main coordinating
center for rural and agricultural development activi-
ties. The Community Development Department and
the Office of Accelerated Rural Development in the
Ministry of Interior are also involved in infrastructure
development, income generation, and agricultural
development down to the village level.
The Ministry of Education, with extensive
networks of schools, institutes, and colleges, has an
important role in training. Agricultural subjects are
included in the curricula, from primary level to
tertiary level, in the formal and nonformal system. In
the northeast, curricula at the tertiary level in agricul-
ture and related areas are offered at the five campuses
of the Rajamangala Institute of Technology, 11
Agricultural and Technology Colleges, and 13
Rajabhat Institutes. These institutions also carry out
some research and development in agriculture,
especially the Rajamangala Institute of Technology.
90
In addition, the Department of Vocational Education
has established 48 Industrial and Community Educa-
tion Colleges in the Northeast Region offering
certificate-level vocational courses, including ones in
agriculture (Department of Vocational Education
1997).
Currently, public and private universities in
Thailand are under the supervision of the Ministry of
University Affairs. The following campuses estab-
lished in the northeast offer undergraduate and
graduate courses in agriculture and related areas:
Suranaree University of Technology in Nakhon
Ratchasima, Khon Kaen University in Khon Kaen,
Ubon Ratchathani University in Ubon Ratchathani,
Mahasarakham University in Maha Sarakham and
Nakhan Phanom, and Kasetsart University in Sakhon
Nakhon.
The only private university in the northeast does
not offer courses in agriculture.
A considerable amount of research work is
carried out at these universities with support from
various sources such as the Budget Bureau, the
Thailand Research Fund, and foreign agencies. Some
of the research programs are collaborative efforts
involving universities and departments of the MOAC.
Regional universities have significant high-level
manpower in many disciplines that is presently
underused. Except for occasional consultation and
training courses for farmers, universities and colleges
are not very active in extension work.
As a part of recent educational reform, a new
National Education Act of 1999 was introduced on 14
August 1999. Under this act, the Ministry of Educa-
tion and the Ministry of University Affairs will be
combined within three years into a new Ministry of
Education, Religion, and Culture. Public universities
will become independent public agencies outside of
the civil service system.
The MOAC is the principal ministry responsible
for agricultural research and extension. The Ministry
organization consists of four offices and nine depart-
ments (Table 1). A new institute, the Natural Re-
sources and Biodiversity Institute, has been estab-
lished internally to coordinate the work of four
departments within the Ministry in the area of natural
resource management. The MOAC is now in the
process of restructuring its organizational structure.
The MOAC has recently adjusted the Agricul-
tural Development Plan within the Eighth National
Economic and Social Development Plan to fit in with
the new structure of agricultural production and to
improve the efficiency of natural resource and
environmental management (Office of Agricultural
Economics 1999). The seven areas of activities that
Table 1. Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives (MOAC).
Office of the Secretary to the Minister
Office of the Permanent Secretary
Royal Irrigation Department
Department of Cooperative Auditing
Department of Fisheries
Department of Livestock Development
Royal Forestry Department
Land Development Department
Department of Agriculture
Department of Agricultural Extension
Cooperatives Promotion Department
Agricultural Land Reform Office
Office of Agricultural Economics
Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute
State enterprises
Forestry Industry Organization
Rubber Estate Organization
Fish Marketing Organization
Government Cold Storage Organization
Dairy Farming Promotion Organization of Thailand
Office of the Rubber Replanting Aid Fund
Thai Plywood Co., Ltd.
Marketing Organization for Farmers
Source: MOAC Web site: http:www.moac.go.th.
receive utmost attention are management of land for
farming and natural resource conservation, agricul-
tural zoning, improving production efficiency in
irrigated areas, research and development and
technology transfer, postharvest management and
marketing, marine fisheries, and subsistence agricul-
ture.
Overall coordination within the Ministry is the
responsibility of the Office of the Permanent Secre-
tary, who is the head of all civil servants and has the
overall administrative control of all the departments
and offices in the Ministry. The Provincial Agriculture
and Cooperatives Officers, who coordinate the works
of provincial officers of various departments of the
MOAC in each province, report to this Office.
The Department of Agriculture (DOA), MOAC,
is responsible €or research for annual and perennial
craps and regulatory services. Research activities
range from farming systems, plant breeding, and
cultural practices to plant protection, sail fertility,
farm machinery, foundation seed production, and
postharvest technology. The DOA has four adminis-
trative support divisions, one regulatory service
division, seven technical service divisions, five
research institutes, and eight regional agricultural
research and development offices. The DOA has set
up several internal institutes and centers: Natural
Products Research and Development Institute,
Research and Development Institute for Oil Crops
and Oil Products for Agroindustry, Biotechnology
Research and Development Institute, DOA Informa-
tion Service Center, etc. The Northeast Region has
two regional research and development offices, two
rice research centers, six rice experiment stations, two
field crop research centers. eight field crop experi-
ment stations, one horticulture research center, three
horticulture experiment stations, one rubber research
center, one rubber experiment station, four sericulture
research centers, nine sericulture experiment stations,
and the Northeast Agricultural Development Research
Center under the DOA’s supervision (Department of
Agriculture 1998).
The Department of Agricultural Extension
(DOAE) is in charge of the diffusion of production
technology for the DOA. Other departments in the
MOAC perform both research and extension activi-
ties in their respective areas. The DOAE is also
responsible for agribusiness promotion and farmer
groups. Within the DOAE, 12 divisions are respon-
sible for administrative, extension, 2nd technical
work. At the regional and provincial level, there are
six regional agricultural extension offices, 75 provin-
cial agricultural offices, 23 plant propagation centers,
nine silk propagation centers, 12 horticulture exten-
sion and propagation centers, one agricuitural youth
extension center, five bee conservation and propaga-
tion centers, seven sugarcane pest protection and
eradication centers, four farm machinery extension
centers, and 21 highland agricultural extension
centers. The DOAE also maintains 797 district
agricultural offices and, recently, in cooperation with
the Tambon Administration Organization, established
agricultural technology transfer centers at the tambon
(subdistrict) level (DOAE 1999). The Northeast
Region has one regional agricultural extension office,
19 provincial agricultural offices, eight plant propaga-
tion centers, five silk propagation centers, three
horticulture extension and propagation centers, one
bee conservation and propagation center, one
sugarcane pest protection and eradication center, and
one farm machinery extension center.
Within the MOAC, livestock research and
development is the responsibility of the Department
sf livestock Development (DLD). Activities include
animal disease contra1 and eradication; vaccine,
serum, and antigen production; veterinary research
and services; research in animal breading, animal
nutrition, and forage crops; regulatory services of
animal feeds and veterinary pharmaceuticals; and
extension services. The DLD consists of five adminis-
trative support divisions, five animal husbandry
divisions, four veterinary divisions, and the National
Animal Hygiene Institute (Department of Livestock
91
Development 1998). At the regional level, there are
nine regional livestock offices, nine livestock research
and breeding centers, 35 livestock improvement
stations, nine animal feed research centers, 23 animal
feed experiment stations, seven animal disease
research and diagnostic centers, and 75 livestock
quarantine stations. In addition, there are provincial
livestock offices in every province. The Northeast
Region has two regional livestock offices, 19 provin-
cial livestock offices, two livestock research and
breeding centers, 11 livestock improvement stations,
two animal feed research centers, four animal feed
experiment stations, two animal disease research and
diagnostic centers, and 19 livestock quarantine
stations. As a part of its extension services, the DLD
maintains district livestock offices to promote and
support livestock production groups at the village
level. These offices also recruit and train village
volunteers to assist in providing veterinary services.
The Department of Fisheries consists of 11
administrative support divisions, 12 technical
divisions, and nine research and development
institutes. At the provincial level, there are 75
provincial fishery offices and 398 district fishery
offices. Department of Fisheries activities cover
research and development in all areas of fisheries-
inland and marine, management and conservation of
fishery resources, and regulatory and extension
services (Department of Fisheries 1999). The
Northeast Region has 19 provincial fishery offices,
five inland fishery development centers, and 11 inland
fishery stations.
Soil and water conservation, soil survey and
land-use planning, soil improvement, soil analysis
service, research and development, and technology
transfer are activities undertaken under the Land
Development Department (LDD), which has four
administrative divisions and six technical divisions at
the central level (Land Development Department
1997). At the provincial level, there are 12 regional
land development offices and 61 land development
stations. Within the northeast, there are three regional
land development offices and 19 land development
stations. To provide broad extension coverage, the
LDD recruits farmer volunteers to serve as “village
soil doctors.”
The Royal Forestry Department (RFD) has eight
administrative divisions, one regulatory office, and
five technical offices. There are 21 regional forestry
offices, 75 provincial forestry offices, and 524 district
forestry offices (Royal Forestry Department 1998). In
addition, there are field offices in the national parks
and wildlife sanctuaries, field experiment stations,
forest fire control stations, and centers to propagate
92
seedlings. Activities of the RFD involve management
of watersheds and forest land, forest control and
regulatory services, research and development in
silviculture and forest products, natural resource and
wildlife conservation, promotion of reforestation and
community forest, and technology transfer. RFD
activities in the northeast are under the supervision of
four regional forestry offices and 19 provincial
forestry offices.
The Cooperative Promotion Department’s main
activities are the promotion of all types of coopera-
tives, training of members in cooperative manage-
ment, business and production skills, and provision of
financial support. The central administration consists
of six administrative support divisions and four
technical divisions. Provincial-level activities are the
duty of provincial cooperative offices and district
cooperative offices.
The Royal Irrigation Department (RID) is the
largest department in the MOAC in terms of number
of employees and operating budget. It has eight
administrative support divisions, one hospital, one
information center, and seven offices. At the regional
level, there are 12 regional irrigation offices and five
water resource development offices. The RID’s main
activities are water resource development for agricul-
ture, energy, public utilities, and industry. Its research
activities mostly deal with soil and construction
materials and hydrology, but agronomic research and
water management are also included. Appropriate
water management practices are extended to farmers
in irrigated areas through irrigation water user
associations (Royal Irrigation Department 1998). RID
activities in the northeast are supervised by the
Regional Irrigation Office 4 (Khon Kaen), 5 (Ubon
Ratchathani), and 6 (Nakhon Ratchasima).
The Agricultural Land Reform Office (ALRO) is
responsible for implementing land reform in 69
provinces through provincial land reform offices, and
19 of them are located in the northeast. It cooperates
with the Royal Forestry Department in the survey and
selection of target areas. In each project area, the
ALRO assists in infrastructure development, includ-
ing the formation of cooperatives and finding sources
for agricultural credit (Agricultural Land Reform
Office 1998).
The Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE) is
responsible for analysis and research in agricultural
economics, dissemination of agricultural information
(market prices, supply and demand of agricultural
commodities, etc.), and analysis and preparation of
agricultural development policies and plans, The
OAE consists of two administrative divisions and
three offices.
 The Department of Cooperative Auditing
consists of six administrative and support divisions,
one office, and one technical division. At the regional
level, there are 12 regional cooperative auditing
offices. The Department is responsible for the
auditing of all cooperatives in the country, the
development of financial and accounting systems for
cooperatives and farmer groups, and training.
Other government agencies that are involved in
regional agricultural development are the Royal
Development Study Centers, Office of Royal Devel-
opment; Projects Board, Office of the Prime Minister;
Border Patrol Police, Royal Thai Police, Office of the
Prime Minister; Armed Forces, Supreme Command
Headquarters, Ministry of Defence; Meteorological
Department, Ministry of Transport and Communica-
tions; Department of Energy Development and
Promotion, Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Energy; Department of Mineral Resources and
Department of Industrial Promotion, Ministry of
Industry; Department of Internal Trade and Provincial
Commerce Offices, Office of the Permanent Secre-
tary, Ministry of Commerce; and Self-Help Land
Settlement Schemes, Department of Public Welfare,
Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare.
Private-sector institutions involved in
regional development
Private-sector institutions are the for-profit nongov-
ernment organizations consisting of financial,
business, industry, and farmer institutions. The
private-sector role is mainly in economic develop-
ment, with some involvement in social development.
Commercial banks, including the Bank for Agricul-
ture and Agricultural Cooperatives, provide credit for
farmers, producers, and processors of agricultural
products. Agribusiness companies such as agrochemi-
cal, seed, fertilizer, farm implements, and feed mills
provide inputs and technology for production. Large
seed companies and food-processing plants often
employ contract farmers to supply raw materials.
Some companies are also doing research and devel-
opment, but mostly adaptive research and on a much
smaller scale than similar activities implemented by
public-sector agencies.
Farmer institutions that have juristic person
status in Thailand consist of agricultural cooperatives
and registered farmer groups. In the northeast, there
are 1,112 agricultural cooperatives with more than
two million members and 1,216 registered farmer
groups (Cooperative Promotion Department 1999).
Currently, there are approximately 8,000 nonregis-
tered farmer groups in the northeast, mainly farm
housewives’ groups and young farmer groups with
more than 220,000 members. These groups are under
the supervision of the DOAE.
The Board of Trade of Thailand acts as the
“Voice of Business” for the private sector. Its mem-
bers include the Thai Chamber of Commerce, which
all provincial chambers of commerce belong to, 22
foreign chambers of commerce, 65 trade associations,
six state enterprises, and one cooperative society. In
addition, about 500 large- and medium-scale compa-
nies are associate members. The Board of Trade of
Thailand promotes the economy and trade and acts as
a liaison between the private and public sector,
To facilitate the active participation of the private
sector in development from the national to provincial
level, Joint Public/Private Sector Consultative
Committees have been established at the national,
regional, and provincial levels.
Nongovernment organizations involved
in regional development
Nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are not-for-
profit, public service organizations. NGOs in Thai-
land are diverse in name and activities. They may be a
group, a club, an association, a foundation, a center,
an institute, an organization, a federation, an assem-
bly, a league, etc. However, there are only two official
classes: foundations and associations. The Office of
the National Culture Commission, Ministry of
Education, is responsible for registering NGOs.
Currently, 8,000 NGOs have registered as founda-
tions and 10,500 as associations. Many more organi-
zations are actually NGOs but they have not regis-
tered formally, Only about 3% of the NGOs are
considered as development NGOs. The northeast has
1,464 NGOs and about 8% of them may be called
development NGOs (Office of the National Culture
Commission 1998). The Coordinating Committee for
Rural Development NGOs has a network of regional
committees to coordinate and promote development
activities in provincial areas.
Development NGOs have assisted the govern-
ment in regional development for many years but the
scope of their work is limited by the lack of re-
sources. NGOs can have many roles such as creating
awareness, advocacy, catalytic, facilitator, action and
policy research, monitoring, training, etc. The
relationship of large and well-established NGOs with
the government is more collaborative in nature, but
93
smaller NGOs that are involved in an advocacy role
often seem to be in conflict with the public sector,
especially on human rights and environmental issues.
Established in 1974, the Population and Commu-
nity Development Association (PCDA), which is one
of the largest NGOs in Thailand, is an example of
how an NGO can assist in community development.
The PCDA’s services include many types of activities
such as family planning, primary health care, AIDS
prevention, water resource development and commu-
nity sanitation, income generation and vocational
training, conservation of natural resources and the
environment, local institution building, and promotion
of democracy. The PCDA’s areas of operation cover
157 districts in 48 provinces. Its main activities,
however, are in the northeast. The PCDA has 15
branches and Community-Based Integrated Rural
Development Centers in provincial areas.
In 1988, the PCDA launched the Thai Business
Initiative in Rural Development (TBIRD) to mobilize
technical, managerial, and financial resources of the
private sector for community development (United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific 1996). By sponsoring a village, a
company can help in developing human resources of
the village, thus enabling villagers to earn a reason-
able income and reduce rural-urban migration.
TBIRD projects include a range of activities: income
generation through agriculture, cottage industry, and
rural industry; educational opportunities; environmen-
tal improvement; local institution building; and social
development. More than 120 sponsors, ranging from
medium-sized Thai businesses to major multinational
companies, have joined TBIRD, which has leveraged
more than 150 million baht from the private sector to
support village projects. In cooperation with the
Department of Industrial Promotion and the private
sector, the PCDA has played a key role in bringing
industries to rural areas. Factories built in villages in
the northeast provide employment for more than
5,000 workers and generate direct income for
villagers at approximately 170 million baht annually.
The PCDA case proved that a well-established
NGO, with vision and strong leadership, could
effectively assist the public sector in regional devel-
opment.
Partnership in development
Environmentally and socially sustainable regional
development involves economic, social, and environ-
mental development with human development as the
ultimate goal, The approach must be integrated and
94
participatory. The public sector has a major role to
play in providing infrastructure, technical support,
and incentives. For income generation activities, the
private sector with its networks and business skills
should have a more proactive role. Businesses should
be partners in development. The government should
provide appropriate incentives to encourage the
private sector to have more social responsibility.
Better public-private partnership will help accelerate
and sustain development. But building this partner-
ship will not be easy. It requires vision and strong
commitment from both sectors. A well-known, well-
respected individual will be needed to take on the
leadership role.
To create business awareness of social responsi-
bility and facilitate the mobilization of resources from
the public sector, the private sector, and communities,
development NGOs have a strong potential to act as a
catalyst and facilitator. The government should build
up their capacity to assume these roles.
Sustainable development requires efficient
management of resources together with effective
participation and cooperation of people involved in
the process. Government and business leaders have to
listen more to civil society representatives—NGOs,
community-based organizations, and community
leaders—and respond to their needs. For an inte-
grated participatory approach to work, the public
sector should encourage greater involvement of the
private sector, NGOs, communities, and people in
regional development. To link and provide effective
communication for this would be a challenge for all.
References
Agricultural Land Reform Office. 1998. Annual report
1997. Land Reform Bulletin No. 287. Bangkok,
Thailand. 116 p. (In Thai.)
BAAC (Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Coopera-
tives). 1997. Annual report. Bangkok (Thailand):
BAAC. 148 p. (In Thai.)
Cooperative Promotion Department. 1999. Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
Department of Agriculture. 1998. Annual report Depart-
ment of Agriculture 1998. Bangkok (Thailand): DOA.
43 p. (In Thai.)
DOAE (Department of Agricultural Extension). 1999.
Annual report Department of Agricultural Extension
1998. Bangkok (Thailand): DOAE. (In Thai.)
Department of Fisheries. 1999. Annual report Department
of Fisheries 1998. Bangkok (Thailand): DOF. 103 p.
(In Thai.)
Department of Livestock Development. 1998. Annual
report Department of Livestock Development 1997.
Bangkok (Thailand): DLD. 123 p. (In Thai.)
Department of Vocational Education. 1997. 56th Anniver-
sary of the Department of Vocational Education.
Bangkok (Thailand): Kurusapha Press. 100 p. (In
Thai.)
Land Development Department. 1997. Annual report Land
Development Department. Bangkok (Thailand): LDD.
72 p. (In Thai.)
MOAC Web Site http://www.moac.go.th.
National Economic and Social Development Board. 1996.
Government of Thailand: The Eighth National
Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001).
Bangkok (Thailand): Med Sai Press. 151 p.
National Identity Board. 1995. Thailand in the ’90’s
(revised edition). Bangkok (Thailand): Amarin
Printing. 408 p.
Office of Agricultural Economics. 1999. Annual report
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives 1998.
Bangkok (Thailand): OAE. 36 p. (In Thai.)
Office of the National Culture Commission. 1998.
Directory of nongovernmental organizations in the
whole kingdom 1997. Bangkok (Thailand): Religious
Affairs Press. 495 p. (In Thai.)
Royal Forestry Department. 1998. Annual report Royal
Forestry Department 1997. Bangkok (Thailand): RFD.
(In Thai.)
Royal Irrigation Department. 1998. 95 years of irrigation
1997. Bangkok (Thailand): War Veteran Organization
Press. 156 p. (In Thai.)
United Nations, Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific. 1996. Business for development: the
HRD approach of the “Thai Business Initiative for
Rural Development” (TBIRD). Bangkok (Thailand):
ESCAP. 93 p.
Notes
Author’s address: Population and Community Develop-
ment Association, 6 Sukhumvit 12, Bangkok 10110,
Thailand.
95
 SECTION C

Water resources management

The potential of water resources in the
Korat Basin, northeast Thailand

Kriengsak Srisuk, Vichai Sriboonlue, Chalong Buaphan, and Chamnan Hovijitra

This paper analyzes the potential of water resources in northeast Thailand. Accord-
Ing to the climatic information from 1981 to 1996, the annual average temperature,
relative humidity, wind, and pan evaporation are 26 °C, 73%, 1.8 knots, and 1,676
mm, respectively. Average annual rainfall is 1,380 mm.
The Northeast Region consists of three main watersheds: the Mekong, Chi, and
Mun, with average watershed areas of 12,700, 49,480, and 65,520 km2, with an
average annual runoff of 274.3, 160.5, and 193.7 mm, respectively. The average
annual precipitation over the Mekong, Chi, and Mun watersheds is 1,537, 1,181,
and 1,275 mm, respectively. These watersheds are divided Into 58 subwatersheds.
Total surface water storage of northeast Thailand is approximately 5,295 million m3,
whereas water demand in 1993 was 10,817 million m3 and in 2006 will be 14,304
million m3.
Because of the complexity of the hydrogeologic environments of northeast Thai-
land, groundwater potential can be evaluated based on several hydrogeologic fac-
tors, such as hydrostratigraphic units, geologic structures, groundwater salinity, and
hydrologic constraints. Several studies from 1952 to now indicate that the most fea-
sible aquifers in the northeast are sand and gravel aquifers of the major rivers; sand-
stone, siltstone, and shale of the Phu Tok Formation; and shale, siltstone, and sand-
stone of the Mahasarakham Formation, which yield approximately 5.79 x 10-4-9.26
x 10-3 m3 s-1 (50-800 m3 d-1), 1.04 x 10-3-4.63 x 10-2 m3 s-1 (90-4,000 m3 d-1), and
3.47 x 10-4-5.79 x 10-3 m3 s-1 (30-500 m3 d-1), respectively.
Nevertheless, the exploitation and development of water resources should be
considered in both quantity and quality, which must be explicitly evaluated for an
individual subregion to optimize their potential and to prevent saline water intrusion.

The Korat Plateau comprises an area of about
170,000 km2 (Fig. 1), one-third of the country,
supports about 20 million people, and is relatively flat
with a low elevation. Approximately 63% of the
Plateau has an elevation of 100-200 m (Donner
1978), 28.4% is at 200-500 m, 6.8% is at 500-1,000
m, and 1.8% has an elevation of above 1,000 m.
Agriculture is the dominant occupation in northeast
Thailand (NET). Low and unpredictable agricultural
production caused by erratic rainfall and generally
poor soils result in per capita income in this region
being the lowest in the country. During the wet
season, farmers normally plant rainfed rice, whereas
year-round they plant cassava, sugarcane, maize,
kenaf, watermelon, and tobacco or leave the land
fallow. In irrigated areas, farmers tend to grow rice,
sweet corn, soybeans, peanuts, and tomatoes. Com-
mon water-related problems in NET are flood during
the rainy season and insufficient water supply for
domestic and agricultural uses during the long dry
season. Saline water and soil salinity also affect
agricultural lands. Additional problems are water
table decline caused by industrial exploitation of
groundwater in developed areas and groundwater
contamination and environmental effects. The
purpose of this paper is to present relevant informa-
tion about potential water resources as well as
significant data regarding climate and rainfall, surface
water, and groundwater availability in NET.

