Continuous-

Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
Continuous-Time Signal Processing (ET 2004)
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
Chapter 7 : Introduction to Linear Feedback
Irma Zakia Systems
Basic
Concepts

Feedback Irma Zakia

Advantages

Feedback School of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Institut Teknologi Bandung

Disadvantages

Feedback *Untuk kalangan terbatas

Example on
Inverting
Op-amp
April 11, 2019
Stability
Analysis

1 / 59
 Presentation Outline

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction 1 Basic Concepts
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
2 Feedback Advantages
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts 3 Feedback Disadvantages
Feedback
Advantages

Feedback 4 Feedback Example on Inverting Op-amp

Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
5 Stability Analysis
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

2 / 59
 Presentation Outline

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction 1 Basic Concepts
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
2 Feedback Advantages
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts 3 Feedback Disadvantages
Feedback
Advantages

Feedback 4 Feedback Example on Inverting Op-amp

Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
5 Stability Analysis
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

3 / 59
 What is Feedback

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004) Feedback : Using the output to control or modify the input
Chapter 7 :
Introduction System with no feedback : open-loop system
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
System with feedback : closed-loop system
Irma Zakia x(t) e(t) y (t)
G (s)
Basic
Concepts

Feedback x(t) y (t)

Advantages G (s) H(s)
Feedback
Disadvantages
(a) System with no (b) System with feedback
Feedback feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp Some applications: motion tracking, op-amps, oscillators,
Stability filters, control systems, etc.
Analysis

4 / 59
 Feedback Example in Telescope

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability (a) Open-loop system (b) Closed-loop system

Analysis

5 / 59
 Closed-loop Transfer Function

Continuous-
Time Signal Block diagram of linear feedback system
Processing PSfrag
(ET 2004) X (s) E (s) Y (s)
Chapter 7 : G (s)
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia
H(s)
Basic
Concepts
G (s) and H(s) are LTI sytems
Feedback
Advantages Defining the closed-loop transfer function as
Feedback Y (s)
Disadvantages T (s) =
X (s)
Feedback
Example on
Inverting
T (s) is determined from
Op-amp
Y (s) = E (s)G (s) = (X (s) − Y (s)H(s))G (s)
Stability G (s)
Analysis T (s) =
1 + G (s)H(s)

6 / 59
 What’s the Use of Feedback?

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems Example: op-amp with open-loop gain G (s), the feedback
Irma Zakia system has constant gain H(s) = K
G (s)
Basic
Concepts
If both G (s) and K are positive then T (s) = 1+G (s)K <1
Feedback Introducing feedback means gain reduction w.r.t.
Advantages
open-loop gain?
Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

7 / 59
 Presentation Outline

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction 1 Basic Concepts
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
2 Feedback Advantages
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts 3 Feedback Disadvantages
Feedback
Advantages

Feedback 4 Feedback Example on Inverting Op-amp

Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
5 Stability Analysis
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

8 / 59
 Reducing Sensitivity

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing G (s)
(ET 2004) From the op-amp example with T (s) = 1+G (s)K , if
Chapter 7 :
Introduction G (s)K >> 1, then
to Linear
Feedback
Systems G (s) 1
T ≈ =
Irma Zakia
G (s)K K
Basic
Concepts

Feedback The output becomes insensitive to G (s), which means

Advantages
G (s) can vary, but we still get the closed-loop transfer
Feedback
Disadvantages function K1
Feedback
Example on Variation of G (s) means that we get uncertain levels of
Inverting
Op-amp
amplification which can fluctuate with frequency, time,
Stability temperature and operating current
Analysis

9 / 59
 Reducing Sensitivity continues

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing If K < 1, then
(ET 2004) 1
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
T (s) ≈ >1
to Linear
K
Feedback
Systems
1
Irma Zakia For example, if at a certain s, G (s) = 106 , and K = 100 ,
Basic
then G (s)K = 104 >> 1
Concepts 1
The closed-loop transfer function is T (s) ≈ K = 100
Feedback
Advantages K < 1 is obtained from passive devices like attenuator
Feedback
Disadvantages
(capacitor, resistor)
Feedback If the open-loop amplifier is designed with considerably
Example on
Inverting more gain than is actually needed, the closed-loop
Op-amp
amplifier will provide the desired level of amplification with
Stability
Analysis greatly reduced sensitivity

10 / 59
 Sensitivity Analysis

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction Formula-wise, sensitivity is defined as
to Linear
Feedback
Systems δT /T
Irma Zakia
SGT =
δG /G
Basic 1
Concepts =
Feedback
1 + G (s)K
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages If G (s)K >> 1, we have SGT ≈ 0
Feedback
Example on The op-amp becomes insensitive to G (s)
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

11 / 59
 Compensation for Nonlinear Elements

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing Amplifier is operating mainly in the linear region
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : But if the input voltage is increased to above some
Introduction
to Linear threshold, nonlinearity arises
Feedback
Systems If the system G (s) is nonlinear
Irma Zakia

Basic x y
Concepts nonlinear
Feedback G (s)
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback We have
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp y = G (s)x + K2 x 2 + K3 x 3 + ...
Stability
| {z }
Analysis nonlinear terms

12 / 59
 Compensation for Nonlinear Elements continues

Continuous-
Time Signal Introducing a linear feedback system with constant gain
Processing
(ET 2004) H(s) = K
Chapter 7 :
Introduction Connecting G (s) with H(s), if G (s) is linear, we have
to Linear
Feedback G (s)x
Systems y=
Irma Zakia
1 + G (s)K
But.. if G (s) is non linear, then
Basic
Concepts G (s)x
Feedback
y =
Advantages 1 + G (s)K
Feedback K2 x 2 K3 x 3
Disadvantages + + + ...
Feedback
1 + G (s)K 1 + G (s)K
Example on
| {z }
Inverting nonlinear terms
Op-amp If G (s)K >> 1, the nonlinear terms vanishes, thus
Stability
Analysis
x
y≈
K
13 / 59
 Reduce Disturbance or Noise

Continuous-
Time Signal The open-loop system with disturbance is
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : y = G (s)x + |{z}
n
Introduction
to Linear disturbance
Feedback
Systems disturbance n
Irma Zakia
x y
Basic
Concepts
G (s)
Feedback
Advantages
By applying the linear feedback with constant gain
Feedback
Disadvantages H(s) = K , it can be shown that
Feedback
Example on G (s)x n
Inverting y= +
Op-amp 1 + G (s)K 1 + G (s)K
| {z }
Stability
Analysis disturbance
If G (s)K >> 1, then the noise power ≈ 0
14 / 59
 Compensation for Nonideal Elements

Continuous-
Time Signal Consider a non-inverting negative feedback amplifier which
Processing
(ET 2004) can be categorized as VCVS, CCCS, VCCS, or CCVS
Chapter 7 :
Introduction For example, if the amplifier is an ideal CCVS, the
to Linear
Feedback
impedance at the input and output terminal are Zin = 0
Systems
and Zout = 0
Irma Zakia
If the amplifier is nonideal, the impedance at the input
Basic and/or output terminal are Z̃in 6= Zin and Z̃out 6= Zout
Concepts
Ii Io
Feedback
Advantages nonideal
Vi amplifier Vo
Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp feedback
network
Stability
Analysis
Thus, by connecting a nonideal amplifier to a feedback
network, we can get Z̃in ≈ Zin and Z̃out ≈ Zout 15 / 59
 Increase the Bandwidth

Continuous-
Time Signal Consider G (s) as an amplifier with gain that falls off at
Processing
(ET 2004) high frequencies, or correspondingly has a bandwidth W
Chapter 7 :
Introduction We connect G (s) with linear feedback system H(s) = K ,
to Linear
Feedback
K constant
′
Systems
The overall system bandwidth is increased to W
Irma Zakia
Example : G (s) = 1+A s
W
Basic
Concepts
Bode plot?
Feedback
The transfer function of the system with feedback is
Advantages A A
Feedback G (s) 1+ Ws 1+AK
Disadvantages T (s) = = AK
= s
1 + G (s)H(s) 1 + 1+ s 1 + W (1+AK )
Feedback W
Example on
Inverting
Bode plot?
Op-amp
Bandwidth-gain product remains constant
Stability
Analysis A
W (1 + AK ) = AW
1 + AK
16 / 59
 Obtaining an Inverse System