99
Climate and rainfall
Northeast Thailand has 203 meteorological stations.
Air temperature is normally measured five times a
day. An anemometer and the class A pan evaporation
of the U.S. Weather Bureau are used to measure wind
speed and evaporation with a coefficient of 0.7 for
calculating actual evaporation.
The climate in NET is a tropical savanna type in
the low-rainfall transitional zone. The region has
three seasons: rainy (May to October), winter
(October to February), and summer (February to
May). The climate is influenced by the northeast-
southwest monsoon and occasionally tropical
cyclones from the South China Sea. The wind speed
ranges from 1.0 to 3.9 knots h-l. The temperature of
16 provinces in NET as reported by the net of
meteorological stations is mild. Pan evaporation
ranges from 122.3 to 184.3 mm per month.
Rainfall can be expected in the six-month period
from May to October of the rainy season, when
average monthly rainfall ranges from 3.9 to 235.4 mm
and average monthly rainy days from 20 to 26.
Annual rainfall ranges from 1,102 to 2,282 mm, with
an average of 1,380 mm. May to September is the
downpour period and April to May is erratic. Novem-
ber to January is a very low rainfall period. Further-
more, the isohyets of annual rainfall increase from the
southwest to the northeast from 1,000 to 2,500 mm
(Fig. 1). Cyclone activity is influenced by monsoon,
typhoon, and depression.
Surface water
Watershed characteristics
The northeast, a subwatershed of the Mekong
watershed (795,000 km2), is a square plateau sur-
rounded by mountain ranges to the west (Phetchabun
Range, 1,500 m above mean sea level) and to the
south (Phanom Dong Rak Range, 680 m) and
bounded by the Mekong River in the north and east,
The plateau is separated by the Phu Phan Range (600
m) into two basins, namely, the Sakon Nakhon Basin
(53,000 km2, north) and Korat Basin (115,000 km2,
south). The Sakon Nakhon Basin consists of several
short rivers that drain directly into the Mekong River.
The Songkhram River is the main river in the Sakon
Nakhon Basin, with a total length of 450 km. The
watershed is located south of the Phu Phan Range and
consists of the Chi and Mun rivers. The Chi River has
a watershed area of 49,480 km2 covering the northern
part of the Korat Basin. It flows into the Mun River at
Ubon Ratchathani, 40 km from the confluence with
the Mekong River. The Mun River flows westward
from the Dong Paya Yen Range to the Mekong River
at Khongchiam, Ubon Ratchathani. This watershed
covers approximately 65,520 km2.
Northeast Thailand has three watersheds and 58
subwatersheds: 28 within the Mekong watershed
(Sakon Nakhon Basin, Fig. 2), 7 in the Chi watershed,
and 23 in the Mun watershed (Asian Institute of
Technology 1994, Khon Kaen University 1994a,b).
There are 203 stream-gauging stations equipped with
rating curves and a reasonable length of records, 56 in
the Mekong watershed, 66 in the Chi watershed, and
81 in the Mun watershed (Khon Kaen University
1998).
The Songkhram River is located in the northeast
of the Korat Plateau, flowing from the northern slope
of the Phu Phan Range northward and then eastward
to the Mekong River. The Songkhram watershed
covers 12,700 km2 from the Phu Phan Range in the
south to the Mekong River. Most of the watershed is
between 140 and 160 m altitude. Annual precipitation
of the Songkhram watershed varies geographically
from 1,200 to 2,500 mm. The main river valley is flat,
with an average slope of 0.004%. The Chi River
originates from the eastern slope of the Phetchabun
Range and drains to the central part of the region
between the Phu Phan Range and the Mun watershed.
The headstream area of the Chi watershed is the driest
region, with an annual rainfall of 900 to 1,100 mm. It
has two main tributaries: the Nam Pong and Lam Pao
rivers.
The Mun watershed is situated in the southern
region and northern part of the Phnom Dongrak
Range, with an annual precipitation ranging from
1,200 to 1500 mm. The upper tributaries such as Lum
Takhlong emerge from the heights of the Khao Yai
Range at an altitude of about 1,000 m. The average
slope of the main part of the Mun watershed is less
than 0,013%,
Quantity of surface water
The main sources sf surface water are rainfall and
river base flow. The quantity of discharge of the rivers
varies with the rainfall pattern. Figure 3 shows
monthly stream discharges over a 3-year period of the
Songkhram, Chi, and Mun rivers at Ban Tha
Kokdeang (Nong Khai), Ban Kok (Mahasarakham),
and Rasi Salai (Sisaket), respectively. The hydrograph
of the discharges starts rising at the beginning of June
for the Songkhram River (northern basin), but in the
southern basin (along the Chi and Mun rivers) the
flow starts rising in late June (Fig. 3). The discharges
101
and Mun catchments are lower along the middle
sections, for example, 17.1 mm at MN24 (Ban Kham
Klang) and 44.9 mm at MN28 (Ban Tha Wa, Fig.
3C). The reason for higher yields among the upper
tributaries is that their rainfall is not trapped by paddy
cultivation, whereas the rainfall in downstream
portions is used for paddy growing. The lowest yields
of the middle part of the Mun River may be due to
runoff lost into subsurface (stream piracy).
Flood and drought are typical characteristics of
the NET hydrology (Donner 1978). The low gradient
of the river beds underlain by a layer of laterite may
cause waterlogging and inundation when the rainy
season starts and water begins to fill the rivers. The
NET rivers are deep and have scanty flows in the dry
season but bank overflows are observed in the rainy
season. The lowest flows of the Songkhram River at
Ban Tha Kokdaeng were 0.5, 1.1 and 0.9 m3 s-1 in
1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively, whereas the
highest flows in the same years were 637,672, and
708 m3 s-1. Similar patterns can be observed from the
Mun and Chi hydrographs (Fig. 3B,C).
Water storage facilities in NET were classified
into three scale projects (Khon Kaen University
1998): large, medium, and small, with a capacity of
3,430.3, 1,217.6, and 646.7 million m3, respectively.
Total surface water storage of NET is approximately
5,294.6 million m3, whereas the water demand in
1993 was 10,816.5 million m3 and in 2006 will be
14,303.8 million m3 (Khon Kaen University 1996).
Surface water quality
High salinity in surface water and soils is one crucial
constraint to agriculture during the dry season,
particularly in the lowland such as Nong Bo, Lam
Sieo, Lam Phaphla, etc. Some areas along the Chi and
Mun rivers have high salinity of 400 mS m-1 such as
at station MN9 (Satuk, Buriram) and MN14 (Ubon
Ratchathani). Figures 4 and 5 show the distributions
of soil salinity and shallow groundwater in the central
Korat Basin. The high salinity of surface water is
closely related to the high salinity of soils and saline
groundwater. Surface water quality has been continu-
ously monitored since 1985 (Tanaka 1997, Arunin
1992). Salinity of surface water is caused by deep
saline groundwater discharging as a base flow into the
rivers. Nevertheless, few cases have been evaluated
for surface salinity in NET. Several industrial,
agricultural, and urban development activities are
discharging high levels of pollutants into the surface
water. In March-April 1993, the Nam Pong River was
104
polluted by accidental discharge from a sugar factory,
which destroyed 400 tons of 89 types of fish along the
Nam Pong and polluted 338 km of the Chi River
downstream from the confluence of the Nam Pong
and Chi rivers. Furthermore, improper management
of salt mines causes pollution of surface water such as
at Nong Bo (upstream of Lam Sieo) and Ban Dung
and Ban Muang (Sakon Nakhon Basin).
Groundwater
Groundwater studies in northeast Thailand
Groundwater in NET exists in both porosity of
unconsolidated sediments and in cracks, joints, faults,
and bedding planes of the sedimentary rocks such as
shales, siltstones, and sandstones. Only the west and
northwest regions are underlain by limestone.
Groundwater resource evaluation and development
have been implemented extensively since 1952 when
the Thai Government, with the cooperation of the
United States, began the groundwater program in
NET (Wongsawat et al 1992). From 1958 to 1973,
several regional hydrogeological maps of NET were
published by La Moreaux et al (1958), Haworth et al
(1966), and Phiancharoen (1973). Groundwater
development projects were intensively conducted by
the Groundwater Division, Department of Mineral
Resources, Accelerated Rural Development, Depart-
ment of Health, and Department of Public Work for
more than three decades. In 1973, Phiancharoen
(1973) constructed a hydrogeological map of NET at
a scale of 1 : 1,000,000. In 1982, Phiancharoen et al
(1982) reconstructed the map to a scale of 1:500,000.
During 1981-85, under the Thai-Australian Tung
Kula Ronghai Project, implemented by McGowan
Pty. Ltd., the Department of Land Development, and
the Accelerated Rural Development of Thailand, a
comprehensive research and development project was
carried out on soil salinity and groundwater resources
in the southern region of the Korat Basin. This study
indicated that several hydrogeological conditions
control groundwater flow, the major mechanism of
soil and water salinity movement. Moreover, the
relationship among topography, soil groups, and land
uses directly affects groundwater flow and distribu-
tion of salinity (McGowan Pty. Ltd. 1983, Tuckson
1983). From 1990 to now, a groundwater investiga-
tion program (basinwide) was set up from the joint
project between the Department of Mineral Resources
and Mekong Secretariat (DMR & MSP 1990). Water
levels and chemical compositions of groundwater
have been monitored every three months from
selected water wells in the Sakon Nakhon Basin.
Provincial groundwater availability maps at a scale of
1:100,000 were published by the joint project
between the Department of Mineral Resources and
the Thai-Australian Project during 1989 to 1995
(Wongsawat et al 1989). In 1996, a group of Thai and
Australian experts joined to form the Kong-Chi-Mun
Team (KCMT) to establish a hydrogeological model
for the central Korat Basin. The KCMT comprises the
Groundwater Research Center, Faculty of Technol-
ogy, Khon Kaen University; the National Center for
Groundwater Management, Insearch Limited,
University of Technology (Sydney, Australia); and C
Vision Pty. Ltd. (Sydney, Australia). The goal of the
KCMT is to achieve environmentally sustainable
development that maintains high environmental
standards while meeting existing and future water
resource needs. Furthermore, in 1998, the Royal
Irrigation Department and the King’s project in
cooperation with the Groundwater Research Center of
Khon Kaen University conducted numerical ground-
water modeling for management of saline soils and
water distribution in the lower Nam Kam Basin,
Amphoe That Phanom, Changwat Nakorn Phanom
(Groundwater Research Center 1999a). At this stage,
the research projects are focusing on evaluating the
groundwater regime within the central part of the
Lower Korat Basin (Kong-Chi-Mun Project) and the
central part of the Sakon Nakhon Basin (Nam
Songkhram Project).
Distribution of water-bearing rocks or
hydrostratigraphic units
A hydrostratigraphic unit is a formation, part of a
formation, or group of formations in which similar
hydrologic characteristics allow for a grouping into
aquifers and associated confining layers or aquitards
(Domenico and Schwartz 1998). According to field
hydrogeological maps and pumping tests (Groundwa-
ter Research Center 1999b), seven major
hydrostratigraphic units were classified as follows
(Fig. 6): (1) sand, clay, laterite aquifer (Scl), (2) sand
and gravel aquifer (Sg), (3) upper Phu Tok aquifer
(Upt), (4) lower Phu Tok aquifer (Lpt), (5)
Mahasaraham Aquiclude (Ms), (6) Khok Kruat
aquifer (Kk), and (7) lower Korat Group aquitard
(LKG). The ranges of hydraulic properties, hydraulic
conductivity, storage, and well yield were summa-
rized from various sources of information (Fig. 6).
Lateral and vertical distributions of the
hydrostratigraphic units of the northern and southern
Korat Basin are presented in Figures 7 and 8.
Regional groundwater flow
Major elements of the groundwater flow regime of
the central Korat Basin were analyzed based on
derivative maps of soil groups, soil salinity indices,
groundwater salinity, topography, and
hydrostratigraphic units. Consequently, the equipoten-
tial lines and general groundwater flow directions in
both plain views and cross-sections in the basin were
constructed as shown in Figures 7 and 8. A relatively
low topographic depression tends to be a discharge
area. By combining derivation maps of soil groups,
soil salinity, groundwater salinity, and water levels
measured from selected wells in the basin, equipoten-
tial lines of shallow groundwater less than 60 m in
depth can be interpolated as shown in Figure 7. With
additional information on the hydrostratigraphic units
as geologic structures and data of some piezometer
nests in the basin, groundwater flow in the basin can
be constructed as in Figure 8. A detailed
hydrogeological map should comprise recharge and
discharge areas, distribution of equipotential lines,
and flow direction. The groundwater potential and its
flow patterns can be simulated based on its
hydrogeological conditions.
Groundwater potential
Data on hydraulic parameters of hydrostratigraphic
units in NET can be extracted from pumping-test data
at the Department of Mineral Resources, La Moreaux
et al (1958), Haworth et al (1966). McGowan Pty.
Ltd. (1982), Tuckson (1983), Srisuk (1994), Buaphan
et al (1998), the Groundwater Research Center
(1999b), and others. Wongsawat et al (1992) com-
piled and estimated well yields in each province in
northeast Thailand from the wells drilled (26,993
production wells, Table 1) by the Department of
Mineral Resources from 1955 to 1992. Available
yields of aquifers depend on types of
hydrostratigraphic units, geological structures,
distribution of recharge and discharge areas, flow
systems (local, intermediate, and regional), and
hydrochemistry of groundwater, particularly salinity.
Wongsawat et al (1992) classified the potential of
groundwater resources based on available pumping
rates into four main groups: (1) less than 2 m3 h–1, (2)
107
Table 1. Number of wells drilled by the Department of Mineral Resources (1955–mid-1992, after Wongsawat et al
1992).

Total no. of No. of wells No. of wells No. of wells No. of wells No. of wells
Changwat production yielding yielding yielding yielding yielding
wells <5 m3 h-1 5–10 m3 h-1 11–20 m3 h-1 21–50 m3 h-1 >50 m3 h-1

Loei 954 233 380 720 136 85

Udonthani 2,144 1,176 560 230 148 30
Nongkhal 1,263 788 310 80 58 27
Nakhon Phanom 1,432 857 222 31 0 25 18
Khon Kaen 1,385 241 228 452 375 89
Kalasin 2,233 1,023 580 430 155 45
Mukdahan 460 409 32 15 2 2
Chaiyaphum 1,427 61 7 420 280 85 25
Mahasarakham 1,455 570 410 120 230 125
Rot Et 1,710 665 350 330 245 120
Yasothorn 1,107 315 325 320 120 27
Nakhon 2,181 1,076 580 320 147 58
Ratchasima 1,901 1,235 350 180 123 13
Buriram 1,692 1,311 210 140 18 13
Surin 1,942 1,422 320 150 40 10
Sisaket 2,303 1,093 530 380 180 120
Ubon Ratchathani
Total 26,993 13,675 6,257 4,037 2,205 819

2 to 10 m3 h-1, (3) 10 to 20 m3 h-1, and (4) more than References

20 m3 h-1. Some areas may yield up to 100 to 220 m3
h-1 such as Tha Phra, Khon Kaen. Figure 9 illustrates
a combination of groundwater potential zones over
NET (Wongsawat et al 1992). However, to evaluate
the potential of potable groundwater resources,
salinity of groundwater, soil salinity, and aquifer
depth should be considered.
Conclusions
There are vast amounts of climatic and hydrological
data from many governmental agencies; however,
detailed analysis needs to be performed for each
subbasin in NET. Subsurface data of hydrogeological
conditions (climate, hydrology, topography, land uses,
and geology) are essential for the detailed evaluation
of potential potable groundwater resources, for
balancing future water resources, and for water
management. As a matter of fact, more than 75% of
the villages are exploiting groundwater from the
central village system throughout NET for domestic
and agricultural uses. Unfortunately, a potential safe
yield of existing groundwater resources is rarely
considered.
Arunin S. 1992. Strategies for utilizing salt-affected lands
in Thailand. Bangkok (Thailand): Department of Land
Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Coopera-
tives.
Asian Institute of Technology. 1994. Study of potential
development of water resources in the Mekong River
Basin. The Office of National Economic and Swial
Development Board, Thailand.
Buaphan C, Boupeng S, Youngme V, Tasanasorn A,
Wanakao L, Sriboonlue V. 1998. Groundwater origin
investigation with isotopic compositions for evalua-
tion of high productive deep aquifer in Khon Kaen
area: hydrogeology and isotope technique. National
Research Council, September 1998. 244 p.
DEDP (Department of Energy Development and Promo-
tion). 1999. Interim report on the establishment of a
hydrogeological model for salt contamination, in the
Khong-Chi-Mun area.
DMR & MSP (Department of Mineral Resources and
Mekong Secretariat Project). 1990 to present.
Groundwater investigation programme (basinwide),
Vol. I to Vol. X.
Domenico PA, Schwartz FW. 1998. Physical and chemical
hydrogeology. New York, N.Y. (USA): John Wiley
and Sons.

111
Donner W. 1978. The five faces of Thailand: an economic
geography. London (UK): C. Hurst & Company (for
Institute of Asian Affairs, Hamburg). 930 p.
ECAFE-UN. 1957. Development of water resources in the
Lower Mekong Basin. Flood Control Series No. 12.
Bangkok (Thailand): United Nations Publication.
Groundwater Research Center. 1999a. Numerical ground-
water modeling for the management of saline water
and soil salinity distribution in the lower Nam Kam
Basin, Amphoe That Phanom, Changwat Nakorn
Phanom. Final report to be submitted to the King’s
Project. Groundwater Research Center, Department of
Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand.
Groundwater Research Center. 1999b. Study on soil and
water salinity and management plan for the impact on
soil and water salinity due to Nam Song Khram.
Progress report to be submitted to the King’s Project.
Groundwater Research Center, Department of
Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand.
Haworth HF, Na Chiangmai P, Phiancharoen C. 1966.
Ground water resources development of Northeastern
Thailand. Department of Mineral Resources, Ground
Water Division. Ground Water Bull. No. 2, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Khon Kaen University. 1994a. Study of potential develop-
ment of water resources in the Mun River Basin. The
Office of National Economic and Social Development
Board, Thailand.
Khon Kaen University. 1994b. Study of potential develop-
ment of water resources in the Chi River Basin. The
Office of National Economic and Social Development
Board, Thailand.
Khon Kaen University. 1996. Preparation of master plan
for National Water Resources Development Project.
Royal Irrigation Department, Thailand.
Khon Kaen University. 1998. Preparation of master plan
for National Water Resources Development Project
(19 northeastern provinces). Royal Irrigation Depart-
ment, Thailand.
La Moreaux PE, Charalljavnaphet J, Jalichan N, Na
Chiangmai PP, Bunnag D, Thavisri A, Rakprathum C.
1958. Reconnaissance of the geology and ground
water of the Korat Plateau, Thailand. (U.S. Geological
Survey Water-Supply Paper 1429). Washington, D.C.
(USA): U.S. Government Printing Office. 62 p.
McGowan Pty. Ltd. 1983. Tung Kula Ronghai. Thai-
Australia Project. Department of Land Development,
Thailand.
Phiancharoen C. 1973. Hydrogeological map of northeast-
ern Thailand, 1: 1,000,000. Department of Mineral
Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Phiancharoen C, Chuamthaisong, Phagkhong M, Sakulkeo
S, Dhanesvanich O. 1982. Hydrogeological map of
northeastern Thailand, 1 :500,000. Department of
Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Srisuk K. 1994. Genetic characteristics of the groundwater
regime in the Khon Kaen Drainage Basin, Northeast
Thailand. Ph.D. thesis. Department of Geology,
University of Alberta, Canada.
Tanaka H. 1997. Hydrology programs and related activities
of the Mekong River Commission. Rural Environ.
Eng. No. 33.
Tuckson M. 1983. The hydrogeology of an area of saline
land, northeast of Kaset Wisai, Tung Kula Ronghai,
Northeast Thailand. McGowan International Technical
Report, TKR Project, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
Wongsawat S, Dhanesvanich O, Panjasutharos S. 1989.
Groundwater resources of northeast Thailand.
National Conference on Geologic Resources of
Thailand, potential for future development, Depart-
ment of Mineral Resources. p 505-521.
Wongsawat S, Dhanesvanich O, Panjasutharos S. 1992.
Groundwater resources of northeast Thailand.
National Conference on Geologic Resources of
Thailand, potential for future development, Depart-
ment of Mineral Resources. p 507-521.
Yongvanit S. 1997. Regional development and environ-
mental change in Thailand. Regional View, Number
10, Institute for Applied Geography, Komazawa
University, Tokyo.
Notes
Authors’ addresses: Kriengsak Srisuk, Chalong Buaphan,
Chamnan Hovijitra, Department of Geotechnology,
Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, Khon
Kaen 40002, Thailand; Vichai Sriboonlue, Department
of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the Groundwa-
ter Research Center, the Department of
Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, of Khon Kaen
University, for providing all their facilities for
finishing this paper. We appreciate the staff of the
Groundwater Research Center, especially Miss
Natchaya Khetkratok, for providing base maps and
graphic works, and Miss Sukalaya Jaruchakul, for
preparing part of the information, data, and docu-
ments.
113
Development and management of water resources
in the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand

Sanguan Patamatamkul

The Korat Basin consists of two major basins, the Chi basin and the Mun basin.
Development projects for water resources are divided into large-, medium-, and
small-scale projects.
The main government agencies responsible for water projects are the Royal
Irrigation Department (RID), the Electric Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT),
and the Energy Development and Promotion Department (EDPD). RID Is the largest
department responsible for irrigation projects. The EDPD is the government agency
that constructs pumping projects.
Groundwater sources were developed mostly for domestic uses only. The lim-
ited quantity and unsuitable quality of groundwater deter its development for irriga-
tion.
Irrigation water management for large-scale projects is still undertaken by gov-
ernment agencies such as RID and EDPD with little participation from farmers’orga-
nizations that are usually in the form of farmer cooperatives. For medium-scale
projects, farmers’ organizations are in the form of water user associations (WUA).
Similar to the farmers’ cooperatives, the farmers’ associations participate in man-
agement at the tertiary canal level. Most farmers’ associations have been inactive in
water management activities. Water management for small-scale irrigation projects
was wholly undertaken by the farmers’ organization called the water user group
(WUG). Several small-scale projects were left unused or improperly maintained be-
cause farmers did not actually participate in all stages of project development.
Better water management involved farm pond development in which the farmer
was the owner of the pond, particularly if farmers had to pay back the investment
cost of the farm pond.
In summary, development of water resources is still needed for the Korat Basin.
However, to ensure sustainability of development, farmers must actually participate
in all stages of project development and should be partners in project investment.

The Korat Basin consists of two major river basins, Table 1. Features of the Chi basin and Mun basin.
the Chi River basin and the Mun River basin. Table 1 Catchment area Average annual Average annual
Basin
summarizes some important features of both basins. (km2) rainfall (mm) runoff (106 m3)
Development of water resources in the Korat Basin
Chi 49,477 1,181 11,188
has been implemented progressively by several Mun 69,700 1,275 21,092
government agencies such as the Royal Irrigation
Department (RID), the Electric Generating Authority
of Thailand (EGAT), the Energy Development and Development of water resources
Promotion Department (EDPD), and others. This
chapter aims to summarize the state of the art of the Type of development projects for water
development of water resources and some manage- resources
ment aspects in the Korat Basin. As in other basins in Thailand, development projects
for water resources in the Korat Basin can be classi-

115
fied into three categories: large-, medium-, and small-
scale projects. Table 2 summarizes the classification
criteria. The major government agencies involved in
all development projects for water resources are RID,
EGAT, and EDPD. For small-scale projects, about 16
government agencies are involved. The RID is the
largest department responsible for irrigation projects.
The EGAT is the main agency constructing hydro-
power projects. The EDPD is responsible for most
pumping projects. Generally, projects for water
resources constructed by EGAT are multipurpose
projects for flood control, power generation, fishery,
irrigation, etc. Projects constructed by RID, although
for irrigation, also serve as a water supply for
domestic consumption.
Large-scale development projects for water
resources
Ten large-scale projects for water resources are
constructed in the Korat Basin with a total storage
capacity of more than 7,000 million m3 and a total
irrigation area of 207,560 hectares. The EGAT
constructed four projects and the RID constructed six
projects. Table 3 summarizes the main features of
these projects.
Medium-scale development projects for
water resources
More than 180 medium-scale irrigation projects are
constructed by the RID in the Korat Basin. The total
storage capacity is about 1,295 million m3 and the
total irrigation area is about 177,400 ha. Table 4
summarizes the features of the medium-scale projects.
Small-scale development projects for water
resources
Small-scale development projects for water resources
include small reservoirs, diversion weirs, shallow and
deep wells, farm ponds, and rain water collection
facilities. Dredging of natural streams, lakes, and
swamps is also included in this category. However,
this chapter will emphasize only projects with small

Table 2. Classification of projects for water resources

by size. a

Storage capacity Water surface irrigation

Type
(106 m3) area (km2) area (ha)

Large > 100 > 15 > 12,800

Medium < 100 < 15 < 12,800

a A small project is one in which construction is completed within one

year.

Table 3. Large-scale projects for water resources.

Storage capacity Irrigation

Name Basin Agencya
(106 m3) area (ha)

Ubonratna dam Chi 2,263 40,640 EGAT

Chulabhorm dam Chi 188 – EGAT
Lam Pao dam Chi 1,340 50,410 RID
Lan Takhong dam Mun 310 19,700 RID
Sirindhorn dam Mun 1,966 24,000 EGAT
Lam Mun Bon dam and Lam Sae dam Mun 141 275 19,520 RID
Lam Phra Pleung dam Mun 149 12,490 RID
Lam Nang Rong Dam Mun 150 16,800 RID
Pak Mun dam Mun 225 – EGAT
Tung Samrit regulator Mun – 24,000 RID
Total 7,007 207,560

a GAT = Electric Generating Authority of Thailand, RID = Royal irrigation Department.

Table 4. Medium-scale projects for water resources.

Number of Total storage Total irrlgation

Basin
projects capacity (106 m3) area (ha)

Chi 74 679 88,000

Mun 108 616 89,400
Total 182 1,295 177,400

116
reservoirs, diversion weirs, farm ponds, and dredging.
Several thousand small reservoirs and diversion weirs
are constructed in the Korat Basin. The total storage
capacity is about 490 million m3 and the beneficial
area is more than 210,000 ha.
Farm ponds with a storage capacity of 1,100 m3
have been constructed by several agencies in the
Korat Basin. This is a cost-effective water project for
water harvesting in this part of Thailand. The RID
alone built more than 90,000 farm ponds.
Because of environmental degradation, espe-
cially deforestation and land-use changes, natural
water bodies such as streams, lakes, and swamps in
the Korat Basin experience a sedimentation problem.
Several government agencies implement many
dredging projects each year. The RID has constructed
more than 6,000 dredging projects that benefit more
than 70,000 ha of arable land.
Pumping irrigation projects
The EDPD is responsible for the construction of more
than 600 small pumping projects to irrigate more than
80,000 ha of arable land in the Korat Basin. These
projects are usually located along the Chi and Mun
rivers and their tributaries.
Development of groundwater resources
Groundwater in the Korat Basin is generally devel-
oped for domestic consumption because of its low
yield. The average yield of most wells is about 2 m3
h-l. Since the basin area is underlain by thick layers of
rock with salt formation, many areas have salinity
problems and are unsuitable for groundwater devel-
opment.
Management of water resources
Large-scale irrigation projects
In large irrigation projects, water management is
undertaken by government agencies such as the RID
and EDPD. Farmers usually participate in water
management at the tertiary canal level. Farmers’
organizations are usually in the form of farmers’
cooperatives that carry out other activities related to
agricultural production as well as water management
activities. With good irrigation systems, farmers’
cooperatives are very active.
Medium-scale irrigation projects
With the assistance of the implementing agencies,
farmers form into an organization called the water
user association (WUA) to undertake water manage-
ment activities. Again, the WUA takes care of tertiary
canals only. However, many medium irrigation
projects were constructed with distribution systems
inferior to that of the large-scale projects. Therefore,
water management is a problem because many WUAs
are inactive in water management. There are few
active WUAs in projects with good irrigation
systems.
Small-scale irrigation projects
After construction is completed, the implementing
agencies will hand over the operation and mainte-
nance of small irrigation projects to the farmer group
called the water user group (WUG). The WUG is
generally formed loosely with very short time
preparation. Moreover, since the government’s POliCY
is to construct only the headwork of the project, small
irrigation projects do not have a distribution system.
The WUA must organize farmer-members to dig
canals by themselves. This causes many problems and
many WUAs become inactive. Most small projects
have been left unused or improperly maintained.
Several factors caused this undesirable outcome, but
the most important was that farmers did not actually
participate in all stages of project development.
Farm pond
Two types of farm ponds are constructed. The first
type is the pond that the implementing agencies
construct for free. The second type is the pond for
which the farmers have to pay back the construction
cost within a period agreed by the farmers and the
farmers’ organization foiixed by the pond’s recipients.
The forming of the farmer’s organization is generally
a condition set up by the supporting agencies. The
money returned will be used to construct new farm
ponds for new members who join the farmers’
organization later or used as a loan for agricultural
production activities. The ponds that fall into the
second type are generally operated and maintained
better than the first type since the ponds’ recipients
must fully engage in agricultural production to earn a
sufficient living and obtain some extra production to
pay back the investment cost.
Future direction
Though more development projects for water
resources are still needed for the Korat Basin, they
should be carried out with adequate planning and
managed systematically with farmers’ participation in
all developmental stages. Participation should include
the investment cost and operations. Since most
farmers are poor, the investment coiltribution may be
117
mostly in kind and partly in cash. The proportion of
investment contribution may vary. For example,
farmers can contribute the total investment cost for
farm pond construction according to a repayment plan
to be agreed upon. The proportion of the contribution
decreases as the project grows larger.
A large number of medium irrigation projects
should be rehabilitated and/or modernized, then
transferred to WUAs for operation and maintenance.
Also, small irrigation projects that have potential for
agricultural production should have distribution
systems.
118
Bibliography
Royal Irrigation Department. 1999. Irrigation project
statistics. Bangkok, Thailand. 299 p.
Water Resources and Environment Institute. 1996. A
project to prepare a Master Plan of Water Resources
Development for Thailand, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
Notes
Author's address: Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen
University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand.
Water management in the Korat Basin, northeast
Thailand: policy, institutional, and management
issues from the farm/village to the region
Siripong Hungspreug

Development of irrigation infrastructure for agriculture has not been extensive in

northeast Thailand because of limited surface water resources in the dry season
and the risk of salinization through groundwater use. Many existing irrigation schemes
are in low-lying areas subjected to floods and waterlogging, with low potential for
crops other than rice during the wet season. The extensive nature of rice cultivation
on relatively poor soils does not bring high returns to investments in irrigation. De-
spite the existence of several levels of institutional and social organization for man-
aging irrigation water, in practice management is largely top-down and is supgly-
driven rather than demand-driven. With recent constitutional changes, the national
and social development plan for 1996-2001 and a new national vision on water
(2000-25), there are now moves to improve coordination among government line
agencies, the private sector, and farmer groups in linking water management with
other aspects of agricultural development, such as seed production, agro-process-
ing, and marketing.

The Korat Bsin consists of three main basins in
Thailand: the Mae Khong, Chi, and Mun. It covers
168,847 km2, 40% of the total land area of the
country.
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of these
three basins.
Figure 1 shows the irrigation and water resource
development implemented by the Royal Irrigation
Department (RID).
Problems and constraints
Many problems and constraints in the Korat basin
hinder the improvement of living standards of the
area’s inhabitants. Such problems arise from deficien-
cies in natural resources, irrigated farming systems,
institutional aspects, socioeconomic aspects, and
human resources that can be briefly described as
follows:
Natural resources
1. Rainfall is deficient and seasonally distributed
2. Flooding adversely affects wet-season agricul-
tural production
3. Water resources for irrigation are deficient in the
dry season because of
- Rapid runoff during the wet season
- Low runoff during the dry season
- Lack of sufficient storage reservoir sites
- Competing demands from nonagricultural
users
- Inefficient use

Table 1. Characteristics of Mae Khong, Chi, and Mun basins.

Area Average rainfall Specific yield Storage volume Irrigated area

Basin
(km2) (mm) (I s-1 km-2) (106 m3) (ha)

Mae Khong 46,670 1,200–2,250 8.72–14.05 1,470 197,600

Chi 49,477 800–1,500 4.00– 9.70 4,246 273,920
Mun 69,700 1,000–1,800 2.00– 7.60 4,256 353,440

119
2. At the regional level, there are three Regional
Irrigation Offices of RID in the Korat Basin: the
RIO 4 at Khon Kaen, RIO 5 at Ubol, and RIO 6
at Nakhorn Ratchasima. The allocation of
responsibilities based on administrative boundary
to these three RIOs reduces the opportunities for
coordination in water resource management and
inevitably complicates the implementation of
water resource development by basin commit-
tees.
3, At the farm level, the RID Operation and
Maintenance Section operates the irrigation
systems together with staff of the Department of
Agricultural Extension (DoAE), but actually the
water allocation and management are normally
decided by RID without full involvement of the
beneficiary farmers. Water users’ organizations,
based on “chaeks” (service groups), are being
established and irrigation community organizers
(ICOs) are being employed for some irrigation
schemes. However, the process of participatory
management is often not fully understood;
therefore, “top-down” water management
continues.
4. The On-Farm Water Management Branch of
RID, responsible for farmer participation
activities, is weak in terms of staffing, executive
capacity, and budget compared with the construc-
tion sections.
Key constraints to natural resource
development
The key constraints to natural resource development
were identified as follows:
1. Rural-urban income disparities: Urban employ-
ment can offer almost tenfold more income than
what can be obtained in farming. Off-farm
emplovment forms a significant source of farm
family income. There is no apparent correlation
between farm size and farm income, probably
because of remittances by family members
working in the nonagricultural sector.
2. Migration: A survey carried out by NEWMASIP
on some communities in 1995 showed that about
20% of farmers (heads of household) and 12% of
family members were engaged in nonfarming
work within the village, whereas 9% of farmers
and 20% of family members were engaged in
nonfarming work outside the village.
3. Income and equality of distribution: In terms of
income and equity, the analysis of the tambon
(subdistrict) data clearly shows two main groups:
- High income/low equality of distribution:
Nakhorn Ratchasima, Buriram, and Surin
(and marginally Sisaket) have high average
incomes but inequitable distribution. The
poorest communities exist in these richest
provinces. Poverty alleviation will therefore
need to focus on the agricultural plan to raise
incomes of these poorest communities.
- Low income/high equality of distribution:
Amnat Chareon, Yasothon, Roi Et,
Mahasarakham, and Khon Kaen (and
marginally Ubon Rachathani) have lower
average incomes but more equitable distribu-
tion. The poorest communities in these
provinces are substantially richer than those
in the richest provinces mentioned above.
Human resources
Compared to current conditions, the future rural labor
force will be smaller, older, and increasingly female.
Laborers, and young males in particular, will become
increasingly scarce. This will alter the balance
between the labor force and capital and will require
changes in activities appropriate for irrigated agricul-
ture.
Natural resources and environmental
management
In the recent history of Thailand’s development, huge
amounts of natural resources have been used under
inadequate and inappropriate management to increase
national income and improve living standards for the
population. Although rapid economic growth has
clearly been achieved, several problems have
accompanied it.
To protect and preserve the environment and
natural resources, important factors for sustainable
development and a better quality of life, it is vital to
incorporate the management of natural resources and
the environment into the new Constitution (1997) and
the Eighth National and Social Development Plan
(1996-2001).
New constitution (1997)
Many articles in the new constitution stipulate the
roles of the government and the people in the use and
conservation of natural resources, such as
Article 79: The government shall promote and
support people to participate in the conservation,
maintenance, and use of natural resources and
their diversities in a balanced fashion, and
Article 59: Any person shall have the right of access
to data, an explanation, and reasoning from
121
 government agencies, state enterprises, or the
local administrative authority prior to the
implementation of any project that may have an
impact on people. Any person shall have the right
to express opinions on such issues according to
the procedures of a public hearing.
National economic and social development
plan (NESDP)
The current Eighth NESDP (1996-2001) sets out the
objectives of maintaining the environment and
natural resources as follows:
1. Establish systematic management of water
resources, especially at the basin level, including
the provision of clean drinking water and
supervision of water quality, pollution control,
and drainage. This will involve
- coordinating activities of agencies at
national and basin levels to ensure consis-
tency and continuity
- prioritizing water allocation at various levels
- promoting of a cost recovery program
- improving water transmission to reduce loss
- promoting a water conservation program
2. Coordinate land-use policy and management
consistent with development potential in each
region
3. Ensure sound management of community
environments and green areas
4. Conserve natural and heritage sites
5. Promote a holistic, systematic approach to
natural resource management
6. Prevent and mitigate natural disasters
7. Improve the efficiency of public agencies
8. Expand the Kingdom’s role in international
cooperation
National vision on water for Thailand
(2000-25)
Recently, a meeting on the national vision on water
for Thailand was held in Bangkok in August 1999.
The meeting was organized by the Office of National
Water Resources Committee and the Royal Irrigation
Department with support from the Global Water
Partnership. The participants were from government
agencies, state enterprises, academic institutions, and
various nongovernment organizations. The meeting
agreed that the national vision on water for Thailand
up to 2025 shall be the following:
“By the year 2025, Thailand will have sufficient
water of good quality for all users through an efficient
management, institutional, and legal system that
would ensure equitable and sustainable utilization of
its water resources with due consideration of the
122
quality of life and the participation of all stakehold-
ers.”
Institutions involved in water resource
development and management
The institutions involved in water resource develop-
ment and management can be divided into three
levels: national policy, coordinating, and implementa-
tion. Figure 2 presents a flowchart showing the
relationships among these three levels.
National policy
The organizational body responsible for the establish-
ment of policies and plans consists of
- the Cabinet
- the National Economic and Social Development
Board
- the National Water Resources Committee
(NWRC)
- the Bureau of Budget
- the Office of Civil Service Commission
At the national level, the national vision on water
is to be endorsed by the cabinet. The draft water
resources law is being scrutinized in order to be
accepted by the authorities concerned. It is expected
that principles and measures for water allocation,
flood control, water resource development, water
conservation, and water pollution control will be
established as a master plan in each river basin. River
basin committees will coordinate the activities of
various agencies and local authorities.
Coordinating
The Office of the NWRC whose director is the
secretary of the NWRC, is to coordinate and follow
up on the activities of the implementation agencies to
make sure that they will be in accordance with the
policies set.
The ONWRC is also to act as a central body that
will set up standards and analytical methods to assess
data and establish a data network system for possible
exchange and dissemination of information.
Implementation
The agencies at this level can be divided into two
sublevels: the ministerial and departmental level and
the farmers’ institution level. Eight ministries and 31
departments deal with water resources.
At the ministerial level, particularly the Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, the policy-led
implementation program includes integrated water
Fig. 2. Flowchart showing organizations at the national policy, coordinating, and implementation levels. NESDB =
National Economic and Social Development Board, BOB = Bureau of Budget, CSC = Office of Civil Service
Commission, NWRC = National Water Resource Committee, ONWRC = Office of National Water Resource Committee,
NRDC = National Rural Development Committee, NRDCC = National Rural Development Coordination Center, WUIS =
Water User Institutions.

resource development and management, which aims
to optimize natural resources in the same areas
supported by many agencies such as the Department
of Fisheries, Department of Agricultural Extension,
Department of Land Development, and Department
of Cooperatives. Other programs include the im-
provement of efficiency of water use in existing
irrigation areas through better management, introduc-
tion of new technology, or promotion of public
awareness to conserve water and prevent natural
disasters, etc.
At the departmental level, more detailed plans for
implementation are proposed. Major plans of the
Royal Irrigation Department include
1. Water resource development plan for large- and
medium-scale projects
2. Operation and maintenance plan
3. Rural development plan, which includes
a. Small-scale projects
b. improvement projects
c. dredging of ponds and natural waterways
d. pipeline irrigation projects
4. Flood control projects
The master plan for the water resource develop-
ment and improvement program recently prepared by
the RID is used at the national and provincial levels.
At the farmers’ institution level, farmers’
institutions are responsible for
1. Administration and management of water
distribution and operation and maintenance of
water delivery systems;
2. Planning and implementing agricultural produc-
tion and processing, marketing, and
agroindustries in the form of cooperatives under
the coordination and supervision of line develop-
ment agencies; and
3. Acting as the coordinator among the farmers and
line development agencies.
For participatory approaches at the farmers’
institution level, lessons were learned from the
rehabilitation of the Northeast Small-Scale Irrigation
Project (NESSI, 1981-88), the Farmer Irrigation
Participation Plan (1992), and the Northeast Water
Management and System Improvement Project
(NEWMASIP-1998) as follows:
1. The NESSI project concentrated on improving
farmer coordination and involvement in water
use through water users’ groups (WUGs). A lot of
useful and valuable information was obtained
from the project. It took farmers from one to two
years to learn the benefits of cooperative action
and to stop stealing water from each other. Once

123
 the benefits of the group were realized, then the
WUGs could turn their attention to other forms
of cooperation, such as bulk purchase of inputs
and cooperative marketing. The size of a chaek
was reduced to 16-24 ha, servicing no more than
18 farmers. Above this level, obtaining coopera-
tion becomes too difficult.
2. Water users’ groups eventually link to form water
users’ associations (WUAs) and become legal
entities after registration at the provincial office.
The WUA president is elected by the WUGs for
a two-year term. The WUAs also pioneered the
collection of water fees for operation and
maintenance services. WUAs collect money for
membership fees, operation and maintenance,
fines for nonparticipation in on-farm mainte-
nance, and profits from marketing activities and
donations. Funds are deposited in savings banks.
3. The only criticisms of the NESSI scheme have
been the high cost of on-farm rehabilitation and
the fact that the WUAs were formed only after
construction was completed. It would have been
beneficial to have prepared the. group, elected the
chaek leader, and obtained farmer participation
when the scheme was being designed. Training
programs also targeted only the leaders of WUAs
or their administrative committee members.
4. The FIPA study showed that the irrigation
community organizer is efficient in providing
more opportunities for contact among farmer
groups, government line agencies, and the private
sector. In particular, contact has been facilitated
with the DoAE, Department of Fisheries,
Department of Livestock Development, and
private companies involved in seed production
and agro-processing for local and export markets.
5. Once the investment in institution building and
on-farm work is completed, consideration should
be given to some form of privatization of
irrigation schemes. Already the NEWMASIP
project is looking at the possibilities of tendering
for scheme maintenance by establishing a scheme
working group.
124
Conclusions
Both supply management and demand management
are necessary to cope the increasingly scarce water
resources. All stockholders from the national level to
the village/farm level are key players for the sustain-
able use of natural water resources. The coordination
of the multiplicity of institutions, organizations, and
the private sector is to be given high priority. The
concept of the participation of water users as full
partners at all stages of development (planning,
design, construction, and operation and maintenance)
should be accepted at all levels of the project admin-
istration. The Mae Khong, Chi, and Mun River basin
committees should be formulated to coordinate water
resource development and management in each basin.
Bibliography
Charoon Kamolratana. 1996. Water resources development
and national security: case study on master plan of
water resources development in Thailand.
National Economic and Social Development Board. 1996.
The Eighth National Economic and Social Develop-
ment Plan.
Office of Agricultural Economics. 1996. The implementa-
tion programme of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives during the Eighth NESDP.
Project Planning Division of the Royal Irrigation Depart-
ment. 1994. Master plan of water resources develop-
ment of Thailand.
Royal Irrigation Department. 1988. Chi Basin water use
study. Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Royal Irrigation Department. 1995. Mun River Basin water
resources development master plan.
Royal Irrigation Department. 1997. Feasibility study,of the
community irrigation development project, Vol. 2,
institutional aspects.
Royal Irrigation Department. 1998. North-east water
management and system improvement project.
Notes
Author’s address: Office of Budget Programming and
Project Planning, Royal Irrigation Department,
Bangkok 10300, Thailand.
 SECTION D

Soil and nutrient management

Soil and nutrient management of some major field
crops in the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand
Chairoj Wongwiwatchai and Kobkiet Paisancharoen

The Korat Basin is located in the lower part of the Northeast Plateau and surrounded
by ranges in the south, west, and northeast. Topography is floodplain, plateau (low,
middle, and high terraces), intramountainous highland, and mountains or hills. Up-
land soils vary from gently undulating landscapes on the plateau to rolling in the
intramountainous area. Alluvial soils on the plateau, mostly derived from sandstone,
are light in texture and low in fertility, whereas colluvial soils among the
intramountainous area are relatively fertile. The Office of Agricultural Economics
reported in 1995 that yield of field crops in the region was the lowest in the country
and the main crops were cassava, maize, and sugarcane, which covered 72.5% of
the total crop area. Meanwhile, the Department of Land Development divided major
upland soils into soil groups 35, 49, 44, 29, and 28, of which groups 35 and 44 are
poor soils and the remaining are relatively fertile.
Improper cultural practices and erratic rainfall are the main causes of drastic
soil degradation on undulating topography. To improve soil properties for better pro-
ductivity and sustainable production of field crops, management of organic matter
and soil fertility should be considered. Several research efforts succeeded with di-
rect application of fertilizers, organic materials, and soil amendments either sepa-
rately or in combination. Fertilizers improve soil nutrients while organic materials
and soil amendments control the soil reaction and increase soil moisture content
and buffering capacity. Changing cropping patterns and managing crop residues
are other practices for soil improvement. They help maintain soil productivity, through
both physical and chemical properties, in the long run. Finally, controlling soil ero-
sion by cultural practices is also necessary to protect soil resources and the environ-
ment.

The Korat Basin is located in the lower part of
northeast Thailand. The soils, mostly derived from
sandstone and siltstone, are typically light in texture
and low in chemical fertility and have poor moisture
storage capacity. They are also low in cation ex-
change capacity (CEC), clay content, organic matter
content, and buffering capacity. Therefore, the soils in
the region are inherently infertile (Mitsuchi et al
1986, Yoshioka 1987) and susceptible to degradation.
Table 1 shows the yield of some field crops grown on
infertile soils in the Basin compared with that in the
whole Kingdom and the central region. Ota et al
(1992) believed that infertile soils are mainly caused
by the poor virgin soil and human activities, that is,
deforestation and improper soil management in
cultivation. In addition, the amount and distribution
of rainfall during the crop growing season are quite
limited and erratic with long dry spells occurring
frequently, which restrict crop production as men-
tioned above.
The objectives of this chapter are to review (1)
topography, land forms, soil characteristics, and
potential soil productivity for field crops and (2)
improvement and management of soil productivity for
sustaining field crop production.
Topography, land form, and soil
characteristics
The Korat Basin is situated in the southern part of the
Northeast Plateau, surrounded by the Phanom
Dongrak and Sankamphang ranges in the south, the
Phetchabun range in the west, and the Phu Phan range

127
Table 3. Soil types and land use on different land forms in the Korat Basin.

Land forms Great groups Major soil series Land use

(USDA soil taxonomy)

Floodplain Ustifluvents Tha Muang: Tm Chiang Mai: Cm Fruit trees and vegetables
Tropaquepts Phimai: Pm Ratchaburi: Rb Paddy
Low terrace Paleaquults Roi Et: Re Paddy
Middle terrace Paleustults Korat: Kt Satuk: Suk Warin: Wn Upland crops
Plinthustults Phon Phisai: Pp
Quartzipsamments Nam Phong: Ng
High terrace Paleustults Yasothon: Yt Upland crops
lntramountainous area Haplustoxs Chok Chai: Ci Upland crops
Paleustults Pak Chong: Pc
Hills, mountains Unclassified – Forests

Table 4. Distribution of major soils in the Korat Basin, northeast Thailand.