Continuous-
Time Signal x(t) y (t)
Processing K
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
P(s)
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts The closed-loop transfer function
Feedback K
Advantages T (s) =
1 + KP(s)
Feedback
Disadvantages
If KP(s) >> 1, then
Feedback
Example on 1
Inverting T (s) ≈
Op-amp
P(s)
Stability
Analysis
The transfer function of the closed-loop is the inverse of
the feedback system P(s)
17 / 59
 Stabilization of Unstable Systems

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing applications : control trajectory of a rocket, stabilization
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : of an aircraft, etc
Introduction b
to Linear Example : first-order system G (s) = s−a
Feedback
Systems If a > 0, the system is unstable
Irma Zakia
Let’s pick the feedback network with H(s) = K , where K
Basic
Concepts
constant gain, then
Feedback
Advantages
b
T (s) =
Feedback s − a + Kb
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on a
Inverting With feedback, the system is stable if K > b
Op-amp

Stability
Shown later, that for second-order system, the feedback
Analysis element must be in the form H(s) = K1 + K2 s
18 / 59
 Presentation Outline

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction 1 Basic Concepts
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
2 Feedback Advantages
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts 3 Feedback Disadvantages
Feedback
Advantages

Feedback 4 Feedback Example on Inverting Op-amp

Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
5 Stability Analysis
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

19 / 59
 Disadvantages of Feedback

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear Increased complexity: addition of feedback elements
Feedback
Systems increases complexity
Irma Zakia Reduce gain : open-loop transfer function is G (s), but the
Basic closed-loop one becomes 1+GG(s)H(s)
(s)
< 1 for
Concepts

Feedback
G (s) > 0, H(s) > 0
Advantages
Possible instability : open-loop system is often stable.
Feedback
Disadvantages After incorporating the feedback, the closed-loop system
Feedback may become unstable
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

20 / 59
 Unstabilization of Stable Systems

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004) Example : feedback in audio system
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
total audio
input to microphone
v
Irma Zakia external speaker
v
audio inputs v K1 output
v

Basic
Concepts
K2 e −sT
Feedback
Advantages
(a) Illustration of audio (b) Block diagram of audio feedback
Feedback feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
K1
Inverting The transfer function T (s) = 1−K1 K2 e −sT
Op-amp

Stability Unstable if K1 K2 > 1

Analysis

21 / 59
 Presentation Outline

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction 1 Basic Concepts
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
2 Feedback Advantages
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts 3 Feedback Disadvantages
Feedback
Advantages

Feedback 4 Feedback Example on Inverting Op-amp

Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
5 Stability Analysis
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

22 / 59
 Background

Continuous-
Time Signal Called inverting op-amp because the output will be shifted
Processing ◦
(ET 2004) 180 w.r.t. input
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts

Feedback Provides the basis for realizing a transfer function with

Advantages
prescribed poles and zeros in a relatively straightforward
Feedback
Disadvantages manner.
Feedback
Example on The transfer function after you design your filter, you can
Inverting
Op-amp
implement by using RLC elements (passive filters)
Stability But here, you can also implement it using op-amp with RC
Analysis
elements (active filters)
23 / 59
 Ideal Op-amp Model

Continuous-
Time Signal Op-amp has two input terminals, inverting and
Processing
(ET 2004) noninverting
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages Ideal op-amp is defined by the following assumptions:
Feedback 1 Op-amp acts as VCVS, thus V0 ≡ A(V2 − V1 )
Disadvantages
2 Open-loop gain A >> 1, thus for finite V0 , we have
Feedback
Example on
V1 ≈ V2 , a property known as virtual ground
Inverting 3 Impedance between the two input terminals is ∞, and also
Op-amp
impedance between the input terminals and ground. This
Stability
Analysis means no current can enter or leave the input terminals
4 Output impedance is zero (voltage source)
24 / 59
 Op-amp with Feedback Circuit

Continuous-
Time Signal Op-amp is typically not used in open-loop fashion
Processing
(ET 2004) Op-amp is the amplifier component of a feedback circuit
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
The amplifier and feedback circuit is connected in parallel
Example on
Inverting
at the input as well as output
Op-amp Z1 (s) and Z2 (s) are the input element and feedback
Stability
Analysis
element
Vin (s) and Vout (s) are the input and output voltages
25 / 59
 Closed-loop Transfer Function of Op-amp with
Feedback
Continuous-
Time Signal From the ideal op-amp model, we have
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : I (s)
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia
virtual
ground
Basic
Concepts