Soil Area
groups Soil series USDA taxonomy
km2 %

Upland soils 39,523 36.96

35 Korat (Kt) 16,652 15.57 Oxic Paleustults, fine-loamy, siliceous
35 Satuk (Suk) 3,155 2.95 Oxic Paleustults, fine-loamy, siliceous
35 Warln (Wn) 2,957 2.76 Oxic Paleustults, fine-loamy, siliceous
35 Yasothon (Yt) 2,190 2.05 Oxic Paleustults, fine-loamy, siliceous
35 Dan Sal (Ds) 9 0.01 Oxic Paleustults, fine-loamy, mixed
35 Don Rai (Dr) 2 0.00 Oxic Paleustults, fine-loamy, mixed
49 Phon Phisai (Pp) 2,440 2.29 Typic Plinthustults, clayey-skeletal, mixed
49 Borabu (Bb) 1,090 1.02 Aquic Plinthustults, flne-loamy over skeletal, mixed
49 Sakon (Sk) 813 0.76 Petroferric Haplustults, loamy-skeletal, mixed
44 Nam Phong (Ng) 3,676 3.44 Ustoxic Quartzipsamments
44 Chun Tuk (Cu) 59 0.05 Typic Ustipsamments, siliceous
29 Chok Chai (Ci) 1,268 1.19 Typic Haplustoxs, clayey, kaolinitic
29 Pak Chong (PC) 580 0.54 Oxic Paleustults, clayey, kaolinitic
29 Sung Noen (Sn) 370 0.35 Typic Paleustults, clayey, mixed
29 Chieng Khong neutal (Cg-n) 38 0.04 Oxic Paleustults, clayey, kaolinitic
29 Khao Yai (Ky) 22 0.02 Typic Paleustults, clayey, kaolinitic
29 Ban Chong (Bg) 16 0.01 Oxic Paleustults, clayey, kaolinitic
38 Tha Muang (Tm) 687 0.64 Typic Ustifluvents, loamy, mixed, nonacid
38 Chiang Mai (Cm) 465 0.43 Typic Ustifluents, loamy, mixed, nonacid
35 49 44 29 38 associations 3,026 2.82
Lowland soils 44,333 41.45
17 Roi Et (Re) 25,018 23.39 Aeric Paleaquults, fine-loamy, mixed
17 Renu (Rn) 1,815 1.70 Aeric Plinthic Paleaquults, fine-loamy, mixed
17 Lom Kao (Lk) 1,124 1.05 Aeric Paleaquults, fine-loamy, mixed
17 Bun Tharik (Bt) 9 0.01 Aeric Paleaquults, fine-loamy, mixed
20 Udon (Ud) 2,745 2.57 Tropaquent, coarse-loamy, siliceous, nonacid
20 Kuia Rong Hai (Ki) 2,180 2.04 Typic Natraqualfs, fine- loamy, mixed
4 Ratchaburi (Rb) 1,417 1.32 Aeric Paleaquults, fine, mixed, nonacid
4 Chai Nat (Cn) 148 0.14 Aeric Tropaquepts, fine-clayey, mixed, nonacid
4 Saraburi (Sb) 97 0.09 Aeric Tropaquepts, fine-clayey, mixed, nonacid
3 Phimai (Pm) 1,552 1.45 Vertic Tropaquepts, very fine, mixed
7 Tha Tum (Tt) 1,175 1.10 Aeric Tropaqualfs, fine, kaolinitic
7 Doem Bang (Db) 122 0.11 Aeric Plinthic Tropaqualfs, fine, kaolinitic
7 Nakhon Pathom (Np) 54 0.05 Aeric Tropaqualfs, fine, mixed
7 Phak Kat (Pat) 3 0.00 Aeric Tropaqualfs, fine, mixed
17 20 7 associations 7,051 6.59
59,60 Alluvial complex (AC) 3,697 3.46
62 Slope complex (SC) 9,258 8.66
Others 9,968 9.32
Korat Basin 106,956 100.00

Sources: Department of Land Development (1990) and Hemsrichart (1982).

130
Table 5. Yields of field crops on major soil groups in the Korat Basin.

A. Potential productivity

Yield (t ha-1)
Soil groups Average
Cassava Maize Sugarcane Kanaf Soybean Peanut

35 16.56 1.60 31.25 1.17 1.80 1.55 8.99

49 14.00 1.84 29.16 1.23 1.66 1.47 8.23
44 14.53 1.48 28.75 1.22 1.81 1.36 8.19
29 18.43 2.09 31.56 1.16 1.97 1.41 9.44
38 23.75 2.44 55.00 1.59 – 1.86 14.11
Average 17.45 1.89 35.14 1.27 1.81 1.53 9.79

B. Productivity under proper management

Yield (t ha-1)
Soil groups Average
Cassava Maize Suaarcane Kanaf Soybean Peanut

35 23.84 2.92 47.03 2.17 2.69 2.27 13.49

49 22.25 2.81 44.80 2.16 2.31 2.06 12.73
44 20.46 2.16 43.75 1.88 2.38 1.98 12.10
29 23.44 2.73 46.56 1.88 2.56 2.16 13.22
38 29.76 3.15 71.12 2.36 – 2.89 18.21
Average 23.95 2.75 50.65 2.09 2.49 2.27 13.95

C. Percentage of yield increase under proper management

Yield (t ha-1)
Soil groups Average
Cassava Maize Sugarcane Kanaf Soybean Peanut

35 44.0 82.5 50.5 85.5 49.4 46.5 59.7

49 58.9 52.7 53.6 75.6 39.2 40.1 53.3
44 40.8 45.9 52.2 54.1 31.5 45.6 45.0
29 27.2 30.6 47.5 62.1 29.9 53.2 41.7
38 25.3 29.1 29.3 48.4 – 55.4 31.2
Average 39.2 48.2 46.6 65.1 37.5 48.2 46.2

Source: Department of Land Development (1991).

Table 6. Soil fertility of upland soil groups in the Korat Basin.

Soil OM BS CEC Available P Available K

groups (%) (%) (meq 100 g-1) (ppm) (ppm)

29 Medium Low Medium Low Medium

35 Low Low Low Low Low
38 Low Medium Low Medium Medium
44 Low Medium Low Low Low
49 Medium Medium Medium Low High

aOM = organic matter, BS = base saturation, CEC = cation exchange capacity.

Source: Moncharoen and Kunaporn (1992).

131
easy and requires a proper method. Vatcharothayan
(1987) concluded that, for low-fertility soils, we
should take into account organic matter and fertility.
Direct application of fertilizers, organic materials, or
soil amendments is common in improving both
physical and chemical soil properties. Besides the
cultural practices, selection of appropriate cropping
systems and management of crop residues are also
necessary.
Some work in soil improvement focusing on
cassava, maize, and sugarcane has been done.
Konsilp and Juykongloy (1989) raised three consecu-
tive crops of maize during 1986-88 to study the effect
of green manure on maize yield and some physical
properties of the Pak Chong soil series (soil group
29). Green-manuring legumes were grown and
incorporated after 55 d before growing maize. The
results showed that seed yield, averaged over three
crops, increased 43–45% compared with the control
treatment. Moreover, soil physical properties im-
proved (Table 7). Similar work done by Meesawasdi
et al (1997) during 1995-97 in Khon Kaen Province
on a Korat soil (soil group 35) also showed an
increase in maize yield of 9–16% over that of the
control treatment.
For cassava, several experiments on sandy soil
(soil groups 35 and 44) were carried out in Khon
Kaen and Maha Sarakham provinces to investigate
the effect of green manures on cassava. Yield of
cassava increased up to 35–45% with Crotalaria
juncea but increased only 25–35% with Canavalia
ensformis (Konsilp 1993).
During 1991-92, Bhrammanee et al (1996)
studied the effects of green manure in combination
with N fertilizer on planted sugarcane (1991) and first
ratooning sugarcane (1992) on silty clay loam soil.
They reported that yield of planted sugarcane
increased 15.7-19.5% (Table 8A) and yield of first
ratooning sugarcane increased 36.3-52.0% (Table
8B).
Besides green manure, Jongruaysub et al (1997)
carried out an experiment on sugarcane using filter
cake in combination with nitrogen fertilizer in the late
rainy season of 1996. Results indicated a significant
influence of filter cake on sugarcane yield on the
Korat soil (soil group 35). However, no significant
yield increase was observed on the Pak Chong soil
(soil group 29) due to higher fertility and thus higher
yields of sugarcane on this soil (Table 9).
Panchaban et al (1989) set up an experiment in
1988 to study the effects of lime and organic materi-
als in combination with compound fertilizer on sweet
corn. Yield of sweet corn responsed markedly to
organic materials. Table 10 also shows more
improvement in chemical properties on the Korat
(soil group 35) and Nam Phong (soil group 44) soils.
Changing cropping systems is another alternative
for soil improvement. From the combination of
fertilizer application and intercropping with legumi-
nous crops (cut 2 months later for mulching) carried
out on Warin soils (soil group 35) during 1986-89,
Paisancharoen et al (1996) found that, when legumes
and cassava were grown at the same time, yield of
cassava decreased 18-22% compared with cassava
alone (Table 11A). After that period, an intercrop
relay for 3–4 wk during 1990-95 resulted in a yield
gain of 4–13% over cassava alone (Table 11B).
Wongwiwatchai et al (1997) studied the effects
of soil improvement and cropping systems on
cassava. Results showed that the most suitable
cropping pattern is the rotation between cassava and
peanut, whereas chemical fertilizer application is
important for soil improvement. However, chemical
fertilizer application along with soil amendment

Table 7. Effects of green manure legumes on maize and physical properties of the Pak
Chong soil series (group 29) during 1986-88 at Nakhon Ratchasima.

Soil physical properties

Legumes N Yield Yield
Bulk density Porosity WHC a (%) (t ha–1) Increase
(g mL–3) (%) (%) (%)

Fallow 1.29 63.20 23.35 – 3.01 –

Phaseolus radiatus 1.23 64.43 26.07 3.27 4.45 48.0
Phaseolus llmatus 1.22 65.98 25.43 4.07 4.52 50.3
Canavalia ensiformis 1.21 66.93 27.66 2.64 4.29 42.8
Vigna sinensis 1.21 66.95 28.65 3.36 4.43 47.4
Crotalaria juncea 1.21 67.08 28.93 2.96 4.56 51.6
Crotalaria sp. 1.21 68.40 29.03 3.15 4.66 54.9

aWHC = water-holding capacity.

Source: Konsilp and Juykongloy (1989).

132
Table 8. Yield of sugarcane as affected by green manure and chemical fertilizers (average
of four replications).

A. Experiment in 1992 (planted sugarcane).

Yield (t ha–1)
Yield increase
Green manure Fertilizer N (kg ha–1) Av (%)

0 6 12 18

Control 102.5 109.4 80.0 106.3 99.5 –

Crofalaria juncea 110.7 117.5 113.8 133.8 118.9 19.5
Sesbania rostrata 108.5 118.1 121.9 111.9 115.1 15.7
Average 107.3 115.0 105.2 117.3 111.2 17.6
Yield increase (%) – 7.2 –2.0 9.3 3.6

B. Experiment in 1993 (first ratooning sugarcane).

Yield (t ha–1)
Yield increase
Green manure Fertilizer N (kg ha–1) Av (%)

0 6 12 18

Control 59.4 77.5 44.4 66.9 61.9 –

Crotalaria juncea 63.1 96.3 73.8 101.9 84.4 36.3
Sesbania rostrata 78.8 100.0 95.6 101.9 94.1 52.0
Average 67.1 91.3 71.3 90.2 80.1 44.2
Yield increase (%) – 36.1 6.3 34.4 19.4

Source: Bhrammanee et al (1996).

Table 9. Yield of sugarcane as affected by filter cakes in combination with nitrogen

fertilizer on Khorat and Pak Chong soll series.

Yield (t ha–1)

Filter Korat Pak Chong

cakes
(t ha–1) N (kg ha–1) N (kg ha–1)
Av Av
37.5 75.0 112.5 37.5 75.0 112.5

0 26.3 39.4 42.5 36.1 90.0 110.0 92.5 97.5

25 25.0 38.1 40.0 34.4 85.0 78.1 88.8 84.0
50 38.1 43.8 44.4 42.1 88.8 101.3 101.3 97.1
100 34.4 43.8 48.8 42.3 77.5 81.9 81.9 80.4
Av 31.0 41.3 43.9 38.7 85.3 92.8 91.1 89.8

Source: Jongruaysub et al (1997).

Table 10. Changer in roll chemical properties of Korat and Nam Phong soll series due to
lime and organic materials applied after harvesting sweet corn under farmers’ field
conditions in Khon Kaen in 1988.

Korat (group 35) Nam Phong (group 44)

Organic materials
pH OM a CEC b pH OM CEC
(1:2.5) (%) (meq 100 g–1) (1:2.5) (%) (meq 100 g–1)

Control 4.75 0.41 2.18 5.20 0.47 1.65

Limec 5.63 0.42 2.45 6.75 0.49 1.86
Cow manure d 5.63 0.70 2.20 6.38 0.70 2.22
Rice husk ash d 5.34 0.73 2.10 6.01 0.55 1.84
Garbage compostd 5.87 0.65 2.15 5.79 0.66 2.18
Average 5.41 0.58 2.22 6.03 0.57 1.95
aOM = organic material. b CEC = cation exchange capacity. c 1.25 t ha–1. d 6.25 t ha–1.
Source: Panchaban et al (1989)

133
 Table 11. Effects of fertilizer and intercropping on cassava grown on Warin soil series in
Khon Kaen (9 consecutive crops during 1986-95).

A. Intercrop (1986-89).

Yield (t ha–1)

Cropping pattern Fertilizer 15-15-15 (kg ha–1) Av Index

0 312.5 625.0

Cassava alone 16.9 27.5 31.1 25.1 100.0

Intercrop with cowpeaa 13.7 22.4 25.7 20.6 82.0
Intercrop with sword bean b 11.7 19.9 27.6 19.7 78.5
Average 14.1 23.3 28.1 21.8

B. Intercrop relay for 3-4 wk (1990-95).

Yield (t ha-1)

Cropping pattern Fertilizer 15-15-15 (kg ha-1) Av Index

0 312.5 625.0

Cassava alone 6.5 16.5 20.8 14.6 100.0

Intercrop with cowpeaa 7.8 17.1 20.7 15.2 104.4
Intercrop with sword bean b 7.9 18.1 23.6 16.5 113.3
Average 7.4 17.2 21.7 15.4

Source: Paisancharoen et al (1996).

aVigna sinensis. bCanavalia ensiformis.

would be more suitable for cassava in the future
(Table 12A). In addition, soil acidity was affected by
chemical fertilizer and soil amendment was capable
of maintaining soil pH and organic matter (Table
12B).
Soil erosion in the region is due to the undulation
of the ground surface. Therefore, soil conservation in
cassava fields with slope of 3.2-6.7% was done in
Kalasin on sandy loam soils (soil group 35) to assess
yield and soil loss. The Department of Agricultural
Extension (1998) reported that soil loss in cassava
fields ranged from 25.8 to 35.7 t ha-1 y-1. Effective
measures that could markedly decrease soil loss are
contour ridging and barrier setting (Table 13).
Conclusions
Upland soils in the Korat Basin are mostly low in
fertility because of the original parent materials. They
are directly or indirectly derived from sandstone,
siltstone, and shale, which result in coarse texture,
poor moisture storage, and low organic matter
content. Therefore, yield of field crops in the region is
lower than that in other regions of the Kingdom. To
improve productivity, we should focus on managing
soil organic matter and fertility.
Some overall conclusions are that
1. Direct application of fertilizers and organic
materials apparently increases the yield of field
crops.
2. Soil amendment with lime, rock phosphate, or
even compost is able to decrease soil acidity to a
suitable level for crops.
3. Application of organic materials and green
manures and changing the cropping system can
help in maintaining organic matter and nutrients
in the soil for plants.
4. Proper cultural practices could reduce soil
degradation.
References
Bhrammanee P, Buakangdee C, Thumtong P, Boorithum C,
Lairungreong C, Sruttagporn C, Tongyai C,
Chaiwannakupt P. 1996. Green manure as a means to
sustain sugarcane production in Thailand. Thai Agric.
Res. J. 14(2):97-106.

134
Table 12. Effects of soil improvement and cropping patterns on cassava grown on
Yasothon soils (group 35).

A. Average yield (t ha-1) over 17 years (1980-96).

Cropping pattern
Soil improvement Average Index
Cassava Cassava/peanut intercrop

Control 11.9 18.7 12.6 14.4 100.0

Chemical fertilizer a 21.1 22.8 20.1 21.3 147.8
Soil amendment b 18.8 21.2 17.0 19.0 131.8
Chemical fertilizer + soil 21.4 21.3 20.8 21.2 146.9
amendment
Average 18.3 21.0 17.6 19.0 131.7
Index 100.0 114.7 96.4 103.7

B. Changes In Soil chemical properties during 1980-96.

pH Organic Available P Extractable K

Treatment (1:1) matter (%) (ppm P) (ppm K)

1st year (1980) 6.2 0.56 8 25

17th year (1996)
Cropping pattern
Cassava 5.6 0.46 30 32
Cassava/peanut-pigeonpea c 4.8 0.63 20 38
Cassava intercropped with peanut d 5.1 0.60 44 46
Average 5.2 0.56 32 39
Soil improvement
Control 4.7 0.49 2 30
Chemical fertilizer a 4.3 0.47 26 47
Soil amendment b 5.8 0.61 43 33
Chemical fertilizer + amendment 5.9 0.67 55 44
Average 5.2 0.56 32 39
a 50-50-50 and 18.7-56.2-37.5 kg ha-1 of N-P2O5-K2O for cassava and peanut, respectively.
b Applied lime (1,250 kg rai-1), rock phosphate (1,250 kg rai-1), and municipal compost (18.7 t rai-1) only in 1st,
5th, and 9th year (1980, 1984, and 1988).
c Crop rotation: cassava-peanut-pigonpea, crop residues of peanut were returned to the plot after harvest and

pigeonpea was incorporated as green manure.

d
lntercropping, peanut was intercropped between rows of cassava and crop residues of peanut were mulched
after harvest.
Source: Wongwiwatchai et al (1997).

Table 13. Cassava yield and soil loss due to soil erosion in fields with slope of 3.2–6.7%
in Kalasin (1997).

Treatment Locations Yield Soil loss

Index
(no.) (t ha-1) (t ha-1 y-1)

Traditional 7 29.7 12.5 100.0

Close spacing a 7 35.7 11.1 88.9
Contour ridge b 7 29.4 8.4 67.6
Lemon grass barriers 7 32.8 9.6 76.9
Vetiver barriers c 2 31.4 7.4 58.9
Intercropping: sweet corn d
7 25.8 13.4 107.1
Intercropping: pumpkin e 4 31.2 14.1 113.2
Average 30.9 10.9
a Spacing 0.8 x 0.8 m.
b Specing 1.25 m between ridges and 0.8 m on ridges.
c Spacing 1.25 x 0.8 m with barriers between 4 interval rows.
d Spacing 1.25 x 0.8 m.
Sweet corn was grown 0.4 m apart with 2 plants per hill.
e Spacing 1.26 x 0.8 m. Pumpkin was grown 1.6 m apart with 1 plant per hill.

Source: Department of Agricultural Extencion (1998).

135
Department of Agricultural Extension. 1998. Report on
project of cassava yield improvement under soil
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Hemsrichart P. 1982. Classification and characterization of
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Konsilp C, Juykongloy V. 1989. Studies on suitability
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Meesawasdi R, Boonampol P, Punpruek P, Panpreuk L.
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of soils of the Northeast Plateau, Thailand: their
characteristics and constraints. Technical Paper No. 1.
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Moncharoen L, Kunaporn S. 1992. Soil resources and soils
of Thailand. In: Pongsakul P, Parkpien P, editors.
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tion. Department of Soil Science, Kasetsart University,
Bangkok. p 11-33. (In Thai.)
136
Office ofAgricultura1 Economics. 1998. Agricultural
statistics of Thailand crop year 1996/97. Agricultural
Statistics No. 18. Bangkok (Thailand): Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives. 309 p.
OtaT, Wichaidit P, Pramojanee P, Sukchan S, Wada H.
1992. Virgin soils and their degradation in Northeast
Thailand. Technical Paper No. 9. Agricultural
Development Research Center in Northeast Thailand,
Khon Kaen. 82 p.
Paisancharoen K, Sittibusya C, Nagviroj C, Viboonsook N.
1996. Effect of ameliorating and chemical fertilizer on
cassava in Warin soils. Annual meeting report 1996,
26-28 March 1996, Chiang Mai. Soil Science
Division, Department of Agriculture. p 326-339. (In
Thai.)
Panchaban S, Katavatin R, Srisataporn P, Srichan P,
Sookwatanasombutr M, Prachankanjana S. 1989. The
application of organic materials and chemical fertilizer
in the improvement of soil properties and fertility
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growers in the Northeast. Sponsored by USAID and
RDI, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 69 p, (In
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fertilizer and soil microbiology (3rd Group Discus-
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Northeast, 1-5 Sept. 1987. Agricultural Development
Research Center in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen. p
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Wongwiwatchai C, Taechakomain T, Tippayaruk S,
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Notes
Authors’ addresses: Chairoj Wongwiwatchai, Khon Kaen
Field Crops Research Center, 180 Mitraparb Rd.,
Muang District, Khon Kaen 40000, Thailand; Kobkiet
Paisancharoen, Field Crops Soil Fertility Research
Group, Soil Science Division, Jatujak, Bangkok
10900, Thailand.
Nutrient management in rainfed lowland rice-
based systems in northeast Thailand
Yothin Konboon, J.D. Wijnhoud, and Rod D.B. Lefroy

Infertile soils and declining soil fertility are widespread in many agroecosystems in
northeast Thailand, including those based on rainfed lowland rice. During the past
30 years, many national and international institutions involved in agricultural research
have carried out research on management strategies to overcome these problems.
Farmers have adopted some research outcomes, whereas others have had minimal
Impact.
This paper gives a brief overview of the characteristics of these agroecosyetems
and outlines past and ongoing research on nutrient management in the rainfed low-
land rice-based systems of northeast Thailand. In addition, it deals wlth the imple-
mentation and impact of research results.
Appropriate nutrient management strategies include the use of inorganic fertil-
izers and various organic inputs, the integration of inorganic and organic inputs, and
changes to cropping systems that improve the use of nutrients. There is a need for
more interdisciplinary and participatory approaches to research that deals concur-
rently with biophysical and socioeconomic factors. Research at the agroecosystem
level, which includes nutrient balance studies and interdisciplinary and participatory
approaches, is outlined.