Feedback Vin (s)

Advantages I (s) = , Vout (s) = −I (s)Z2 (s)
Z1 (s)
Feedback
Disadvantages The transfer function yields
Feedback
Example on Vout (s) Z2 (s)
Inverting
T (s) = =−
Vin (s) Z1 (s)
Op-amp
◦
Stability Output voltage is 180 out-of-phase compare to input
Analysis
Closed-loop transfer function is insensitive of the amplif. gain A
26 / 59
 Realizing Integrator with Op-amp

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing Rt Vin (τ )
(ET 2004) T (s) = − sC12 R1 , thus Vout (t) = − C2 R1 dτ
Chapter 7 : −∞
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp Compare to first-order RC circuit which approximately act
t
Stability
Analysis
as integrator Vout (t) = Vin (t) ∗ e − RC

27 / 59
 Realizing Differentiator with Op-amp

Continuous-
Time Signal R2
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
C1
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages
The closed-loop transfer function
Feedback
Disadvantages
T (s) = −sC1 R2
Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp
Vout (t) = −C1 R2 dVdt
in (t)

Stability
Compare to first-order RC circuit which
h approximately
i act
t
Analysis − RC
as differentiator Vout (t) = Vin (t) ∗ δ(t) − e
28 / 59
 Active Filters with Real Poles-Zeros

Continuous-
Time Signal
Filters can be designed by using op-amps → active filters
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic The impedance of the input and feedback elements are

Concepts
R1 R2
Feedback Z1 (s) = , Z2 (s) =
Advantages 1 + sC1 R1 1 + sC2 R2
Feedback
The closed-loop transfer function
Disadvantages R2 1 + sC1 R1
T (s) = −
Feedback R1 1 + sC2 R2
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp zero and pole are real
Stability zero at s = − C11R1 and pole at s = − C21R2
Analysis
The transfer function can be realized with arbitrary real poles
and real zeros by cascading different versions of this circuit
29 / 59
 Active Filters with Complex Poles-Zeros

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004) If the impedances elaborated are Z1 (s) and Z2 (s), then we
Chapter 7 :
Introduction can synthesize the transfer function with arbitrary complex
to Linear
Feedback poles and zeros
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability Active filters : eliminate the necessities of using inductor

Analysis

30 / 59
 Presentation Outline

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction 1 Basic Concepts
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
2 Feedback Advantages
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts 3 Feedback Disadvantages
Feedback
Advantages

Feedback 4 Feedback Example on Inverting Op-amp

Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
5 Stability Analysis
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

31 / 59
 Background

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
From applications of feedback system, we can see that it
Introduction
to Linear
requires an adjustable gain K
Feedback G (s)
Systems Since the closed=loop transfer function T (s) = 1+G (s)K ,
Irma Zakia different values K affect the poles location of T (s), thus
Basic
the system stability
Concepts
Some methods to analyze stability are discussed here
Feedback
Advantages 1 Root-locus : path of the poles as the gain K is varied from
Feedback −∞ to ∞
Disadvantages 2 Routh-Hurwitz criteria : provides simple procedure to
Feedback ascertain whether all the poles of T (s) have negative real
Example on
Inverting parts (lie in the LHP), without having to compute the
Op-amp
poles of T (s)
Stability
Analysis

32 / 59
 Root Locus : Definition

Continuous- Examining the locus (path) in the s-plane of the poles of the
Time Signal
Processing
closed-loop transfer function T (s), as the gain K is varied
(ET 2004) The transfer function is assumed rational
Chapter 7 :
s
Introduction Simple example : G (s) = s−2 , H(s) = 2K
s
, with K the adjustable
to Linear
Feedback gain
Systems s
Then T (s) = s−2(1−K )
, where the system is stable for K > 1
Irma Zakia How to sketch the root locus?
Basic
Concepts
ℑ{s} ℑ{s}
Feedback
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages
X ℜ{s} X ℜ{s}
Feedback
Example on 2 2
Inverting (a) K > 0 (b) K < 0
Op-amp
s
Stability Figure: Root locus of T (s) = s−2(1−K )
Analysis

33 / 59
 Equation for the Closed-loop Poles

Continuous- Often, the closed-loop poles can’t be determined easily as the gain K
Time Signal
Processing is varied
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
We can still sketch the root locus, without having to solve for the
Introduction location of the poles for a specified gain K
to Linear
Feedback We adopt the system block diagram as
Systems
x(t) y (t)
Irma Zakia K G (s)

Basic
Concepts
H(s)
Feedback KG (s)
Advantages T (s) = 1+KG (s)H(s)
Feedback (a) gain in forward path
Disadvantages

Feedback x(t) y (t)

G (s)
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis K H(s)
G (s)
T (s) = 1+KG (s)H(s)
(b) gain in backward 34 / 59
 Equation for the Closed-loop Poles continues

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
The equation for the poles of the closed-loop transfer
to Linear
Feedback
function is the solution of
Systems

Irma Zakia 1 + KG (s)H(s) = 0

Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages
The root locus is sketched based on the properties and
Feedback solutions of
Disadvantages

Feedback 1
Example on G (s)H(s) = −
Inverting K
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

35 / 59
 End Points of the Root Locus : Closed-loop Poles
for K = 0 and |K | = ∞
Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
K = 0 → locus is at poles location of G (s)H(s)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction |K | = ∞ → locus is at zeros location of G (s)H(s)
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
Recall: if the order between the numerator and
Irma Zakia
denominator of G (s)H(s) is not equal, then their
difference is equal to the number of poles or zeros at ∞
Basic
Concepts Previous example: take K as the varied gain (outside of
Feedback H(s)), then
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages
2 1
G (s)H(s) = =−
Feedback s −2 K
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp
2
Stability We see that s−2 has pole at s = 2 and zero at ∞
Analysis

36 / 59
 End Points of the Root Locus : Closed-loop Poles
for K = 0 and |K | = ∞ continues
Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear If K = 0:
Feedback

Systems the pole of T (s) is located at the pole of G (s)H(s)K =0 ,
Irma Zakia
i.e. s = 2
verified in Fig. 1, where the pole is at s = 2 when K = 0
Basic
Concepts If |K | = ∞

Feedback the pole of T (s) is located at the zero of G (s)H(s)|K |=∞ ,
Advantages
i.e. s = ∞
Feedback
Disadvantages verified in Fig. 1, where the pole increases without bound
Feedback as |K | → ∞ for both figures K > 0 and K < 0
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

37 / 59
 Angle Criterion

Continuous-
Time Signal If s0 is the pole of T (s), then
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = integer multiples of π
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback Proof:
Systems
G (s)H(s) = − K1 ∈ R
Irma Zakia
Since G (s)H(s) = |G (s)H(s)|e jarg(G (s)H(s)) , if s0 is the
Basic pole of T (s) for some value K , then
Concepts

Feedback e jarg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = ±1

Advantages
Case arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = odd multiples of π
Feedback
Disadvantages 1 1
G (s0 )H(s0 ) = −|G (s0 )H(s0 )| = − →K = >0
Feedback K |G (s0 )H(s0 )|
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp Case arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = even multiples of π
Stability 1 1
Analysis G (s0 )H(s0 ) = |G (s0 )H(s0 )| = − →K =− <0
K |G (s0 )H(s0 )|

38 / 59
 Angle Criterion Formulation

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
s0 is in the root-locus for values K > 0 if it satisfies
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = odd multiples of π (1)
Systems

Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts
s0 is in the root-locus for values of K < 0 if it satisfies
Feedback
Advantages arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = even multiples of π (2)
Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Determining the root locus is simply searching for points
Op-amp that satisfy the angle requirements (1) and (2)
Stability
Analysis

39 / 59
 Defining Root Locus Example

Continuous- 1 1
Time Signal G (s) = s+1 , H(s) = s+2 , poles at s = −1 and s = −2, no
Processing
(ET 2004) zeros
Chapter 7 :
Introduction Case: s0 in the ℜ{s} axis
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
ℑ{s} ℑ{s}

Irma Zakia

π
Basic
Concepts ℜ{s} ℜ{s}
X X X X
Feedback −2 −1 s0 −2 s0 −1
Advantages (a) s0 > −1 (b) −1 < s0 < −2
Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback π
Example on
π
Inverting X X ℜ{s}
Op-amp s0 −2 −1
Stability (c) s0 < −2
Analysis