Thailand is a major-rice growing and exporting
country, with rice production in 1995 estimated at 22
million tons (OAE 1998). Among the four regions in
Thailand, the northeast is the most populous and the
poorest. The northeast has about one-third of the total
area of the country and the largest area under agricul-
ture, with more than 40% of the nation's agricultural
land. Because of poor soil conditions, an unfavorable,
or at least unreliable, climate, and a weak economic
infrastructure, partly because of the relatively small
nonfarm sector, possibilities for income generation
are limited.
The northeast has the largest area of land under
rice production, at approximately 5.12 million ha, or
56% of the national rice land, but the lowest average
rice yield of the country (OAE 1998). The average
rice grain yield in Thailand is 2.2 t ha–1; however, the
average in the northeast is 1.7 t ha–1 versus 2.9 t ha–1
in the more fertile Central Region.
An increase in both agricultural and nonagricul-
tural production is required to alleviate poverty in
northeast Thailand. Current production systems, with
law inputs of inorganic and organic sources of
nutrients, result in significant depletion and imbal-
ances of crop nutrients in the soil. This situation has
deteriorated as more marginal parts of the landscape
are used for agricultural production. The greater
reliance on marginal lands includes expansion of rice
cultivation to higher parts of the topography, where
crops are more prone to failure as a result of limited
water availability during dry spells. In addition,
upland fields and rice paddies located relatively high
in the topography are more prone to soil fertility
decline because of a greater potential for nutrient
runoff and leaching. Rough nutrient balances esti-
mated for major land-use systems in northeast
Thailand indicate significant problems in nutrient
management, and thus natural resource management,
in the ecoregion (Lefroy and Konboon 1998).
The recent economic crisis has probably in-
creased the rate of environmental and social decline.
Many people lost their jobs in Bangkok and other
cities and had to return to the resource-poor rural
areas, thus producing increased pressure on land
resources. The direct effects of the recent economic
downturn on rice cultivation in northeast Thailand are

137
not fully appreciated. During the time of relative
prosperity before the economic crisis, many farmers
committed themselves to high loans to improve their
farms, but now have problems with repayment.
Relatively high interest rates contributed to these high
levels of indebtedness (Miyagawa et al 1998). The
economic downturn exacerbated the already unequal
distribution of wealth, and contributed to an even
greater poverty trap for the rural population in
northeast Thailand, particularly for disadvantaged
groups and people living in resource-poor areas in the
region (ADB 1999).
This paper provides an overview of recent
research on nutrient management for rainfed lowland
rice-based systems in northeast Thailand, where it has
succeeded, where it has failed or had limited impact,
and what challenges remain for future research,
development, and implementation.
Research and development to date
Introduction
Soil fertility decline is widespread in many
agroecosystems in northeast Thailand, including those
based on rainfed lowland rice. During the past 30
years, many national and international institutions
involved in agricultural research have carried out
research on management strategies to overcome these
problems. These management strategies include the
use of mineral fertilizers, the addition of organic
materials, more integrated approaches to nutrient
management, and alterations to the cropping and
farming systems.
Mineral fertilizers
The simplest and, in many ways, most convenient
method for farmers in northeast Thailand to improve
soil fertility and to increase rice yields has been to use
mineral fertilizers, especially those containing
nitrogen. Nitrogen is the most common yield-limiting
nutrient. In some cases, the use of nitrogen fertilizer
alone can improve rice yields enormously, with
positive responses to applications of up to 120 kg N
ha-1 (Konboon et al 1998). Although there is a greater
risk of leaf blast disease at higher rates of N, farmers
can avoid this by splitting fertilizer applications.
For lowland rice production in this area, the
Department of Agriculture recommends the use of 25
kg rai-l of 16-16-8 or 16-20-0 fertilizer as a basal
dressing and 5 kg rai-l of urea at panicle initiation to
match plant demand for nutrients. This is equivalent
to 40 kg N ha-1, 12 kg P ha-1, and 0 to 10 kg K ha-1,
138
which is well below the maximum rates at which
crops respond. Because of financial constraints and.
the risk of water shortages, however, farmers-rareiy
follow these recommendations. Most farmers-apply
16-16-8 at rates of between 6 and 12 kg rai-l (ap-
proximately 6-12 kg N ha-1, 2.5–5 kg P ha-1, and 2.5–
5 kg K ha-1) (ACIAR PN9448 1998). Moreover, the
high sand and low SOM contents of the majority of
northeast soils mean that there is little capacity to
hold nutrients, which can result in significant leaching
of applied fertilizer, leading to low nutrient-use
efficiency.
The key to improving the efficiency of nutrient
use and reducing losses lies in the synchronization of
nutrient supply, particularly of N, with plant require-
ment. This can be achieved through split application
of fertilizers (Konboon et a1 1998), the use of
controlled-release N fertilizers (Wonprasaid and
Chaiwat 1997), and subsoil compaction to reduce
leaching (Sharma 1993). However, problems exist
with these approaches. The coincidence of prolonged
submergence with basal applications and drought with
later applications is a common feature in rainfed
situations in the northeast, which makes synchroniza-
tion difficult. As a result, farmers apply N fertilizers
according to water availability, regardless of plant
need; thus, application in synchrony with plant
demand is not always practical. The use of chloro-
phyll meters or calibrated leaf color charts to improve
the timing of split applications, or of controlled-
release N fertilizers, may help to achieve better
synchrony between demand and supply, although
these options are now too expensive or require further
development. Subsoil compaction is not practical for
farmers.
Once improved N nutrition is achieved, more
attention can be directed at improved management of
other nutrients. Information already exists on the
requirements for some nutrients, including P (e.g.,
Lefroy et al 1988, Ruaysoongnem 1997), K (e.g.,
Hatsathon et al 1977), and S (e.g., Kurmarohita et al
1978, Blair and Lefroy 1990).
One key issue relating to the application of
inorganic fertilizer is the possible effect on rice
quality. There is evidence that the application of high
rates of N decreases the quality of the aromatic rice
varieties widely grown in northeast Thailand, such as
KDML 105, whereas increasing K fertilizer applica-
tions can increase aromatic quality (Hatsathon et al
1997). However, the nature of the response of yield to
fertilizer applications needs to be clarified to provide
better recommendations to farmers.
Organic materials
Organic materials have been used widely and
successfully as soil amendments to improve soil
fertility and yields in northeast Thailand. Tradition-
ally, organic materials were recycled within the
farming systems, although it is almost certain that the
rates of application were low. Research into the
benefits of applications of organic materials has
included crop residues, such as rice stubble and rice
husks (Supapoj et al 1998), plant residues, such as
leaf litter of leguminous trees (Konboon et al 1999),
and animal wastes, such as dung (Supapoj et al 1998).
Farmers commonly use crop residues, such as
straw, stubble, and rice husks, to improve soil fertility.
Although in the past many farmers in northeast
Thailand burned rice stubble to make plowing easier,
now it is more common to retain the stubble. Farmers
and extension workers recognize that the management
of these materials is an important part of nutrient
management aimed at improving soil fertility in the
region. With average grain yields of 1.7 t ha–1, there
should be an average of 2.5 to 3 t ha–1 of rice residue
for recycling in paddy fields of northeast Thailand.
With proper management, these materials can have a
significant effect on soil fertility and rice yields of the
region. The only major competition for recycling the
residues is the demand for their use as animal forage.
Another important form of organic material for
use as a soil fertility amendment is animal dung. One
on-farm source of animal dung is from buffaloes;
however, the number of buffaloes has declined
rapidly as hand tractors replace buffalo traction
power. From 1987 to 1995, the number of buffaloes
in northeast Thailand decreased by 27%, whereas the
number of hand tractors increased sharply, by 284%
(OAE 1991, 1998). At the same time, the number of
livestock, particularly cattle and chicken, continued to
increase to satisfy the demand for milk, meat, and
eggs. Thus, the overall supply of animal wastes
increased in the whole of the northeast, although the
distribution among farms and among livestock
species is changing.
Tree or shrub leaf litters from on-farm sources
show promise for improving soil fertility and increas-
ing SOM. Some studies have demonstrated very large
and rapid responses to large applications of legume
leaf litter (Rathert et al 1991); however, in many
cases, the levels applied are impractical. The URRC-
ACIAR collaborative research projects have demon-
strated that the use of relatively small amounts (up to
1.5 t dry matter ha–1 y–1) of plant materials such as
Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis, and
Phyllanthus taxodifolius can increase rice yield by
20–25% and SOM by 20% over several years,
Higher-quality residues such as pigeonpea (Cajanus
cajan) produced more rapid yield responses, but did
not result in the same improvements in SOM. Even
when the quantities of residues applied are small, the
challenge is to develop appropriate systems to grow
these trees in or around paddy fields (Konboon et al
1999).
Given the relatively low crop production and low
soil fertility in northeast Thailand, the use of on-farm
residues, such as rice stubble and rice husks, together
with on-farm leguminous leaf litters, appears to offer
some long-term improvements in soil fertility and the
level and sustainability of yields. The use of off-farm
organic resources will likely be less important, except
in highly productive areas or in areas close to a large
source of material, such as near rice mills or intensive
livestock production systems.
Much of the research that has been carried out on
the addition of organic materials shows promising
results; however, many of the results have been
unavailable to extension workers and of limited
relevance to specific farming areas.
Integrated nutrient management and a
systems approach
In northeast Thailand, the application of chemical
fertilizer alone has been shown to enhance soil
chemical properties, and thus increase yields, in the
short term; however, these strategies may result in
low nutrient-use efficiency in the longer term.
Although application of organic materials can
increase SOM and improve soil physical, chemical,
and biological properties, a shortage of nutrient
supply to the rice crop may occur. Therefore, inte-
grated application of inorganic fertilizers and organic
materials may be more appropriate for farmers to
raise SOM and soil fertility in these areas.
Much research has focused on nutrient manage-
ment during the growth of the rice crop. It is equally
important to direct attention to generating and
developing management strategies that focus on a
systems approach to integrated nutrient management
to sustain productivity and protect the resource base.
The introduction of legume species into rice
monocropping systems can significantly enhance soil
fertility as a result of the net input of biologically
fixed N into the system, thus minimizing the use of
external inputs. In the long run, the introduction of
legumes can improve the nutrition of rice with respect
to other nutrients, particularly P. First, the improved
fertility resulting from the legume can increase the
vigor of the rice plants, resulting in greater root
growth, and thus nutrient acquisition and nutrient-use
efficiency. Second, the introduction of legumes often
139
requires addressing other nutrient problems, particu-
larly P management. The result can be a direct benefit
to rice through the improved P status of the soil.
The Thai-IRRI collaborative project has carried
out both on-station and on-farm trials to investigate
the use of Sesbania rostrata and Aeschynomene
afraspera as prerice green manures (Herrera et al
1989). The results obtained, both on-station and on-
farm, are very promising. The use of S. rostrata and
A. afraspera can dramatically increase rice yields,
although problems exist for adoption of the technol-
ogy by farmers. The major disadvantages of these
strategies are the shortage of labor for green manure
incorporation, the chemical fertilizer requirements of
the green manure crop, and the shortage of seeds.
Many researchers have investigated legume crops
such as mungbean, cowpea, and others as pre- or
postrice crops. These strategies are unlikely to
produce the large short-term increases in rice yield
seen with S. rostruta and A. afraspera, but they do
not have the same problems of adoption. Neverthe-
less, these strategies are risky in rainfed lowland
conditions where inundation in prerice crops and
water shortages in postrice crops pose significant
problems (Supapoj et al 1998).
Research impact, opportunities, and
trends
The low impact of research
Although research in northeast Thailand may have
been very successful in some instances, it is observed
frequently that the impact on improving land and
nutrient management is minimal. This observation is
true for research in agricultural systems in many
countries. Although the reasons for limited impact of
research are complex, they can be divided into three
broad categories:
1. The research undertaken is simply wrong,
particularly with respect to the biophysical and
environmental limitations and constraints, thus
leading to incorrect or inappropriate results.
2. Results that are appropriate in the biophysical
sense are rejected by potential end-users for
cultural, social, and economic reasons, or
because of their low or negative impact on
longer-term sustainability.
3. Good research results simply do not survive the
transition from research to the development and
implementation of strategies.
Methods for overcoming problems associated
with the first two categories lie in improving the
actual research that is undertaken and these are
140
outlined in the following sections. Many of these
approaches will reduce problems associated with the
third category; however, several issues are less related
to the research and are more associated with imple-
mentation and institutional and professional struc-
tures.
First, many research programs do not include a
dissemination and implementation phase, or this
phase is planned, funded, and executed poorly.
Unfortunately, a major goal of many research
programs is the production of reports and publica-
tions in scientific journals, not impact on end-users.
Optimal dissemination and implementation of results
can be regarded as being of less importance because
this process does not match the skills and interests of
the planners and implementers, or because promotion
within institutions is tied to easily measurable factors,
such as numbers of reports and publications and not
the impact on farmers, which is much harder to
measure.
Second, minimal standardization of data collec-
tion, management, interpretation, and dissemination
plus limited sharing of data result in repetition of
research, which is inefficient. In general, this problem
results from a lack of research collaboration and
coordination at all scales, both within and between
institutions and countries. In addition, there is a
general lack of consensus on guidelines for data
collection and analysis, interpretation, and storage, all
of which would result in more standardized, acces-
sible, and reliable data sets.
Another problem, which is common in research
in many parts of the world, is that of overlapping
mandates and responsibilities between different
groups involved in the research, development, and
implementation continuum. These differences occur
both intra- and interinstitutionally, particularly
between research units and extension services and
end-users.
Many of these problems are difficult to address
directly. Frequently, the root cause is inadequate staff
and funding; however, some of these problems will
decrease or disappear as greater emphasis is placed
on conversion of scientific research results into user-
friendly recommendations and tools for use by
extension workers, farmers, and other end-users.
Achieving and assessing impact from research aimed
at improved sustainable land management must be
considered from the inception of the research
program (Maglinao 1998).
Improving the use of existing data
There is a great deal of information on nutrient
management from national and international research
projects in northeast Thailand and in similar
agroecosystems in neighboring countries, but the
availability of this information to farmers and
extension services must be increased. This informa-
tion will allow a better understanding of likely
responses to fertilizer and a better assessment of the
value and management of organic materials in the
cropping systems of the region. Much of these data
are unpublished or in a wide range of “gray-litera-
ture” sources that are not readily available. Collation
and reassessment of these data through appropriate
training programs, together with a small amount of
focused research, would significantly enhance the
value of the research that has been conducted already.
The development of databases that contain nutrient
management data for rice-based systems is essential.
Such databases would be developed for use by
extension services and could be enhanced signifi-
cantly by using them to develop new extension
materials and decision support systems. New ap-
proaches in information management and dissemina-
tion must be used.
Participatory and Interdisciplinary
research methods
A solution to some of the problems of past research
may be provided by greater use of more participatory
and interdisciplinary research methods. Participatory
and interdisciplinary approaches are dealt with
simultaneously as they are highly related. Interdisci-
plinary and multidisciplinary methods ensure that a
range of disciplines are included, while participation
of the major stakeholders ensures that the critical
disciplines are involved and that the research is
placed in an appropriate social and environmental
context, normally that of the farmer and the farming
community.
Tailor-made participatory research and participa-
tory extension can result in improved dissemination
of data results and implementation of recommenda-
tions. This helps ensure that research is directed more
toward practical problems in the context in which
they exist. The participatory approach does not mean
that farmers take the lead, but rather that a top-down-
bottom-up approach of aided participation is started,
based on structured mutual interaction among
farmers, extension workers, and researchers (e.g.,
Shumba et al 1995).
Knowledge about the general diversification and
complexity of an environment has major implications
for the establishment and promotion of extension
messages proposed for specific sets of environmental
conditions, both biophysical and socioeconomic (De
Wit et al 1995). Following the agroecological zoning
initiative by FAO (1978, 1980), the move to consider
research questions within a broader environmental
context took shape, such that research was managed
in a more ecoregional or agroecological context. The
latter two terms suggest that biophysical aspects are
of greater importance to agricultural practices, which
is not the case.
All of the environmental and other components
that need to be evaluated holistically are included
more implicitly in the resource management domain
(RMD) concept (IBSRAM 1996). An RMD refers to
the overall biophysical, agroecological, socioeco-
nomic, political, and management setting of a
research question. Both the spatial dimensions of an
RMD and its nonspatial level of complexity are
purpose- and information-driven (Kam and Oberthuer
1996).
Recommendations for different land-use systems
within an RMD must develop within the context of
potential conflicts for the various biophysical, social,
and economic resources of all end-users. Thus, it is
necessary to tailor extension packages to the resource
bases of farmers, and not only to separate ecologi-
cally determined production systems. Such tailored
packages are best achieved through participatory and
interdisciplinary research methods.
The examples and guidelines of farmer participa-
tory learning and action research aimed at developing
appropriate soil fertility management in sub-Saharan
Africa (Defoer et al 1998a,b) appear promising for
implementation in other parts of the world that
experience substantial soil fertility problems, such as
northeast Thailand.
Integrated agroecological research
Research to improve agricultural practices often
focuses on individual problems and solutions.
Although this approach has produced significant
outcomes, it can, at times, be of limited relevance.
This situation has improved with more integrated
research on multiple and complex problems, such as
the integration of soil, water, and nutrient manage-
ment, and the inclusion of the critical socioeconomic
factors. In the context of nutrient management
research, this has included a move to multinutrient
problems, to integrated management of inorganic and
organic materials, and to research on the interaction
between nutrients and water supply. But much more
needs to be done.
Understanding the RMDs of northeast Thailand
involves a clear classification in terms of the particu-
lar biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics of
141
the particular agroecosystem of interest. Many of the
research and development activities in northeast
Thailand can benefit from such classification.
To this end, multidisciplinary biophysical
research on improved nutrient management needs to
focus on critical factors that control nutrient availabil-
ity. Considering climate as a given factor, the main
factors that further influence nutrient availability are
soil type and topography. In turn, they influence
inherent nutrient supply, nutrient-holding capacity,
soil hydrology, and thus the balance between nutrient
supply and the various nutrient-loss processes. In
combination, these affect current land use and define
potential land-use capability. The large variability in
RMD characteristics across small distances means
that developing location-specific technology packages
can be difficult.
The short-range variations in biophysical factors,
which are characteristic of northeast Thailand (Kam
and Oberthuer 1996), mean that some critical aspects
of domain characteristics cannot be mapped as
homogeneous units. Data are insufficient for such
spatial definition and collection of the data required
to achieve a sufficient data density is impractical.
Despite this, the fine details of resource characteris-
tics, which are critical for selection of appropriate
management strategies, can be described within the
context of the spatially defined RMD. Whenever
these characteristics can be recognized by farmers as
components of spatially defined RMDs, they can be
used as important criteria to select appropriate
management practices.
It is important that integrated agroecological
approaches to research include assessment of these
domain characteristics so that the locations for
implementation of research outcomes can be identi-
fied accurately.
Specific research topics
Along with the more general aspects of improving
research, development, and implementation in an
integrated agroecological context and using participa-
tory and inter-/multidisciplinary methods, it is
possible to identify several important research topics
that need to be addressed or are being addressed in
northeast Thailand.
Responses to nutrient applications. Although
much information exists on responses to different
nutrients, particularly N, and to a lesser degree P and
K, there is a need to improve recommendations to
farmers. In many cases, the main task is to collate and
analyze existing data, although there is likely a need
for some further research and analyzing past research
142
will help focus the plans for new research. New
research needs to be aimed at a better understanding
of responses to individual nutrients, to interactions
between nutrients, and to nutrients supplied from
different inorganic and organic forms.
Rice quality. It is essential that strategies that
increase the production of aromatic rice in the
northeast, for national consumption and export, do
not reduce the product’s high quality. Analysis of
existing data will likely indicate several areas for
further research on the interactions among the supply
of different nutrients, yield, and quality, resulting in a
better identification of those areas most suited to the
production of aromatic rice.
Nutrient supply and soil moisture. Variations in
rice yield in northeast Thailand are related to water
supply, nutrient supply, and their interactions.
Increasing the water supply must rely mainly on
reasonably large-scale infrastructural developments
such as land leveling, on-farm water storage, or
irrigation schemes; however, there may be some
limited scope for improving water management
through management of crop rotations.
Management of nutrient supply can affect water
use significantly in some upland farming systems in
northeast Thailand. Although the effect will be less,
the same may occur in some rainfed lowland rice
systems. In addition, the availability of water appar-
ently has a significant effect on nutrient-use effi-
ciency, through an effect on crop growth and nutrient-
loss processes. These interactions need to be better
understood to improve recommendations on timing,
placement. and rates of applications of different
fertilizers and organic materials.
Crop establishment. Periodic and overall
shortages of labor have a significant effect on rice
production systems in the northeast. One critical
change in production systems is the move to crop
establishment by direct seeding rather than transplant-
ing. The rates and management of fertilizers and
organic inputs are of particular importance as
research topics within the context of crop establish-
ment, weed management, and evaluation of varieties.
Crop rotations. There is a need to evaluate
species, particularly legumes, to include within the
farming systems of the region as pre- and postrice
crops, and as crops grown elsewhere within the
farming system. These species need to be evaluated in
terms of management requirements for establishment,
nutrient supply, harvesting practices, and water use
within the whole system. In addition, the opportunity
should be taken to evaluate species with less fre-
quently used criteria. For instance, residue quality is a
criterion for considering the value of a species as a
soil amendment, for increasing nutrient supply and
SOM, and as forage for animals. Similarly, the
criterion of biomass production may take precedence
over product yield.
In all research on crop species and varieties for
inclusion as in-time or in-space rotations within
farming systems, it is critical that their acceptability
be on the basis of socioeconomic as well as biophysi-
cal considerations of the management systems.
Economic analyses. The integration of biophysi-
cal aspects of research and the development of true
multi- and interdisciplinarity within biophysical
research must be broadened to include the critical
aspects of socioeconomics. The assessment of
management strategies is not complete without an
economic evaluation. Ideally, this economic evalua-
tion should include some sensitivity analysis to assess
the risk associated with different strategies. The
difference between maximum responses in research
results and the recommendations made by extension
services are usually explained by economics. In many
cases, the difference between recommendations and
farmer practices results from farmer assessment,
correct or not, of the risk associated with a particular
strategy, and with other important socioeconomic
factors. Risk analysis should clearly become a greater
part of the research agenda in terms of converting
fertilizer responses and other management practices
into recommendations for farmers.
Nutrient balance studies. A critical component of
land management, which is affected by factors
important in RMD classification, is nutrient budgets.
Nutrient budgets are a characteristic of the land-use
system and its current management. Assessment of
nutrient balances can assist in developing improved
land management for particular land-use systems
within particular RMDs.
A collaborative research project on “Nutrient
Balance Studies in Northeast Thailand (NBS-NET)”
between the Ubon Ratchathani Rice Research Center
(URRC) and the International Board for Soil Re-
search Management (IBSRAM) began in 1998
(IBSRAM 1999). During the first phase, a reasonably
detailed survey of 10 rainfed lowland rice-based
farms was carried out in Muang District of Ubon
Ratchathani Province. The main objectives were to
assess nutrient balances at the field and farm levels
and to identify linkages with key socioeconomic
factors. The survey revealed that mean annual nutrient
balances for N, P, and K, including inputs in fertiliz-
ers, organic residues, and biological nitrogen fixation,
and removal in products, but excluding leaching,
erosion, and gaseous losses, were all positive. The
mean values were 8 kg N ha-1, 29 kg P ha-1, and 35 kg
K ha-1; however, the ranges were large: -115to 89 kg
ha-l for N, 8 to 73 kg ha-1 for P, and -24 to 122 kg
ha-1 for K. The inclusion of losses would reduce
these balances, particularly for N and K.
Much of the variation between farms appeared to
be related to differences in the proportions of off-farm
income and nonrice on-farm income. As the propor-
tions of income from rice increased, the productivity
and sustainability of the farms decreased. A sample of
10 farms is too small to accept this general hypothesis
or to investigate other hypotheses, so a more compre-
hensive data set will be collected in five representa-
tive tambons (subdistricts) in Ubon Ratchathani
Province, using a newly developed farm inventory
form. Selection of these tambons was based mainly
on the incorporation of the main agroecosytems
within the province, based on combinations of soil
and land use, plus the availability of existing data and
the presence of related studies.
In addition to the assessment of nutrient balances
at different scales, emphasis will be placed on
identifying socioeconomic and biophysical character-
istics that influence nutrient balances at different scale
levels. This requires details of the socioeconomic and
biophysical characteristics that define the RMD as
accurately and precisely as possible. Recommenda-
tions on integrated nutrient management (INM),
aimed at optimizing nutrient cycling within and
between the different parts of the farm, are an
expected outcome of NBS-NET.
The nutrient balances at the field and farm level
will be scaled up to subdistrict, district, and provin-
cial levels and should complement land evaluation
and land-use planning approaches at larger scales.
Large-scale planning is criticized frequently for
fulfilling the objectives of stakeholders at the larger
scale, but not those at the smaller scale, such as the
village and farm. Including nutrient balances from the
small scale in land evaluation and land-use planning
at the larger scales may increase the relevance to
stakeholders at smaller scales.
The project will need to build on existing
research results and link up with other ongoing
research activities in Ubon Ratchathani Province and
other parts of northeast Thailand. NBS-NET cannot
rely completely on its own primary data, but needs to
link to other research activities on leaching and other
soil, water, and nutrient management research,
143
especially that dealing with micro-topographic
effects.
NBS-NET aims to develop simple tools for
farmers and extension workers to assist them in
evaluating the sustainability of farm practices at the
field and farm level. Another objective is to set up a
georeferenced database containing relevant data for
policymakers dealing with land-use planning, and for
marketing and distribution by the fertilizer industry.
Other research efforts on nutrient balances,
especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, reveal that
assessment of nutrient balances is a powerful tool for
evaluating the sustainability of agroecosystems at
different scale levels (Smaling 1998, Defoer et al
1998a). Nutrient balance principles can be linked to
socioeconomic data and can be used to develop
improved recommendations aimed at both the
biophysical and socioeconomic aspects of
sustainability. In addition, nutrient budgets have a
significant educational role within farmer participa-
tory research (FPR) and farmer participatory exten-
sion (FPE) methods.
On-site, short-distance, and interregional
transfer of nutrients. The consumption of agricultural
products, whether for the household, for urban
centers, or for export, involves a significant transfer
of nutrients. With increasing population and urbaniza-
tion in Thailand, as in many countries, there is an
increasing supply of household and other wastes, with
a concentration in urban and periurban regions
resulting, in part, from the movement of agricultural
produce to the centers of high population and for
export. This movement of produce to population
centers results in waste management problems in
these centers and nutrient losses from the areas of
production.
Waste materials provide a potentially valuable
source of organic matter and plant nutrients for
agricultural areas. There is a requirement for research
to find appropriate solutions for the effective and safe
use of these materials for agricultural production.
At the farm and household level, the assessment
of nutrient balances can help to identify ways of
minimizing nutrient transfers and reducing and
replacing losses. As the distances for product, and
thus nutrient, transfer increase, the possibilities for,
and ease of, recycling nutrients decrease and the issue
of minimizing nutrient removal becomes more
critical.
Considering the huge amounts of rice, cassava,
and other agricultural products moved from northeast
Thailand to Bangkok, other parts of the country, and
abroad, the amount of nutrient transfer is consider-
144
able. Although the opportunities for using household
and urban wastes are limited in the northeast, com-
pared with other areas, particularly Bangkok, recy-
cling of these materials in agricultural production
should be increased where possible and ways found to
minimize nutrient removal from sites of agricultural
production and maximize the return of nutrients.
Conclusions
The low and declining soil fertility in many
agroecosystems in northeast Thailand and the poverty
of many farm households of the region are indicative
of the great need for research, development, and
implementation efforts to improve agricultural
productivity and the sustainability of the rural
systems. As long as the economic situation does not
permit an increase in off-farm income, solutions for
income generation have to be sought on-farm, by
means of farm diversification and the increased use of
improved management strategies. The Asian Devel-
opment Bank has noted that improved agricultural
practices are critical to restoring export competitive-
ness and to alleviating poverty, and that this process,
including overcoming the negative effects of the
economic crisis, will require substantial investments,
such as water resource management projects and
institutional and policy reforms (ADB 1999).
Many national and international institutions
involved in agricultural research have highlighted
nutrient and farming system management strategies
that should improve agricultural productivity in
northeast Thailand. These management strategies
include the use of inorganic fertilizers and various
organic inputs, the integration of inorganic and
organic inputs, more integrated approaches to nutrient
management, and changes in the cropping and
farming systems. Although farmers have adopted
some research outcomes, it appears that others have
failed to be adopted for several reasons.
The research results that exist need to be put into
the context of the biophysical and socioeconomic
constraints of the farming communities and then
extension materials and methods developed for
implementation. The identification of resource
management domains and strategies that match these
domains must become a major focus of research and a
tool for implementation of improved land manage-
ment strategies. An increased use of participatory and
multi-/interdisciplinary research methods is required
to increase the quality and relevance of the research
and increase the likelihood of adoption of improved
strategies by farmers.
 Although several highly specific research topics
can be undertaken in comparative isolation, the
majority require attention at the farming systems
level. An agroecosystems or ecoregional approach,
with coordination and collaboration of research
efforts across and within institutions, should increase
the efficiency of these research efforts to the greater
benefit of the rural poor.
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Managing problem soils in northeast Thailand
A. Yuvaniyama