Figure: Angle of G (s)H(s) when s0 in real axis

40 / 59
 Defining Root Locus Example continues

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems The corresponding angle and K are given as
Irma Zakia
s0 arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) K
Basic
Concepts s0 > −1 0.π <0
Feedback −1 < s0 < −2 −π >0
Advantages s0 < −2 −2π <0
Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

41 / 59
 Defining Root Locus Example continues

Continuous- Case: s0 in the upper-half of ℜ{s} axis

Time Signal
Processing s0 ℑ{s}
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
θ φ
Irma Zakia
X X ℜ{s}
Basic
−2 −1
Concepts Upper half: 0 < θ < π, 0 < φ < π, thus
Feedback arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = −(θ + φ)
Advantages
−2π < arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) < 0
Feedback
Disadvantages Since arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) can never achieved even multiples of π, no
Feedback point in upper half-plane can be on the locus for K < 0
Example on
Inverting arg(G (s0 )H(s0 )) = −π, which translates to K > 0, is found for those
Op-amp points located on the straight line parallel to ℑ{s} axis and that
Stability bisects the line joining the poles at −1 and −2
Analysis
For s0 in the bottom-half plane can be determined immediately by
the property of real time-domain signals, i.e. complex poles appear in
conjugate symmetric 42 / 59
 Defining Root Locus Example continues

Continuous-
Time Signal
We conclude that the poles in the entire s−plane for varying K
Processing have been determined
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : In addition, we know that for K = 0, the poles of T (s) are at
Introduction
to Linear s = −1 and s = −2.
Feedback
Systems
Since there are double zeros of G (s)H(s) at ∞, then we know
that the poles of T (s) for |K | = ∞ are at ∞
Irma Zakia
ℑ{s}
Basic
Concepts

Feedback
Advantages
ℑ{s}
Feedback
Disadvantages
X X ℜ{s}
Feedback
Example on −2 −1
Inverting
Op-amp
X X ℜ{s}
Stability
Analysis −2 −1
(a) K < 0 (b) K > 0
43 / 59
 Properties of Root Locus

Continuous-
Time Signal Sketching the root locus is less tedious by using the root
Processing
(ET 2004) locus property
Chapter 7 :
Introduction We assume that the coefficients of the highest order both
to Linear
Feedback
in the numerator and denominator of G (s)H(s) are 1
Systems
s M + bM−1 s M−1 + ... + b1 (jω) + b0
Irma Zakia G (s)H(s) =
s N + aN−1 s N−1 + ... + a1 s + a0
Basic
Concepts

Feedback Otherwise, absorb those coefficients to the gain K , for

Advantages
example
Feedback
Disadvantages 2s + 1 2(s + 21 )
K̃ G̃ (s)H̃(s) = K̃ = K̃
3(s 2 + 53 s + 23 )
Feedback
Example on 3s 2 + 5s + 2
Inverting
Op-amp 2 s+1
Stability = K̃ 2 5 2 2
Analysis 3 s + 3s + 3
|{z}
K
| {z }
G (s)H(s)
44 / 59
 Properties of Root Locus continues

Continuous- Property 1 : For K = 0, the closed-loop poles are equal to the poles of
Time Signal
Processing
G (s)H(s). Since there are N poles, the root locus has N branches, each
(ET 2004) one starting (for K = 0) at a pole of G (s)H(s)
Chapter 7 : Property 2 : As |K | → ∞, each branch of the root locus approaches a zero
Introduction
to Linear of G (s)H(s). Since we assume M ≤ N, N − M of these zeros are at ∞
Feedback Property 3: Parts of the ℜ{s} axis that lie to the left of an odd number of
Systems real poles and zeros of G (s)H(s), are on the root locus for K > 0. Parts of
Irma Zakia the ℜ{s} axis that lie to the left of an even number (possibly zero) of real
poles and zeros of G (s)H(S), are on the root locus for K < 0
Basic
Concepts
ℑ{s}
2π − θ
Feedback angle of 0 angle of π ℑ{s}
Advantages X
Feedback X X ℜ{s}
Disadvantages s0 ℜ{s}
s0
Feedback
Example on X θ
Inverting
Op-amp (a) Contribution from real poles (b) Contribution from complex
Stability and zeros conjugate pole pairs
Analysis Property 4: Branches of the root locus between two real poles must break
off into the complex plane for |K | large enough
45 / 59
 Further Example on Sketching Root Locus