Northeast Thailand covers 17 million ha, or one-third of the country. More than 80%
of the population is engaged in agriculture and most of the area is under rainfed
agriculture. The low income in this region is due to low agricultural productivity, which
in turn is due to poor soil and erratic rainfall. Farmers have been trying to increase
crop production by extending arable land through deforestation, which accelerates
environmental degradation.
The majority of the soils are formed from old alluvial sediments in the low ter-
races and lower part of the middle terrace. The soils are mainly low humic gley, of
sandy nature and deep, commonly with strong mottles that tend to change to a
plinthitic nature. Chemical analysis of soil properties reveals low to very low organic
matter and indigenous plant nutrient contents (including available phosphorus and
potassium), water-holding capacity, base saturation, pH, and cation exchange ca-
pacity (CEC).
Problem soils occurring in northeast Thailand include saline soils, acid soils,
sandy-textured soils, and skeletal soils, whereas soil erosion constitutes a major
land degradation problem. This paper reviews management strategies on problem
soils in northeast Thailand for sustainable agriculture, aimed at optimizing the effi-
ciency of external inputs rather than maximizing yields. The Department of Land
Development (DLD) disseminates information on low-cost technology that is effec-
tive and practical through farmland demonstration plots, with emphasis on organic
matter application to increase soil fertility, crop management, and cultivation prac-
tices.

Northeast Thailand covers 17 million ha, or one-third
of the country. More than 80% of the population is
engaged in agriculture and most of the area is under
rainfed agriculture. The low income in this region is
due to low agricultural productivity, which in turn is
due to poor soil and erratic rainfall.
Most of the soils in northeast Thailand are
derived from sandstone, shale, or siltstone and are
inherently low in potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and phosphorus (Ragland and Boonpuckdee 1988).
Being highly weathered, they are sandy and have low
organic matter and clay contents. The low clay
content, combined with a predominance of kaolinitic
minerals, gives rise to high acidity and low cation
exchange and buffering capacities. Parts of the region
are underlain by salt-bearing rock, resulting in
geologically induced salinity problems (Mitsuchi et al
1986). Some soils are highly erodible, especially
those with a low organic matter content and light
sandy texture. During a rainstorm, the clay particles
are easily dispersed and move downward with water
to settle in between the rows of the crop or in low
spots, leaving almost pure sand particles on the ridges
where the crops are transplanted. The clay particles
settle and often form a sheet that hardens into a
surface crust, which can impede water infiltration,
aeration, drainage, and seedling emergence. The lack
of available carbon and the presence of factors
unfavorable for microbial growth account for the low
biological activity in the soils (Panichapong 1988).
As land is a limited natural resource, and suitable
land has already been used for agriculture, degraded
land must be used and managed to feed the increasing
population.

147
General physical environment of the
northeast
Physiography
The Northeast Region of Thailand, also called the
Korat Plateau, lies between longitudes 101-105°E
and latitudes 14-18°N. The plateau is gently undulat-
ing and is bounded in the south and west by steep
escarpments. The elevation ranges from 100 to 200
m. The land surface and the underlying rock forma-
tions slope gently inward to the center of the plateau.
The northern and eastern boundary is the Mekong
River, which separates Thailand and Lao PDR. The
plateau consists of a relatively flat saucer-shape basin
called the Korat Basin, tilted to the southeast, and a
narrow smaller basin called the Sakhon Nakhon Basin
to the north. The two basins are separated by the Phu
Phan mountain range. The Korat Basin is drained by
two large rivers, the Mun and the Chi, and the Sakhon
Nakhon Basin by the Song Khram River, all of which
flow into the Mekong (Gardner et al 1967).
The undulating to rolling land forms of the
northeast plateau comprise several small watersheds.
The major landscape features are the multilevel river
terraces, of which three important levels are recog-
nized: the low, middle, and high terraces. The middle
terrace is dominant in the northern part of the Korat
Plateau and the low terrace is dominant in the
southern portion, particularly in the Mun River
system.
Climate
The climate of the region is classified as hot savanna
(Aw) according to Koppen’s classification. The mean
annual temperature is from 26 to 27 °C. Mean annual
rainfall during 1951-89 was 1,403 mm and mean
annual evaporation was 1,729 mm. For the period
1986-90, the highest mean rainfall (2,975 mm) was
recorded for Nakhon Phanom, whereas the lowest
(591 mm) was recorded for Nakhon Ratchasima
(Korat). Korat has the longest period of moisture
deficit in northeast Thailand. Moreover, rainfall is
unevenly distributed and occurs in the rainy season as
torrential rains. Precipitation generally exceeds
evaporation from May to September, whereas the
region suffers from a soil moisture deficit during the
other months.
Vegetation and land use
The natural vegetation in northeast Thailand is dry
monsoon forest, with predominantly mixed deciduous
and dipterocarp trees (Moormann and
Rojanasoonthorn 1972). Most of the forests have
been cleared for agriculture over the past 40 years.
148
The major land uses in northeast Thailand are
rice cultivation in the flat lowlands and cassava,
sugarcane, maize, sorghum, and fiber crop cultivation
in the undulating upland. Land use of northeast
Thailand in 1998 was as follows: 2.1 million ha
(13%) of forest, 9.3 million ha (54%) of farm land,
and 5.5 million ha (32.5%) of unclassified land.
Paddy land and land under field crops constitute 6.1
million ha (36.1%) and 2.1 million ha (13%),
respectively (Agricultural Statistics Center 1997).
Soils and land forms
The Northeast Region can be divided into four major
geographical units-the alluvial plains, plateaus,
mountainous areas, and intramountainous areas
(Miura et al 1990). Soils and land forms are closely
related and together they largely influence cropping
practices and soil management in different parts of
the region. Soils in the lower-lying parts of the
landscape are poorly drained and are flooded
annually for a certain period. Rice is the most
important crop in this area. In the upland type of land
forms, diverse field crops are found (Kheoruenromne
and Kesawapitak 1989).
The soils in northeast Thailand are derived from
a few major groups of parental material: (1) alluvium,
mainly of sandstone origin, (2) colluvium, mainly of
sandstone origin, and (3) residual sandstone and basic
rock such as basalt (Moncharoen et al 1987,
Panichapong 1988).
Based on the soil taxonomy classification, there
are seven soil orders and 21 great groups in northeast
Thailand (Vijarnsorn 1980), as listed in Table 1.
Table 2 lists the major soil series in northeast Thai-
land.
The alluvial plains are distributed along the Mun
and Chi rivers and their tributaries in the Korat Basin,
and along the Mekong River and its tributaries in the
Sakon Nakhon Basin. Fertile soils such as
Tropaquepts (hydromorphic alluvial soils) and
Tropepts (alluvial soils) occur in these plains.
However, these alluvial plains are small in area and
comprise only about 6% of the total area of northeast
Thailand.
The gently undulating plateau makes up-nearly
80% of northeast Thailand. Basement rocks are
Mesozoic to Tertiary sandstone and siltstone of the
Korat Group, of which the Mahasarakham Formation
(formerly called the Salt Formation) is the uppermost
formation. Most soils on the plateau are directly or
indirectly derived from those formations.
Paleustults (Red-Yellow Podzolic and Gray
Podzolic soils) and Paleaquults (low humic gley soils)
are widespread. These soils are characterized by
Table 1. Great groups of soil in northeast Thailand.

Great groups Descriptions

Group A
Quartzipsamments These soils are found on alluvial terraces having undulating topography with slopes ranging from 3% to
8%. They have A-C profiles with sandy texture throughout. Sand grains are composed of greater than
95% SiO2. These soils are rapidly to excessively drained. Water-holding capacity is very low. Fertility
status is low to very low.
Ustipsamments These soils are similar to the Quartzipsamments except that the sand grains are less than 95% SiO2.
Ustifluvents These soils are found on the levees of the major rivers such as the Chi, Mun, and Mekong, and, in
general, have less than a 5% slope. They have A-C profiles but the texture of each horizon is varied.
Profiles can be sand alternating with loam texture. Drainage of the soils is good to moderate. Fertility
is medium.
Ustorthents These soils are found along the base of hills or mountains. They are shallow with rocks or rock
fragments found at less than 50-cm depths. They can have either A-G-R or A-R profiles and are not
considered suitable for agricultural purposes.
Chromusterts These soils are found on slightly sloping topography and are derived from basalt. They have A-C profiles
with heavy clay texture throughout. They crack deep. They have a pale color. They normally have high
fertility but their suitability for agriculture is outweighed by their poor physical characteristics.
Pellusterts These soils are similar to Chromusterts except that the color of the upper 30 cm of the surface soil is
very dark or black.
Tropaquepts These soils are found in backswamps or low terrace positions having flat topography and slopes less
than 2%. They have A-B (cambic) profiles. Soil texture is clay or loam with a predominantly gray color.
Brownish, reddish, or yellowish mottles are found throughout the profile. They are poorly drained;
during rainy seasons, water stagnates for a long period. Water-holding capacity is moderately high to
high. Fertility is low to moderate.
Halaquepts These soils are found on the low terraces having flat topography with slopes less than 2%. They have A-
B (cambic) profiles. Soil texture is loamy and the soil matrix color is gray with mottles throughout.
These soils often have a high salt content. SAR is >13% (or sodium saturation >15%) in most of the
upper 50 cm and decreases below this depth. A salt crust can be observed on the soil surface during
the dry season.

Group B
Ustropepts Typically, these soils are formed from weathered basic rocks on undulating topography. They are well
drained with A-B (cambic) profiles. Their texture is clayey throughout and lime concretions are often
found in the subsoil, which can reach a base saturation percentage of more than 50%. Their fertility is
medium to high.
Dystropepts These soils are found on nearly flat to undulating topography with slopes ranging from 2% to 8%. They
also have A-B (cambic) profiles with sandy loam or sandy clay loam texture. Drainage is moderate to
good. Their fertility is low or somewhat low.
Haplustolls It is believed that these soils are formed from marl on undulating terrain with slopes from 3% to 8%.
They are shallow soils with marl or carbonate at a depth of less than 50 cm. Surface soil is black and
very thick. Soil texture is fine clayey to clayey. They have a high water-holding capacity and are well
drained. They have high fertility.
Natragualfs These soils are derived from alluvium on flat to nearly flat topography. They have A-Btg (argillic B)
profiles. Surface soil texture is either sandy loam or loamy sand with the clay content increasing in
the argillic horizon. Subsoils contain high sodium. In general, they have a gray matrix color with brown
and yellow mottles in the subsoil. During the dry season, white salt crusts are commonly found on the
soil surface. This group is one of the major problem soils in the northeast, requiring special attention
from all disciplines concerned.
Tropaqualfs These soils are found on recent or low terraces having flat to nearly fiat topography. They have A-Btg
(argillic B) profiles. Soil texture is fine clayey or fine loamy. Matrix color is gray with brown, yellow, or
red mottles throughout the soil profile. Percent base saturation in the subsoil is higher than 35%.
They are poorly drained and water stagnates on the soil surface throughout the rainy season.
Paleustalfs These soils are found on undulating terrain and have A-Bt (argillic B) profiles. Soil texture is mostly
loamy. The soils have a reddish brown color and are well drained. Percent base saturation in the
subsoil is more than 35%. Carbonate concretions may be found in the B-horizon or below. They have
medium fertility.
Haplustalfs These soils are found on undulating to rolling topography. They are somewhat shallow with A-Bt (argillic
B) profiles. Soil texture is clayey throughout. Soil color is mostly brownish or brownish yellow,
indicating weil-drained conditions. Rock or rock fragments, resulting from weathering of the rock
beneath, are present at depths of 50 cm or more. Percent base saturation in the subsoil is more than
35%. These soils are rated as medium in fertility.

Group C
Plinthaquults These soils are found on low alluvial terraces that have flat to nearly flat topography. In general, the
soils have A-Bt (argillic B) profiles with loamy to clayey soil texture. These soils have a gray-colored
matrix with mottles throughout. Laterite gravels are found in the subsoil and below that the plinthite
layer is present. They are poorly drained and water normally stagnates on the soil surface for much of
the rainy season. They are rated low to somewhat low in fertility.

149
Table 1 continued.

Great groups Descriptions

Paleaquults These soils are formed on low alluvial terraces that have flat to nearly flat topography. Their profile
orientation is A-Bt (argillic B). They can have either clay or sandy loam texture. Matrix color is gray
with brown, yellow, or red mottles throughout the profile. They are poorly drained with water stagnant
on the soil surface during most of the rainy season. They are low or somewhat low in fertility.
Plinthustults These soils are found on alluvial terraces that are undulating. They are shallow with A-Bt (argillic B)
profiles. Laterite gravels or rock fragments are present at depths of 50 cm or less. The horizon
immediately below this is plinthite in nature. The soils are well to moderately well drained. Fertility is
somewhat low to low.
Paleustults These soils are found on undulating to rolling topography and on footslopes of less than 30%. They are
deep soils with A-Bt (argillic B) profiles. Soil texture varies from clay to loam. Matrix soil color is
yellowish red or red and soils are moderately well to well drained. Fertility is moderately low to low.
Haplustults These soils have characteristics resembling Paleustults except that the argillic horizon is thinner and the
subsoil contains more than 10% weatherable minerals.
Haplustox These soils are found on high alluvial terraces with undulating or rolling topography. They have A-Box
profile characteristics. Soil texture varies from loamy sand to sandy loam and sandy clay loam. Their
color is red or yellowish red throughout, representing well-drained situations. The soils have. .
undergone strong leaching processes, leaving only trace amounts of plant nutrients in the upper
profile. Hence, their fertility is low.

Source: Vijarnsorn (1980).

Table 2. Major soil series with an area of >0.5% of northeast Thailand.

Series Area (000 ha) % Classification by USDA/Thai system

Korat 36.4 21.37 Paleustults/Gray Podzolic soils

Roi Et 35.1 20.62 Paleaquults/Low Humic Gray soils
Phon Phisai 15.9 9.36 Plinthustults/Red-Yellow Podzolic soils
Nam Phong 5.3 3.10 Quartzipsamments/Regosols
Ubon 4.2 2.46 Aquic Quartzipsamments/Hydromorphic Regosols
Warin 3.5 2.04 Paleustults/ Red-Yellow Podzolic soils
Satuk 3.1 1.83 Paleustults/ Red-Yellow Podzolic soils
Borabu 2.7 1.61 Plinthustults/Red-Yellow Podzolic soils
Phen 2.2 1.31 Plinthaquults/Low Humic Gray soils
Phimai 2.2 1.30 Tropaquepts/Hydromorphic Alluvial soils
Yasothon 2.0 1.20 Paleustults/ Red-Yellow Latosols
Tha Thum 1.8 1.03 Paleaqualts/ Low Humic Gray soils
Ratchaburi 1.7 0.96 Tropaquepts/Hydromorphic Alluvial soils
Renu 1.5 0.88 Paleaquults/Low Humic Gray soils
Tha Yang 1.3 0.78 Paleustults/ Red-Yellow Podzolic soils
Kula Ronghai 1.2 0.70 Natraqualfs/Solonchak
Chatturat 1.2 0.67 Haplustalfs/Red-Brown earth
Sri Songkram 1.1 0.67 Tropaquepts/Hydromorphic Alluvial soils
Lat Ya 0.9 0.50 Paleustults/ Red-Yellow Podzolic soils
Alluvial complex 4.0 2.35 Tropaquepts/Hydromorphic Alluvial soils
Slope complex 22.6 13.29 Tropepts/Alluvial soils
Total 149.9 88.02

Source: Mitsuchi et al (1986).

sandy-textured topsoil, which is one of the major
limiting factors for crop production.
The mountainous areas, consisting of three main
mountain ranges and some isolated mountains and
hills, altogether make up about 13% of the total area
of the Northeast Region. The soils of mountainous
areas have not been surveyed and are mapped merely
as slope complex. Paleustults and Paleustulfs (reddish
brown lateritic soils) and Haplustalfs (reddish brown
earth) can be found in the intramountainous high-
lands. These soils, derived from shale or basalt; are
relatively fertile, although the area they cover is very
small.
Problem soils: their effect and
amelioration
The major orders of the northeast soils are Ultisols,
Alfisols, and Inceptisols. Sandy, skeletal, acid, and