Continuous- s−1
Time Signal G (s)H(s) = (s+1)(s+2)
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
ℑ{s}
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems X X ℜ{s}
Irma Zakia −2 −1 1

Basic
Concepts (a) K > 0
Feedback
Advantages
ℑ{s}
Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting X X ℜ{s}
Op-amp
−2 −1 1
Stability
Analysis

(b) K < 0 46 / 59
 Additional Root Locus Properties : Property 5

Continuous-
Time Signal Assume M ≤ N, we write G (s)H(s) as
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : M
Q
Introduction (s − βk )
to Linear
Feedback
k=1
Systems QN
Irma Zakia (s − αk )
k=1
Basic
Concepts We know that N − M branches of the root locus go to
Feedback
Advantages
zeros of G (s)H(s), located at infinity
Feedback Those branches go to infinity at specified angles
Disadvantages
θk , k = 0, 1, .., N − M − 1
Feedback
Example on
Inverting (
Op-amp (2k+1)π
N−M K >0
Stability θk = 2kπ
Analysis
N−M K <0

47 / 59
 Additional Root Locus Properties : Property 6

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear The asymptotes of the N − M branches of the root locus
Feedback
Systems that approach infinity intersect at the point
Irma Zakia
N
P M
P
Basic αk − βk
Concepts
k=1 k=1
Feedback
σ0 =
Advantages
N −M
Feedback
Disadvantages This point of intersection of asymptotes is the same for
Feedback K > 0 and K < 0
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

48 / 59
 Summary of Root Locus Properties

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004) Property 1 : use to determine the start point of root locus
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear Property 2 : use to determine the end point of root locus
Feedback
Systems Property 3 : use to determine the root locus in the ℜ{s}
Irma Zakia axis
Basic Property 4 : use to determine the root locus in the
Concepts
upper-half and bottom half of ℜ{s} axis
Feedback
Advantages Property 5 : use to determine the angles at which the
Feedback
Disadvantages
branches of root locus go to infinity
Feedback Property 6 : use to determine the point of intersection of
Example on
Inverting the asymptotes of the N − M branches that approach
Op-amp
infinity
Stability
Analysis

49 / 59
 Example of Drawing Root Locus

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
1
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Example G (s)H(s) = (s+1)(s+3)(s+5)
Introduction
to Linear Poles at −1, −3, −5
Feedback
Systems There are 3 zeros at infinity means 3 branches
Irma Zakia
Angles of those branches are
Basic  π 5π
3 , π, 3 K >0
Concepts
θ = 2π 4π
Feedback
Advantages
0, 3 , 3 K <0
Feedback
Disadvantages Intersection point of the asymptotic branches
Feedback
Example on −1 − 3 − 5
Inverting σ0 = = −3
Op-amp
3
Stability
Analysis

50 / 59
 Sketching the Root Locus

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : 1
Introduction G (s)H(s) = (s+1)(s+3)(s+5)
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
ℑ{s} ℑ{s}
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts
X X X ℜ{s} X X X ℜ{s}
Feedback −1
Advantages −5 −3 −1 −5 −3

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on (a) K > 0 (b) K < 0
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

51 / 59
 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

Continuous-
Time Signal
We can determine whether the poles of T (s) lie in the LHP
Processing Let’s write T (s) = B(s)
A(s)
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 : Expand A(s) as
Introduction
to Linear A(s) = aN s N + aN−1 s N−1 + ... + a1 s + a0 , aN 6= 0
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia
The procedure begins by arranging all the coefficients of A(s) in the
Basic
form of two rows as follows
Concepts
Row N : aN aN−2 aN−4 ...
Feedback Row N − 1 : aN−1 aN−3 aN−5 ...
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages If the order of A(s) is even, thus a0 belongs to row N, while a 0 is
placed under a0 in row N − 1
Feedback
Example on Construct row N − 2 with the following
Inverting
Op-amp aN−1 aN−2 −aN aN−3 aN−1 aN−4 −aN aN−5
Row N − 2 : aN−1 aN−1
Stability
Analysis Similar formulation applies to the numerators of other entries in row
N −2
52 / 59
 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion continues

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction In a simular fashion, row N − 3 is constructed by using
to Linear
Feedback entries of row N − 1 and N − 2
Systems