150
saline soils are regarded as major problem soils in
northeast Thailand. Low soil fertility caused by these
soils on the plateau and erratic rainfall are responsible
for the low agricultural productivity of the region as a
whole, There are about 3.8 million ha of problem
soils and about 1.9 million ha of land with slopes in
excess of 35% (Table 3).
Saline soils
The inland saline soils of northeast Thailand. These
saline soils are derived from geological salinization
or result from man-made or secondary salinization.
Taxonomically, most of the salt-affected soils fall
within the category of aquic (Hydromorphic) soils,
such as Natraqualfs and Halaquepts. This means that
the saline groundwater level is shallow enough for
capillary fringes to reach the land surface. Saline soils
are found in every province in both the Sakhon
Nakhon and Korat basins.
These soils have a high soluble salt content that
affects crop growth. Soil maps of salt-affected areas
were compiled by the Department of Land Develop-
ment (DLD). Saline soils were classified based on the
proportion of salt patches present at the soil surface
into severely saline soil (240,000 ha), moderately
saline soil (590,000 ha), and slightly saline soil
(2,020,000 ha). There are another estimated
3,140,000 ha of potential salt-source area (Wichaidit
1987), leaving 10,900,000 ha of salt-free area in the
Northeast Region.
Through the activities of the Soil Salinity
Development Project, under the National Economic
and Social Development (NESD) Plan since 1982
(Yuvaniyama et al 1996a), agronomic management
practices that are considered to be low-cost have been
developed and transferred to farmers through training,
extension programs, and demonstration plots.
Slightly and moderately saline soils. The slightly
saline groundwater is deeper than 2 m. About 75% of
these soils in the region are under rainfed lowland
rice cultivation, with an average yield of 1.2 t ha–1.
The risk of salinity increases when the land is put
under irrigation because the existing irrigation system
is designed for paddy rice cultivation, without due
attention to the drainage system. Without proper
drainage, the groundwater, which has a high salt
content, gradually rises until it reaches the root zone,
thereby adversely affecting the crop. The saline soils
are generally infertile, with medium to very low
contents of plant nutrients such as N, P, and K. The
coarse texture accelerates leaching of nutrients.
Excess Na damages the physical properties of the soil
and causes difficulty for plant roots to penetrate the
compact soil structure.
Table 3. Problem soils in northeast Thailand.
Soil type Area (ha)
Sandy-texture soils 610,000
Vertisols 50,000
Saline soils
Severe 240,000
Moderate 590,000
Slight 2,020,000
Potential salt source area 3,040,000
Skeletal soils 2,880,000
Acid soil 10,370,000
Slope complex 1,920,000
Sources: Panichapong (1988) and Arunin (1988)
An agronomic management package of improved
cultivation practices (leaching, land leveling and
surface mulching, addition of organic amendments,
controlling depth of plowing, and use of salt-tolerant
rice varieties) is recommended to increase rice yield
(Arunin 1988).
Farmyard manure and rice husks are appropriate
organic matter that could be used to improve the
chemical and physical properties of saline soils
(Yuvaniyama et al 1996a). But these materials are
rather bulky and expensive to transport to the farm.
The DLD has investigated salt-tolerant crops grown
for green manure, the right combination of green
manure quantities, methods of incorporation, and the
times of incorporation for increasing rice yield.
Sesbania rostrata shows the best performance among
the green manure crops. Since 1992, 20 t of Sesbania
seeds have been distributed free to farmers annually
to be planted for green manure in slightly and
moderately saline areas. The average seed production
of S. rostrata in northeast Thailand is 180 kg ha–1.
The seed production cost is rather high because of the
high labor cost for harvesting because of the stag-
gered maturing of the seeds. The government encour-
ages farmers to produce their own seed by supplying
free seeds for seed production and buying back the
seeds they produce at a reasonable price.
Severely saline soils. Salt patches cover more
than 50% of the surface area of these soils, which
occur in low-lying areas. The depth of saline ground-
water is 1–1.5 m in the dry season and 0.5 m in the
rainy season. Most of these areas have a white crust in
the dry season and are barren except for native salt-
tolerant thorny bushes and some halophytes.
The research results of DLD show that some
imported halophytic grasses such as Sporobolus
virginicus (both coarse and smooth forms), Spartina
patens, Distichlis spicata, and salt-tolerant trees such
as Acacia ampliceps can be grown in these severely
saline soils (Yuvaniyama and Arunin 1993). Demon-
151
stration plots of the land use with environmental
improvement by halophyte growing are shown on
farmers’ land.
The reclamation of severely salt-affected land by
the polder system through the combination of both
engineering and revegetation methods was demon-
strated through collaborative research efforts of the
DLD, Khon Kaen University (KKU), and the Japa-
nese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
This could be used as a model and adapted for
implementation in severely saline soils, but drainage
must be considered (Yuvaniyama et al 1996b).
Potential salt source areas. The soils in the
recharge areas do not have salt on the surface and are
suitable for normal cropping, but can potentially be
affected by secondary salinization caused by misman-
agement. Land-use changes, especially deforestation
in the upland areas for growing cash crops, have been
linked with the increase in salinization of land and
water resources. The replacement of deep-rooted
trees with shallow-rooted plants increases recharge,
which provides the source of water for salinization at
shallow depths (Williamson et al 1989).
A multifrequency electromagnetic induction
terrain conductivity meter (EM) was used to measure
the apparent conductivity of soil profile, and recharge
and discharge areas were identified and mapped
(Arunin 1989). Reforestation in the recharge area
could be a preventive measure against secondary
salinization in the discharge area (Arunin 1989).
Reforestation had been carried out on 1,920 ha in
Nakhon Ratchasima Province as a pilot project since
1996. Native fast-growing trees such as Azadirachta
indica and Cassia siamea were planted in the
recharge area, whereas a halophyte grass such as
Sporobolus virginicus was planted together with the
salt-tolerant Acacia ampliceps in the discharge area.
The success of this land management practice is being
evaluated.
Acid soils
Ultisols are extensive in the Northeast Region. These
are acidic, highly leached, and well-developed soils.
They can be found in both upland and lowland areas
and are extensively cultivated.
Acid soils are characterized by low pH (often
less than 5.0), high Al and Mn, low nutrient retention
and organic matter content, medium to high P
fixation, and low moisture retention capacity.
Soil acidity is higher in the dry season because of
the oxidation of ferrous iron by aerobic microorgan-
isms as the soil dries and hydrogen ions are produced
(Brinkman 1978). Ragland (1988) found that toxic
aluminum accumulates as the soils dry out. Aluminum
152
is precipitated when the pH reaches 5.3 to 5.5.
Partially hydrolyzed aluminum, hydroxyaluminum,
reduces cation exchange capacity (CEC). Reduced
CEC and the long-term consequences of clay decom-
position, because of the alternate wetting and drying
cycles, can seriously degrade tropical soils, especially
light-textured soils such as those found in the North-
east Region.
A collaborative Japanese-Thai effort in character-
izing northeast soils (Motomura et al 1979, Ogawa et
al 1975) revealed vast differences in clay contents of
paddy and upland soils. Table 4 summarizes the
textural differences in the plow layer of 41 paddy and
13 upland soils. The supply of 2:l type clay minerals
to ameliorate the sandy acid soils is desirable
(Mitsuchi et al 1986, Ishida et al 1993) because the
clay content in sandy soils is very low and the clay
minerals are mostly 1:1 type. Clayey material rich in
2:1 clay minerals and CaCO3 is present below the
sandy soil.
Application of organic matter is believed to be
the best method to ameliorate the sandy, acid infertile
soils in which prolonged crop cultivation has reduced
the organic matter content in the soil, leading to a
decrease in soil fertility. Ragland (1988) reported that
northeast farmers traditionally applied animal manure
to high-value crops such as vegetables and tobacco
grown during the dry season and to rice seedbeds
planted early in the wet season. Animal manure in
Thailand is almost always allowed to air-dry before it
is applied, causing much of the nitrogen to be lost as
ammonia. This decreases its value as a nitrogen
fertilizer but increases its liming value. Retarding the
decomposition rate of organic matter applied to the
soil is necessary for a quick increase in soil organic
matter.
Generally, for sustainable and intensive crop
production, liming is needed for some crop species to
neutralize the toxic levels of Al and/or Mn and to
supply Ca and Mg as nutrients. However, overliming
can cause trace element deficiency and cation
imbalance. Suwanarit (1985) reviewed the results of
several liming studies on yields of various crops
grown in Thailand. Soils of pH 5.0 or less usually
showed yield responses to lime for mungbean, peanut,
Table 4. Texture differences in the plow layer of
northeast paddy and upland soils.
Land use % Clay % Silt % Sand pH
Paddy 10 20 70 4.8
Upland 17 21 62 5.1
Source: Motomura et al (1979), Ogawa et al (1975).
soybean, and sesame, but not for cassava even on a
soil of pH 4.5. However, liming upland acid soils has
not proved to be effective (Kheoruenromne and
Kesawapitak 1989). Moisture deficiencies and weeds
are additional problems in acid soils.
Kheoruenromne and Kesawapitak (1989)
reported that now no specific management packages
can be used as guidelines for sustaining crop yields
on acid soils in Thailand. This is because (1) past
research efforts have emphasized crop rather than soil
management, (2) many research findings have not
been successfully passed on to farmers, and (3) there
is a lack of proper site characterization in the field
trials.
The ongoing research on acid soils carried out by
the DLD includes liming sources, P source, green
manure, and cropping systems.
Sandy soils
Sandy soils (sandy-textured soils) are estimated to
cover about 80% of the northeast area. Clay minerals
are mostly kaolinitic and are very low in CEC. In
addition, organic carbon in the soil is only 0.4% on
average. Hence, these soils have very low levels of
available nutrients and poor nutrient-holding capacity.
The physical properties of the soils in northeast
Thailand are also unfavorable for plant growth. The
soils often show unusually high bulk densities and a
high solid-phase ratio, resulting in hardness under dry
weather conditions (Miura et al 1990).
The Ubon (Ub) soil series is normally used for
upland paddy and Nam Pong (Ng) soil series for
upland crops.
The DLD recommends that, where the topsoil is
sandy to a thickness of more than 50 cm, it is advis-
able to grow (1) upland crops such as upland rice,
kenaf, peanut, sugarcane, cassava, and maize, (2)
trees and fruit trees such as mango (Mangifera indica
L.), cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale), and kapok
(Ceibapentundra L.), and (3) pasture such as hybrid
napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), ruzi grass
(Brachiaria ruziziensis), bermuda grass (Cynodon
dactylon), Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), and
star grasses (Cynodon nlemfuensis Vanderyst.). Split
Table 5. Degree, rate, and distribution of soil erosion under different land uses in
northeast Thailand.
Degree of Rate of soil erosion
erosion (t ha–1 y–1)
Very slight 0–12.5 Forest, paddy field, orchards
Slight 12.5–31.25 Forest, orchards, shifting cultivation
Moderate 31.25–125.0 Field crops, orchards
Severe 125–625 Shifting cultivation, field crops
application of chemical fertilizers, the use of slow-
release fertilizers, organic matter application, and
mulching are recommended.
Lateritic and shallow topsoil
Soils that have a laterite layer at a shallow depth, such
as Skeletal Plinthustults and Phinthaquults, make up
about 13% of northeast Thailand and are particularly
widespread in the Sakhon Nakhon Basin. The laterite
layer severely inhibits root elongation and also causes
difficulty in plowing. Furthermore, shallow soils
resting on laterite are infertile owing to their sandy
texture (Miura et al 1990).
The Phen (Pn) soil series commonly occurs in the
lowlands, where rice is the only crop that can be
cultivated. The Phon Pisai (Pp) soil series is used for
upland crops. Farmers grow cassava on the Tha Yang
(Ty) soil series that has shallow soil depth.
Where the soils occur on slopes less than 12%,
the DLD recommendation is to grow fast-growing
trees in agroforestry systems or to use the land as
pasture. The planting of a legume and ruzi grass is
also recommended after a prolonged period of
cassava planting to increase soil fertility.
Soil erosion
As Thailand is located in the tropical monsoon
region, water is the most important agent of soil
erosion. Soil erosion occurs in the uplands and
mountainous area. The main cause of accelerated soil
erosion is deforestation (Table 5). The rate of soil
degradation has been increasing in northeast Thai-
land.
The effect of soil erosion is loss of topsoil, which
adversely affects the productivity of cultivated land.
The loss of topsoil is relatively low in forest and
paddy areas and moderate under perennial crops such
as orchards. Soil erosion is particularly severe in
areas under field crops and shifting cultivation. Rill
and gully erosion commonly occur where the slope is
greater than 15% or on undulating terrain.
Contour farming and strip farming are effective
for soil conservation, but these measures have not
been widely adopted by poor farmers.
Land use Area
(ha)
6,140,000
34,000
2,480,000
2,480,000
153
 Conservation tillage systems must be developed
that can be easily and successfully adopted so as to
effectively minimize soil erosion.
Strategies of the DLD
The philosophy of the DLD is “land development, a
fundamental for sustainable agriculture.” The DLD is
responsible for soil surveys, research on soil and land
resources, and providing information on soils. The
DLD has five strategies in land resource development
according to the eighth NESD Plan (Boonsin 1999).
1. Land-use planning zonation. Various types of
information such as soil characteristics, land use,
social and economic conditions, and government
policy have been analyzed to develop land-use
guidelines for specific activities. There are three
levels of scales of land-use plans: the national,
regional, and provincial level, with mapping scales of
1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, and 1:100,000, respectively.
2. Soil and water conservation and land resource
management for sustainable development. The main
objective of sustainability is to maintain the quality of
the soil and the associated environment in a good
stage of production, while at the same time being
responsive to markets and financial constraints
(Douglas 1984). Sustainable land management
requires a long-term commitment to maintaining the
quality of the land resource; unfortunately, short-term
economics often promotes technologies that exploit
and degrade the land.
The DLD policy follows the approach of the
King to overcome the current economic crisis to
produce food for self-sufficiency and to achieve self-
reliance. Poor farmers in the northeast own small
pieces of farm land, averaging 4.1 ha (Agricultural
Statistics Center 1998), and cannot afford high
investments. Sustainable agricultural policy aims not
at gaining maximum productivity by using high input:
but at yield improvement by optimizing the efficiency
of external inputs.
Green manure as soil amendments. Most
northeast Thailand soils have too low CEC and pH
buffering capacities to permit consistent fertilizer
responses (Ragland and Boonpuckdee 1988) and
chemical fertilizers are too expensive for poor
farmers. The addition of organic matter appears to be
the only practical way of achieving the needed
increases in soil buffering. Although effective,
livestock manure and compost are never available in
sufficient quantities for widespread use. Green
manuring is considered necessary for agriculture in
northeast Thailand.
Several leguminous green manure plants have
been introduced into northeast Thailand without full
154
success. Recently, S. rostrata, an aquatic legume that
can grow in both drained and submerged soils, was
found to be promising for rainfed rice cultivation. The
DLD distributes S. rostrata seed to farmers as green
manure and uses the strategy of buying the seed back.
Land development village. Integrated research is
carried out and results are demonstrated in a selected
land development village as an area-based approach
in each region.
Training for local government officers and
leader farmers. The DLD disseminates appropriate
technologies to local organizations and farmers
through various media and through training.
3. Land development information system. Various
soil maps have been produced such as a general soil
map of Thailand (1:1,000,000), regional soil map
(1:500,000), provincial soil map (1:100,000). land-
use map (1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, and 1:100,000),
land-use plans (1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, and
1:100,000), soil group map (1:50,000), and soil
suitability map. Maps and other documents produced
using information from soil surveys, soil classifica-
tion, soil analysis, and research have been computer-
ized. Updated soil databases can be made available to
interested users rapidly and systematically. Geo-
graphic information system (GIS) techniques are
applied to study problem soils, land suitability, and
land-use planning.
4. Staff and farmer capacity building. Because of
limited DLD staff resources, farmer participation is a
key for sustainable land resource management. A
volunteer farmer is selected in each village to accept
appropriate and relevant technologies that could be
transferred to fellow farmers. About 530 DLD staff
members located at the district (Tambon) and village
levels work closely with the local farmers to help
them solve their problems by carrying out soil
analyses, making recommendations, and making
demonstration plots.
5. Administration and management. Besides the
technical divisions in the head office in Bangkok, the
DLD has 12 regional offices and 50 DLD stations in
the provinces to disseminate research results and
extend their services to farmers all over the country.
Conclusions
Soil-related constraints can be summarized as
follows: (1) Soils that are low in organic matter and
plant nutrients. (2) Some soils have special character-
istics that hinder crop cultivation such as saline soils,
very heavy clay soils (vertisols), very sandy-textured
soils, and skeletal soils. Remedial measures or special
management practices are necessary before these soils
can be farmed effectively and productively. Thus,
these soils are called problem soils. (3) Soils with low
water-holding capacity, low CEC, low pH (acidity),
and low base saturation. (4) Some soils are highly
erodible, especially those with low organic matter
content and sandy texture. During a rainstorm, clay
particles are easily dispersed and move downward
with water to settle in between the rows of the crop or
low spots, leaving almost pure sand on the ridges
where the crops are planted. The clay particles settle
and often form a sheet that hardens into a surface
crust, which can impede water infiltration, aeration,
drainage, and seedling emergence. (5) Low biological
activity in the soils because of the lack of available
carbon (or energy) and the presence of factors
unfavorable for microbial activity.
Various institutes have carried out research to
solve these problems. Generally, simple and low-cost
techniques are acceptable to farmers in northeast
Thailand. Sustainable agriculture is the policy of the
eighth NESD Plan to overcome poverty of farmers
during an economic crisis.
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Yuvaniyama A, Rungsanchan P, Dissataporn C,
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156
Soil compaction and plant growth in northeast
Thailand: the case of the Nam Phong soil series
Christian Hartmann, Roland Poss, and Veera Singhatat

The uplands of northeast Thailand comprise mainly sandy soils that are low in or-
ganic matter, which often have a compact horizon in the 20–40-cm layer. The objec-
tive of this study was to determine whether it was possible to ameliorate the growth
of annual crops by decreasing subsoil compaction. Subsoiling and slotting tech-
niques were tested on a site near Korat on the Nam Phong soil series. Subsoiling
was done using tines 35 cm apart to 40-cm depth. The slotting technique consisted
of narrow slots, hand-made through the compact subsoil every 40 cm. A rotation of
legume and maize was planted. Plant production (yield or biomass), rooting depth,
and bulk density were determined. Subsoiling had no effect on plant growth, whereas
the slotting technique allowed yield and biomass to increase for at least 1.5 years by
an average of 53%. Rooting depth increased and bulk density decreased in the
slots. Subsoil compaction was thus a major limiting factor for rainfed crops in this
soil type. As the collapse of the subsoil in wet conditions prevents the use of subsoiling,
innovative techniques must be designed and slotting can be an option.

The upland soils of northeast Thailand account for
20–30% of the cultivated land (Craig and Pisone
1988). These areas have been cleared from forest in
the last 50 years and are now used intensively for
major export crops such as cassava and sugarcane.
Because most soils have less than 15% clay in the
topsoil and are acidic and low in organic matter
(Imsamut and Boonsoppan 1999), they are prone to
nutrient deficiencies and aluminum toxicity as a result
of continuous cultivation after clearing. These more
obvious soil limitations have led most studies to focus
on soil chemical properties (Bhuthorndharaj et al
improvement: the common technique of subsoiling
and the slotting technique (Jayawardane et al 1995).
Materials and methods
Study site
The study was carried out on the research station of
the Department of Land Development located 15 km
north of Korat (15°N, 102°E, annual rainfall 1,020
mm). The soil (Nam Phong series) is characterized by
5% clay, 0.22% C, 4.0 pHCaCl , 0.94 cmolc kg–1
2

1996, Kanchanakool et al 1998, Ragland and
Boonpuckdee 1987, Singhatat 1996). Although
problems related to soil compaction have been
mentioned (Kheoruenromne and Suddhiprakarn 1984,
O'Donnell et al 1994, Sakurai et al 1996, Vityakon
and Keerati-Kasikorn 1987), they have not been as
extensively studied so far. Soil compaction is a
potential limiting factor to plant production because
root confinement within a small soil volume may
hinder nutrient and water uptake where both are in
limited supply.
The objectives of the study were to determine
whether soil compaction was a limiting factor to plant
production and to compare two techniques of soil
exchangeable CEC, 4 mg kg–1 Bray II P, and 22%
aluminum saturation.
The study was carried out from 1996 to 1999 in
two fields about 200 m apart. Both fields had a
compact layer from 20 to 40 cm (bulk density 1.7 to
1.8 t m-3). In field #1, high amounts of fertilizers were
applied every year (around 120 kg N ha-1, 50 kg P ha-
1
, and 90 kg N ha-1). In field #2, the fertilizer levels
applied were close to the farmers' practice (50 kg N
ha-1, 22 kg P ha-1, and 40 kg K ha-1). The plots were 6
x 8 m in field #1 and 6 x 6 m in field #2. Each field
was cropped with a rotation of legume (April to July)
and maize (Zea mays, July to October). The legume
crop was black cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in 1997

157
used as a control. The five plots slotted in 1998 were
not slotted again in 1999.
Field data collection
Yield. For cowpea and maize, the yield of each plot
was determined by collecting the seeds from a sample
quadrat and weighing after 2 d in the oven at 70 °C.
The wet biomass of Stylosanthes guianensis was
determined for each plot 2 mo after sowing by
weighing the total wet biomass from a sample
quadrat. Water content of the Stylosanthes was
determined by drying 20 plants per plot in the oven at
70 °C for 2 d.
Rooting depth. Root descriptions were made for
maize at the flowering stage in field #1 using the
method described by Nicoullaud et al (1994). At each
plot, a pit 80 cm long and 60 cm deep was dug along
the lines of maize. The vertical face of the pit was
scraped with a knife to expose the roots within a few
mm of the pit face. A 30 x 30-cm frame, divided with
wires into 2 x 2-cm grid squares, was suspended from
a leveled bar over part of the face. The grid squares
containing one or more roots were counted. The
frame was moved horizontally to cover the entire 80-
cm length of the pit and the process was repeated at
lower depths. The frequency of the grids with roots
for each pit was determined for 2-cm depth intervals.
The standard deviation of this frequency was deter-
mined using the pits of the same treatment.
For the subsoiling experiment, the roots were
described in September 1997 in four control plots and
five subsoiled plots. For the slotting experiment, the
roots were described in September 1999 in three
control plots, three plots that were slotted in 1998,
and three plots that were slotted in 1999.
Bulk density. Bulk density was determined by
taking a known volume of soil from the face of a pit
using a cylinder and by drying the soil in the oven at
105 °C for 2 d.
For the subsoiling experiment, bulk density was
determined in September 1997 using a 165-cm3
cylinder (total rainfall since subsoiling was 463 mm).
The determination was carried out from the surface to
a 60-cm depth on five control plots and five subsoiled
Table 1. Yields after subsoiling (kg ha-1). n = 10.
Field #1 (high fertilizer)
Sweet corn Black cowpea
1996 1997
Control 1,497 800
Subsoiling 1,538 749
P for difference n.s.a n.s.
of averages
n.s. = nonsignificant,
a
plots, digging one pit per plot and taking one sample
for each 10-cm depth increment.
For the slotting experiment, bulk density was
determined on eight slotted plots using a 110-cm3
cylinder. Soil samples for bulk density determination
were collected from the first five plots after a total of
109 mm of rain had fallen after the slots were made,
and from the three other plots 3 d later after another
69 mm of rain had fallen. One pit per plot was dug
and the bulk density was determined for each pit from
the surface to 70-cm depth by taking three samples
for each 10-cm depth increment between the slots and
three samples for each 10-cm depth increment above
and within the slots.
Results
Subsoiling had no significant effect on crop yield
(Table 1). The same result was obtained in 1996 when
subsoiling was done in wet conditions and in 1997
when it was done in dry conditions. Maize yield was
low in both fields in 1997 because of severe drought
at the flowering stage. Black cowpea yield was low in
field #2 because of a combination of late sowing and
insect attack on already weak seedlings.
Figure 2 shows the decrease in frequency of roots
with soil depth. Soil depth was represented using the
average level of the soil surface so that the hills
appear above the ground. In the control plots, the
frequency of roots decreased almost linearly with
depth until 30 cm, beyond which the root frequency
was below 10%. Root frequency data (not shown)
collected for the same fields confirmed that without
slotting rooting depth was confined to the first 30 cm
of soil. Subsoiling had no effect on the rooting depth
of maize.
The bulk density did not decrease as a result of
subsoiling (Fig. 3). In fact, the bulk density was
higher in the subsoiled plots than in the control plots,
but the difference was not significant.
The slotting technique increased the yield or
biomass of the crops in 1998 and 1999 (Table 2). The
low yields of black cowpea occurred because of
Fieid #2 (farmers' rate)
Maize Black cowpea Maize
1997 1997 1997
440 187 878
564 258 1,203
n.s. ns. n.s.
159
 severe drought during grain filling. Excluding the
black cowpea data, the average increase in yield of
the slotted plots over the control plots was 53%.
Slotting increased the frequency of roots in the
30-40-cm layer (Fig. 4). The root distribution with
depth was the same in the plots where the slots were a
few months old and in the plots where they had been
dug 1.5 y earlier.
After 109 mm of rain, the bulk density in the 0-
40-cm layer of the slotted horizons was less than 1.56
t m-3 (Fig. 5). Three days later and after another 69
mm of heavy rain, the bulk density in the slotted
layers increased to 1.64 t m-3 in the 20-30-cm layer.
This increase was linear with depth (Fig. 6). The
increase in bulk density was negligible in the 30-40-
cm layer.

Discussion and conclusions

Because the slotting technique resulted in a signifi-

Fig. 2. Frequency of make roots after subsoiling in 1997
(field #1).
Fig. 3. Bulk density after subsoiling in 1997 (field #2).
cant increase in yield without any change in chemical
properties proves that subsoil compaction is a major
limiting factor for rainfed crops in the Nam Phong
soil series.
The linear increase in bulk density after 69 mm
of rain in the 0-30-cm layer of the slotted horizons
indicates that the soil collapsed under its own weight
in wet conditions. The unslotted horizons actually
acted as a backbone to prevent the soil in the 30-40-
cm layer from collapsing and maintained a favorable
bulk density. With subsoiling, as all the subsoil was
tilled, the subsoil collapsed after rain to values of
bulk densities comparable with those of the control.
In some sandy soils, subsoil bulk density can be
higher after subsoiling than in the control (Horn 1995,
Voorhees et al 1986).
Decreasing subsoil compaction allowed a good
development of roots in the subsoil. Roots were most
well developed in the subsoil within the slots of the
30-40-cm layer, where bulk density was lowest.

Table 2. Yields or aboveground biomass after slotting (field #1, kg ha-1).

Slotting 1998 Slotting 1999

Black cowpea Maize Stylosanthes Stylosanthes

1998 1998 1999 1999
yield yield biomass biomass

Control 5.4 2,025 171 187

Slotting 38.9 3,246 262 273

n 10 10 10 40
P for difference of averages 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.006

160
Kanchanakool N, Poss R, Brunet D, Bhuthomdharaj S,
Suvannang N. 1998. Use of lime and gypsum to
alleviate infertility in an Arenic Acrisol of northeast
Thailand. Proceedings of the 16th International Soil
Science Society Congress (Montpellier, France, 1998).
Kheoruenromne I, Suddhiprakarn A. 1984. Ecology,
classification and effect of management on selected
sandy soils in Thailand. In: Ecology and management
of problem soils in Asia, Food and Fertilizer Technol-
ogy Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Book
Series No. 27, Taiwan. p 208-222.
Nicoullaud B, King D, Tardieu F. 1994. Vertical distribu-
tion of maize roots in relation to permanent soil
characteristics. Plant Soil 159:245-254.
O’Donnell AG, Syers JK, Vichiensanth P, Vityakon P, Adey
MA, Nannipiery P, Sriboonlue W, Suwan. 1994.
Improving the agricultural productivity of the soils of
north-east Thailand through soil organic matter
management. In: Syers JK, Rimmer DL, editors. Soil
science and sustainable land management in the
tropics. Wallingford (UK): CAB International and
British Society of Soil Science. p 192-205.
Ragland J, Boonpuckdee L. 1987. Fertilizer responses in
north-east Thailand. 1. Literature review and rationale.
Thai J. Soils Fert. 9:65-79.
Sakurai K, Kozasa S, Yuasa T, Puriyakorn B, Preechapanya
P, Tanpibal V, Muangnil K, Prachaiyo B. 1996.
Changes in soil properties after land degradation
associated with various human activities in Thailand.
Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 42:81-92.
Singhatat V. 1996. Management of acid soil for sustainable
upland cropping at Nakhon Ratchasima, northeast
Thailand. In: The management of acid soils in
Southeast Asia. IBSRAM Network Document No. 16.
p 59-62.
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Vityakon P, Keerati-Kasikorn P. 1987. Farming systems
and soils in northeast Thailand. Soil management
under humid conditions in Asia and Pacific. IBSRAM
Proceedings No. 5. p 361-383.
Voorhees WB. Nelson WW, Randall GW. 1986. Extent and
persistence of subsoil compaction caused by heavy
axle load. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50:428-433.
Notes
Authors’ addresses: Christian Hartmann, Roland Poss. IRD
(formerly ORSTOM), Department of Land Develop-
ment, Division of Soil Analysis, Phaholyothin Road,
Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand, E-mail:
hartmann@ksc.th.com; Veera Singhatat, Department
of Land Development region 3, Jor-Hor, Muang
District, Nakhon Ratchasima 30310, Thailand.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the
contributions of Nijaporn Kunklang, Didier Brunet,
Emmanuel Bourdon, Guy Perlmann, Guillaume Hardy,
and Julien Picard in conducting the often exhausting
field work. This research was carried out with
financial support from IRD (Institut de Recherche
pour le Développement) and DTEC (Department of
Technical and Economic Cooperation in Thailand).
Ecoregional natural resource management
research of ClAT with special reference to a
farmer participatory research project in Thailand

Reinhardt H. Howeler

The Centro lnternacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), located in Colombia, has

traditionally been a commodity-oriented center, having received a world mandate for
the development of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz ),
and tropical forages and a regional mandate for the development of rice (Oryza
sativa) in Latin America. Since the early 1980% the Cassava Program has been
concerned about the long-term effect of cassava production on soil fertility and ero-
sion, and has carried out simple erosion control trials in farmers’ fields in Colombia.
This research intensified with the initiation of a cassava soil conservation research
project at CIAT by the University of Hohenheim, which first sent students to do graduate
research and later a staff member to direct this research.
In the early 1990s, ClAT was reorganized to include several resource manage-
ment programs, such as the Hillsides Program, which was particularly concerned
about soil conservation and sustainable land use in hilly and mountainous areas.
This program tried to establish the underlying causes of the degradation of soil and
water resources in hillside ecosystems, to develop technological options to con-
serve these resources, and to enhance the adoption of these technologies through
the direct involvement of farmers in the search for solutions to these problems.
In 1996, the seven ClAT programs were reorganized into 16 projects, of which
six are within the area of natural resource management, including projects on ways
to overcome soil degradation, community management of watersheds, land-use
dynamics and environmental sustainability, integrated production systems for
smallholders, rural agroenterprises, and participatory research and gender analy-
ses.
The Cassava Program, in the meantime, established in 1985 a Cassava Re-
search Network in Asia to coordinate and enhance research with national programs
to develop new higher-yielding varieties and improved cassava agronomic prac-
tices, with major emphasis on erosion control and the maintenance of soil fertility. In
1994, a special 5-year (1994-98) project began with funding from the Nippon Foun-
dation in Japan. The main objective of this project is to enhance the adoption of soil-
conserving practices by cassava farmers through the development of a farmer par-
ticipatory research (FPR) methodology involving the joint development of soil-con-
serving practices by researchers, extensionists, and farmers and the testing of these
practices by farmers in their own fields. In 1999, a second phase of the same project
began; this phase will concentrate most of its efforts in Thailand and Vietnam. The
emphasis will shift from participatory research to participatory extension to enhance
the widespread adoption of more sustainable cassava-based production systems.
Thus, ClAT intends to contribute to the basic understanding of soil degradation
processes, both physical and socioeconomic aspects, and to stimulate the develop-
ment and adoption by farmers of practical solutions to the problem.

The Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical ment of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cassava
(CIAT), located in Colombia, has within the Consul- ( Manihot esculenta Crantz ), and tropical forages and
tative Group on International Agricultural Research a regional mandate for rice (Oryza sativa) in Latin
system a world mandate for research and develop- America.

163
 The Cassava Program at CIAT headquarters
maintains the world cassava germplasm collection
and conducts basic and strategic research on various
aspects, including cassava mineral nutrition and soil
management.
From 1984 to 1998, the University of Hohenheim
in Germany has had a special project at CIAT on
improving the sustainability of cassava when the crop
is grown on hillsides in Latin America. Both strategic
and applied research have been conducted by students
and staff members to understand the underlying
principles of soil erosion and to develop effective
soil/crop management practices that reduce erosion in
cassava fields.
Natural resource management
research at CIAT
In 1992, CIAT also accepted regional responsibility
for research on the management of natural resources
in Latin America, especially in two ecosystems:
tropical lowlands and hillsides. A Land-Use Program
was also established to map out the distribution of
natural resources and to study social and economic
issues related to effective land-use planning and
implementation.
In 1996, CIAT was reorganized again and the
previous seven programs were transformed into 16
projects. Of these, six projects are in the area of
natural resource management. Research conducted by
these projects is briefly summarized below:
PE-2: Overcoming Soil Degradation
1. Identification of main biophysical constraints for
three priority ecoregions: hillsides, acid-soil
savannas, and forest margins.
2. Development of soil quality indicators to monitor
the sustainability of land-use systems.
3. Development of component technologies for
more sustainable production systems in hillside
ecoregions.
4. Basic research on rates of decomposition and
nutrient release of different legume species used
as green manures.
PE-3: Community Management of Watershed
Resources in Hillside Agroecosystems of Latin
America (Colombia, Honduras, Nicaragua)
1. Development of interactive digital information
systems for hillside agroecosystems.
2. Development of decision support (DS) tools with
participation of stakeholders.
164
3. Formation of local operational committees for
participatory planning and management of'
watershed resources.
4. Experimentation with and monitoring of land-use
systems that are more productive and environ-
mentally sound.
PE-4: Land-Use Dynamics and Environmental
Sustainability in Latin America
1. Updating of strategic databases for Latin
America.
2. Mapping of natural resources and land-use
changes at benchmark sites in the savannas,
hillsides, and forest margins.
PE-5: Sustainable Systems for Smallholders
1. Sustainable cassava-based cropping systems in
Asia.
2. Forages for smallholders in Asia.
3. Production systems in the forest margins in Peru.
4. Forages for dual-purpose cattle farms in Latin
America.
5. Sustainable bean production systems in East
Africa.
SN-1: Rural Agroenterprise Development
SN-3: Participatory Research and Gender
Analysis
Within the project of Sustainable Systems for
Smallholders (PE-5) are two subprojects in Asia: The
Forages for Smallholders Project (FSP) and the
Sustainable Cassava Cropping Systems Project, also
known as the Nippon Foundation Project.
Forages for Smallholders Project (FSP)
The Forages for Smallholders Project has been
funded by AusAID (Australia) and implemented
jointly by the CIAT Regional Program on Forages in
Manila, Philippines, and the CSIRO Regional Office
in Vientiane, Lao PDR. This 5-year project (1995-99)
was executed in collaboration with national programs
in the Philippines, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Vietnam,
Malaysia, and Thailand. The overall objective of the
project is to increase the availability of adapted
forages and the capacity to deliver them to different
farming systems. This is achieved by developing and
using a farmer participatory approach to the evalua-
tion of forages and technology development in order
to ensure relevance and increase the chance of
adoption. Details of the project have been described
by Horne (1997), Stur (1997), Stur et al(19981, and
Howeler et al(l999). A second phase of the FSP
project was approved for funding by the Asian
Development Bank in early 2000, while a separate
 but related Forage and Livestock Systems Project
(ESP) was approved for Lao PDR with funding from
AusAID (Australia).
The Asian Cassava Research Network
In 1985, a Cassava Agronomy Program for Asia was
established at the CIAT Regional Cassava Office in
Asia, located in Bangkok, with the objective of
strengthening national cassava programs so as to
enhance the efficiency of germplasm improvement
and agronomic research and to improve communica-
tion and collaboration between various national
cassava programs. The collaborative research is done
within a rather informal Asian Cassava Research
Network. The agronomy component has concentrated
mainly on soil fertility maintenance and erosion
control.
Simple long-term NPK trials have been estab-
lished at 11 locations in five countries. Some of these
trials have now completed up to ten years of continu-
ous cassava cropping. Results show that there was a
significant response to N at eight of 11 sites, to K at
seven sites, and to P at only four sites (Howeler
2000). The rather limited response to P indicates the
presence of a very efficient native mycorrhizal
population, which infects cassava fibrous roots and
helps the plant absorb P. Because of this symbiosis
with vascular-arbuscular mycorrhizae, cassava can
grow better than most crops in soils that are very low
in P. However, when the crop is grown continuously
on the same land for many years, K invariably
becomes the most limiting nutrient because the crop
accumulates rather large amounts of K in the swollen
roots, which are subsequently removed from the field
in the root harvest. Thus, continuous cassava cultiva-
tion without adequate inputs of K will eventually lead
to K-exhaustion and a reduction in yield (Howeler
1991, 2000).
Cultivation of cassava on sloping land caused
more serious erosion than that of most other food
crops (Putthacharoen et a1 1998). However, various
soil/crop management practices have been identified
that can help reduce erosion in cassava fields. These
include applying fertilizers or manures, minimum or
zero tillage, planting on contour ridges and at closer
spacing, mulching, intercropping, and planting of
contour barriers of grass or legume species or of
leguminous tree species such as Leucaena
leucocephala, Tephrosia candida, Flemingia
macrophylla, and Gliricidia sepium. Table 1 shows a
qualitative estimate of the effect of these practices on
erosion, on cassava yield, on natural terrace forma-
tion, and on labor and capital requirements. Some
practices, such as contour ridging and fertilizer
application, are clearly very effective in reducing
erosion and increasing yields, but they also require
more capital inputs, whereas no-fertilizer application
results in high levels of erosion and low yields, but
requires the least amount of inputs. The selection of
the best practice for a particular region depends to a
large extent on the soil and climatic conditions, but,
even more importantly, on the socioeconomic
conditions of the farmers. Practically all farmers have
as their primary objective to maximize income. So,

Table 1. Effect of various soil/crop management practices on erosion and yield and on labor and monetary
requirements and long-term benefits in cassava-based cropping systems.

Erosion Terrace Effect on Labor Monetary Long-term Main

Practice controla formation cassava requirement cost benefits limitation
yield

Minimum or no-tillage ++ – – + – + Compaction, weeds

Mulching (carry-on) ++++ – ++ +++ + ++ Mulch availability,
transport cost
Mulching (in situ production) +++ – ++ ++ + ++ Competition
Contour tillage +++ + + + + ++
Contour ridging +++ + ++ ++ ++ + Not suitable on steep
slopes
Leguminous tree hedgerows + ++ + +++ + +++b Delay in benefits
Cut-and-carry grass strips ++ ++ – +++ + +++b Competition, high
maintenance
Vetiver grass hedgerows +++ +++ + + + +++
Natural grass strips ++ ++ – + – ++ High maintenance cost
Cover cropping (live mulch) ++ – – +++ ++ + Severe competition,
high maintenance
Manure or fertilizer application +++ – +++ + +++ +++ High cost
Intercropping ++ – – ++ ++ +++ Labor-intensive
Closer plant spacing ++ – + + + ++

a+ = effective, positive, or high, – = not effective, negative, or low.

bValue added in terms of animal feed, staking material, or fuel wood.

165
unless the recommended soil conservation practices
also satisfy the farmers’ short-term need for food and
income, they are unlikely to be adopted. The selection
of the most suitable practices can therefore best be
done by farmers themselves in collaboration with
researchers and extensionists, through the testing of
several promising options by farmers in their own
fields.
The Nippon Foundation FPR Project—1st
Phase (1994-98)
Based on the premise that soil conservation practices
will only be adopted by farmers if they are both
efficient and well adapted to local conditions, while
providing farmers with some immediate benefits, a 5-
year project began in 1994, funded by the Nippon
Foundation in Japan. The basic objectives are to
develop appropriate integrated soil/crop management
practices for more sustainable cassava-based crop-
ping systems in Asia and to enhance the adoption of
these practices by farmers. The latter is done by
developing a farmer participatory research (FPR)
methodology for the testing, selection, and implemen-
tation of suitable soil conservation practices.
The project is executed by CIAT and collaborat-
ing national research and extension organizations in
various countries in Asia and has three principal
components:
1. Farmer participatory adaptive research is
undertaken at two pilot sites in each of four
countries (in eastern Thailand; East Java,
Indonesia; Hainan Island of China; and northern
Vietnam) in collaboration with research, exten-
sion, and farmers’ organizations.
2. Strategic and applied research on soil fertility
maintenance and erosion control are conducted
within a network of collaborating research
institutes and universities in various cassava-
growing countries in Asia.
3. Training courses on FPR methodologies are
conducted to train researchers and extension
workers in FPR methodologies and to develop
training materials in the local languages that can
be used in training courses for farmers and
extensionists in each country.
For the FPR part of the project, an informal consor-
tium of collaborating research and extension institu-
tions from each of the four participating countries was
organized. These institutes are working closely
together with the local extension offices and farmers’
groups at selected pilot sites.
FPR teams of each country preselected two or
more pilot sites that were considered most suitable for
166
the project, considering that cassava is an important
crop in the area, it is grown on slopes, and erosion is
a serious problem. Rapid rural appraisals (RRA) were
conducted at each potential site to learn more about
the prevalent cropping systems, the agronomic
practices used, and the methods of cassava use and
about soil erosion, farmers’ perception of the serious-
ness of the problem, and their interest in participating
in developing solutions. After obtaining this informa-
tion, the two most suitable pilot sites were selected in
each country.
To give farmers an opportunity to see and
consider several technological options that might be
suitable for reducing erosion in their own area, one or
more demonstration fields are established in each
country. These demonstrations usually have a large
number of treatments, including different methods of
fertilization, land preparation, ridging, intercropping,
mulching, and the use of contour barriers. These
demonstrations are laid out on a uniform slope; along
the lower side of each plot plastic-covered ditches are
constructed to catch eroded sediments to determine
soil losses from erosion. Before or during the harvest
of these demonstration plots, farmers from the pilot
sites are invited for a field day to see and discuss the
various management options. Table 2 shows the
results of demonstration plots used in Sahatsakhan
District of Kalasin in northeast Thailand in 1997-98
and the preferences farmers expressed for each
treatment. Farmers generally preferred those practices
with high net income and low levels of erosion. Out
of these various options, farmers usually selected four
to five management practices to try out in FPR
erosion control trials in their own fields. Other
farmers in the same community often conducted FPR
trials on varieties, fertilization, and intercropping
systems.
At the start of the following planting season, the
FPR team members again visited the pilot sites
(usually one village or subdistrict) and discussed with
those farmers interested in participating in the project
their selected treatments. Suitable fields within each
farm were selected by the farmers and local extension
workers. In the case of the FPR erosion control trials,
researchers showed the farmers how to set out
contour lines, lay out the plots, construct the plastic-
covered ditches, and establish the various treatments.
Farmers planted and maintained the trials, while FPR
team members assisted in collecting and weighing the
soil sediments and determining crop yields.
At the time of the cassava harvest, a field day
was organized. Researchers, extensionists, and the
collaborating farmers harvested all the trials together,
determined production, and calculated yields. This
Table 2. Results of farmer participatory research demonstration plots established on 5% slope in Sahatsakhan District
of Kalasin, Thailand, in 1997-98 (1st year).

Yield (t ha-1) Gross incomeb (B000 ha-1') Dry soil Farmers'

Treatmentsa loss preference
Cassava Intercrop Cassava Intercrop Total (t ha-1) (%)c

1. No fertilizers 24.7 - 54.09 - 54.09 6.56 0

2. Low fertilizer rate 20.8 - 45.55 - 45.55 8.17 4
3. High fertilizer rate 26.6 - 58.25 - 58.25 7.31 27
4. Low fert. + chicken manure 23.3 - 50.92 - 50.92 5.37 34
5. Peanut intercrop, high fert. 16.6 1.58 36.35 15.81 52.16 4.72 22
6. Pumpkin intercrop, high fert. 13.3 8.78 29.02 26.34 55.36 3.31 17
7. Sweet corn intercrop, high fert. 23.3 12,100 ears 50.92 18.15 69.07 6.67 39
8. Up/down ridging, high fert. 29.0 - 63.51 - 63.51 11.64 25
9. Contour ridging, high fert. 29.1 - 63.73 - 63.73 5.58 48
10. Vetiver grass hedgerows, high fert. 22.8 - 49.82 - 49.82 3.94 4
11. Sugarcane hedgerows, high fert. 17.8 - 38.98 - 38.98 5.88 3
12. Lemon grass hedgerows, high fert. 29.7 - 64.93 - 64.93 6.08 30
13. Panlcum maximum hedgerows 16.3 - 35.59 - 35.59 9.11 0
14. Mulch of dry grass, high fert. 21.2 - 46.43 - 46.43 5.27 3
15. Closer spacing (0.8 x 0.8 m), high fert. 23.5 - 51.44 - 51.44 5.04 32

aLow fertiIizers = 156 kg 15-15-15 ha-1, high fertilizers = 312 kg 15-15-15 ha-1, chicken manure = 781 kg ha-1.
bPrices (in B): cassava = 2.19 kg-1 fresh roots, peanut = 10 kg-1 dry pods, sweet corn = 1.60 eat-1, pumpkin = 3.0 kg-1 fresh fruit.
cPercent of farmers scorlng treatment as "good."

information, together with data on soil losses from
erosion, gross income, production costs, and net
income for each treatment, was presented to the
farmers. After discussing the results, farmers either
selected new treatments to be tried in similar trials in
the following season or they selected one or two
practices to try out on a larger area of their production
fields.
Table 3 shows an example of the average results
of nine FPR erosion control trials conducted in Soeng
Saang District of Nakhon Ratchasima in 1995-96.
Most farmers selected either vetiver grass hedgerows
or contour ridging as the most suitable practices.
Similar results were obtained in other locations in
Thailand and in other years. Table 4 summarizes the
results of FPR erosion control trials conducted at two
sites in Thailand and at three sites in Vietnam during
1995-98. In general, the farmer-selected practices
tended to reduce erosion-sometimes quite mark-
edly—while increasing net income; the latter was
particularly true in Vietnam, where peanut intercrop-
ping and improved fertilization markedly increased
yields and gross income. At both sites in Thailand,
farmers had a clear preference for the planting of
vetiver grass hedgerows to control erosion and many
wanted to try out this practice in their larger produc-
tion fields. Researchers and extensionists helped
farmers to set out contour lines and obtain planting
material of vetiver grass. In one community near a
previous pilot site in Soeng Saang, farmers organized

Table 3. Average results of nine farmer participatory research trials on erosion control conducted by farmers in Noon
Sombuun village of Soeng Saang District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand, 1995-96.

No. of
Treatments No. of Cassava Gross Production Net Soil farmersb
plots yield incomea costs income loss liking
(t ha-1) (B000 ha-1) (t ha-1) treatment

1. Up/down ridging 9 29.8 31.35 9.59 21.76 24.8 0

2. Contour ridging 9 34.0 35.72 9.78 25.94 9.8 17
3. Vetiver grass hedgerows 7 35.2 37.00 10.22 26.78 8.5 18
4. Sugarcane hedgerows 9 32.2 46.93 12.22 34.71 11.8 10
5. Mulberry hedgerows 1 40.0 43.00 10.22 32.78 16.1 0
6. Peanut intercropping 8 28.9 43.41 12.72 30.69 13.3 0
7. Sweet corn intercropping 1 25.5 38.77 11.02 27.75 12.8 1

aPrices (in B): cassava: 1.05 kg-1 fresh roots, peanut: 8.00 kg-1 fresh pods, sweet corn: 1.00 ear-1,
sugarcane: 2.00 stern-1, mulberry: 2.00 kg-1 leaves. US$1 = B25.
bOut of a total of 18 farmers.

167
Table 4. Effect of farmer-selected soil conservation practices on dry soil loss and gross and net income compared
with the traditional farmers' practice in farmer participatory research trials conducted at two pilot sites in Thailand
and three in Vietnam from 1995 to 1998.

income (US$ ha–1)

No. of Dry soil
FPR pilot sites Year
farmers loss (t ha–1)
Gross Net

Thailand—Nakhon Ratchasima, Soeng Saang

Farmers' practice (up/down ridging) 1995-96 9 25 1,254 870a
Vetiver hedgerows, no ridging 8 1,480 1,071a

Farmers' practice (up/down ridging) 1996-97 7 4 893 322a

Vetiver hedgerows, no ridging 4 871 250a

Farmers' practice (up/down ridging) 1997-98 1 24 644 –

Vetiver hedgerows, no ridging 8 521 –

Thailand—Sra Kaew, Wang Nam Yen

Farmers' practice (up/down ridging) 1995-96 6 18 1,378 948a
Vetiver hedgerows, no ridging 15 1,110 685a

Farmers' practice (up/down ridging) 1996-97 6 48 884 384a

Vetiver hedgerows, no ridging 10 724 199a

Farmers' practice (up/down ridging) 1997-98 1 17 815 –

Vetiver hedgerows, no ridging 1 496 –

Vietnam—Thai Nguyen, Pho Yen

Farmers' practice (cassava monoculture, no fertilizers) 1995 6 30 1,024 753b
Cassava + peanut, vetiver hedgerows, NPK 19 1,047 892b

Farmers' practice (cassava monoculture, no fertilizers) 1996 5 8 629 424b

Cassava + peanut, Tephrosia hedgerows, contour ridging, NPK 5 815 606b

Farmers' practice (cassava monoculture, no fertilizers) 1997 5 8 535 336b

Cassava + peanut, Tephrosia hedgerows, contour ridging, NPK 3 1,041 817b

Vietnam—Phu Tho, Thanh Ba. Kieu Tung

Farmers' practice (cassava + peanut, no hedgerows, no fertilizers) 1995 6 54 1,347 921b
Cassava + peanut, vetiver hedgerows, NPK 43 1,653 1,129b

Farmers' practice (cassava monoculture, no hedgerows, 1996 6 28 695 459b

no fertilizers)
Cassava + peanut, vetiver hedgerows, NPK 25 1,525 1,187b

Farmers' practice (cassava monoculture, no hedgerows, 1997 6 106 871 533b

no fertilizers)
Cassava + peanut, vetiver hedgerows, NPK 32 1,464 923b

Vietnam—Hoa Binh, Luong Son, Dong Rang

Farmers' practice (cassava monoculture, no hedgerows, 1995 1 10 481 139 a
no fertizers)
Cassava + peanut, Tephrosia hedgerows, NPK 1 978 49 a

Farmers' practice (cassava + taro, no hedgerows, no fertilizers) 1996 3 43 635 568 c

Cassava + peanut, vetiver hedgerows, NPK 2 1,012 873c

Farmers' practice (cassava + taro, no hedgerows, no fertilizers) 1997 1 3 522 20a

Cassava + peanut, Tephrosia hedgrows, NPK 0 698 99a

a Gross income minus labor and material costs. b Gross income minus all material costs. cGross income minus fertilizer and manure costs.

themselves and formed a “Soil Conservation Group”:
together they started planting contour hedgerows of
vetiver grass on about 320 ha of cassava fields.
In 1998, the project expanded to two other sites,
one in Sahatsakhan District of Kalasin and one in
Sanaamchaikhet of Chachoengsao.
The Nippon Foundation Project—2nd Phase
(1999-2003)
In early 1999, the Nippon Foundation approved a
second phase of the project. This 5-year project will
concentrate most work in Thailand and Vietnam,
while the emphasis changes from farmer participatory

168
research to participatory extension. The project will
expand to 15–20 sites in each of the two countries.
Besides doing FPR trials on erosion control, varieties,
fertilization, etc., the project will also test more
informal approaches to farmer evaluation of suitable
practices and will enhance adoption of these practices
through farmer-to-farmer extension.
The second phase of the project is being imple-
mented in Thailand in collaboration with five research
and extension organizations: the departments of
Agriculture, Agricultural Extension, and Land
Development, Kasetsart University, and the Thai
Tapioca Development Institute. In 2000, the project
was working at ten different sites, mostly in the
northeast, conducting about 40 FPR trials at three
sites, six of which were on erosion control. In
addition, about 240 farmers have decided to plant
vetiver grass hedgerows to control erosion in their
fields and 67 km of hedgerows, covering about 200
ha, have already been planted. Other farmers re-
quested seed of cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata) and
sword bean (Canavalia ensiformis) to plant as a green
manure in rotation with cassava.
By involving farmers directly in the research on
and development of soil-conserving practices, it was
possible to identify those practices that are efficient in
reducing soil erosion, are adapted to local conditions,
and are also considered to be beneficial by the
farmers. If these three criteria are met, farmers will
more likely adopt these practices on a voluntary basis
and will recommend them to friends and neighbors,
thus helping to further extend soil-conserving
practices.
In these various ways, CIAT hopes to contribute
to a better understanding of the basic causes of soil
degradation, both the physical and socioeconomic
aspects, to develop technological innovations that
help reduce erosion, and to enhance farmer adoption
of soil-conserving farming practices.
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Notes
Aurhor's address: CIAT Regional Cassava Office for Asia,
Department of Agriculture, Chatuchak, Bangkok
10900, Thailand.
169