Irma Zakia
The process is continued until we reach row 0
Basic
The resulting array consisting of N + 1 rows is called
Concepts Routh array
Feedback
Advantages Criteria: All the roots of A(s) lie in the LHP if all entries
Feedback in the leftmost column of the Routh array are nonzero and
Disadvantages
have the same sign. The number of sign changes is equal
Feedback
Example on to the number of roots of A(s) in the RHP
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

53 / 59
 Example : Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004) A(s) = s 4 + 3s 3 + 7s 2 + 3s + 10, determine whether the
Chapter 7 :
Introduction system is stable.
to Linear
Feedback Construct the Routh array
Systems

Irma Zakia
Row4 : 1 7 10
Basic Row3 : 3 3 0
Concepts

Feedback
Row2 : 3X 7−3X
3
1
=6 3X 10−0X 1
3 = 10 0
6X 3−10X 3
Advantages Row1 : 6 = −2 0 0
Feedback
Disadvantages
Row0 : −2X 10−0X
−2
6
= 10 0 0
Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp
Since there are two sign changes, the system is unstable
Stability
and there are two poles of T (s) in the RHP
Analysis

54 / 59
 Kuis 6 Sem. 1 2016/2017

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems
Gambarkan root locus untuk K > 0 dan K < 0 dari
Irma Zakia
(s+5)(s+3)
(a) G (s)H(s) = s(s+2)(s+8)
Basic s+2
Concepts (b) G (s)H(s) = s(s 2 +2s+2)
s+1
Feedback (c) G (s)H(s) = s 2 (s 2 +2s+4)
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

55 / 59
 Kuis 6 Sem 2 2016/2017

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems Diketahui suatu sistem umpan-balik
Irma Zakia s +1
G (s)H(s) = 2
Basic
s +s +1
Concepts (a) Gambarkan root-locus sistem umpan-balik untuk K > 0
Feedback (b) Gambarkan root-locus sistem umpan-balik untuk K < 0
Advantages
(c) Tentukan nilai K yang menyebabkan sistem tidak stabil.
Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

56 / 59
 Latihan

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems Dengan metode Routh-Hourwitz, tentukan nilai K yang
Irma Zakia menyebabkan sistem stabil untuk persamaan karakteristik
Basic
s3 + s2 + s + K = 0
Concepts
Tentukan apakah sistem dengan persamaan karatteristik
Feedback
Advantages berikut stabil atau tidak s 4 + s 3 + s + 0.5 = 0. Tentukan
Feedback jumlah pole yang berada di RHP.
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

57 / 59
 UAS Sem 1 2016/2017

Continuous-
Time Signal Suatu inverting op-amp ideal dengan penguat K dihubungkan dengan rangkaian umpan-balik.
Processing Deskripsi ekivalen dari koneksi op-amp tersebut terlihat pada Gbr. 3, dimana Z1 (s) dan Z2 (S)
(ET 2004) masing-masing menyatakan impedansi pada bagian input dan umpan-balik. Selain itu, Vin (s) dan
Chapter 7 : Vout (s) masing-masing adalah tegangan masukan dan keluaran.
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback Z2 (s) +
Vin (s) Z1 (s)+Z2 (s) −K Vout (s)
Systems
+
Irma Zakia

Basic
Concepts
Z1 (s)
Feedback Z1 (s)+Z2 (s)
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages Figure: Sistem ekivalen dari inverting op-amp ideal
Feedback
Example on V (s)
Inverting (a) Tentukan fungsi transfer sistem closed-loop T (s) = Vout(s)
in
Op-amp 1
(b) Jika Z1 (s) = (s+3)(s+5) dan Z2 (s) = 1, gambarkan root-locus sistem untuk K > 0 dan
Stability K <0
Analysis (c) Dari hasil (b), tentukan nilai K yang menyebabkan sistem tidak stabil?

58 / 59
 Reference

Continuous-
Time Signal
Processing
(ET 2004)
Chapter 7 :
Introduction
to Linear
Feedback
Systems

Irma Zakia
Alan V. Oppenheim, Alan S. Willsky, with S. Hamid, Signals
and Systems, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
Basic
Concepts Simon Haykin, Barry Van Veen, Signals and Systems, 2nd
Feedback edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004
Advantages

Feedback
Disadvantages

Feedback
Example on
Inverting
Op-amp

Stability
Analysis

59 / 59