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What is Grammar?
The word “ Grammar” has been derived from French
word “gramaire” or Latin word “grammatical” or
Greek word “grammatika” which means “relating to
letter” or according to F.R Palmer the word grammar
means “to write” “Grammar is the system of rules by
which words are formed and put together to make
sentence” or grammar is the branch of linguistic
which deal with the relationship between words and
the structure of sentence”
Ten Types of Grammar
Linguists are quick to remind us that there are
different varieties of grammar--that is, different ways
of describing and analyzing the structures and
functions of language.
1.Comparative Grammar
The analysis and comparison of the grammatical
structures of related languages. Contemporary work
in comparative grammar is concerned with "a faculty
of language that provides an explanatory basis for
how a human being can acquire a first language . . ..
In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of
human language and hence establishes the
relationship among all languages."
2.Generative Grammar
The rules determining the structure and
interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as
belonging to the language. "Simply put, a generative
grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the
psychological system of unconscious knowledge that
underlies a speaker's ability to produce and interpret
utterances in a language."
3.Mental Grammar
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The Parts of
Speech
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of
speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the
adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the
interjection. Each part of speech explains not what the word
is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a
noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next.
The next few examples show how a word's part of speech
can change from one sentence to the next, and following
them is a series of sections on the individual parts of speech,
followed by an exercise
What is a Noun?
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place,
thing, and abstract idea. Example .Aslam, Pen, Peshawar etc.
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.
1. Noun Gender
Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer
to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change
form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was
called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress"
-- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today.
Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to
occupational categories, as in the following sentences.
Saeed was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
Nadeem was at the height of her career as an actress in the
1780s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't
decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a
"waitress"
2. Noun Plurals
Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding
"-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:
When Aslam was small he rarely told the truth if he thought
he was going to be punished.
Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the
last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form
the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending
in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as
in the following.
Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form
to show that it owns or is closely related to something else.
Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination
of an apostrophe and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that
does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in
the following sentences:
1) The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
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2) The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
3) The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the
drill sergeant's screams.
4) The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
• You can form the possessive case of a singular noun
that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by
adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following
examples:
1) The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
2) The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
3) The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
4) The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
5) Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord
Byron's.
6) Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord
Byron's.
2) .Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or
thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a
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Inflection Of Verb:
The great majority of Verb contains six inflection forms. For
example the verb ( go)
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1. He goes.
2. He went.
3. They go.
4. He, She.They (shall, will, should, would) go.
5. He, She (is) they are going.
6. He, She (has) they have gone.
In 3 and 4 we have used “Go” twice called Syncretism.
Syncretism. Means when two forms have
same spelling and same pronunciation is called
Syncretism.
Function Of Verb:
Verb as head,restrict,the range of others elements in the
clause. The base form head verb phrase,function in various
kind of clauses’
1. Open the door. (Imperative/ commond)
2. clauses may also function as compliment to the Modle
Auxillary, can,may etc. e.g He may be here soon.
3. Clauses may also take infinitives ( ) e.g It is
important to read both the copies.
Dependents:
Verb takes a wider range of dependents. For example a
transitive verb takes a direct object as dependent.
1. She is eating a Pumpkin.(direct object)
2. He Gave her a diamond ring.(Direct object/Indirect.
Object)
3. She considered him a fool.( object/ object
compliment).Because “Foll” can not take place of subject in
Passive voice so it can not be an object.
Lexical Morphology:
Verb can be derived from other parts of speech in a number
of ways.For example, by adding,”ISe,Ify “to an adjective.
1. National (Noun) __________Nationalise. (Verb)
2. Private (N) _____________Privatise. (V)
3. Synthesis (N) ____________Synthesise (V)
4. Beauty (N) _____________Beautify. (V)
5. Object (N) ______________Objectify. (V)
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4) Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The
interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what"
and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever"
("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever").
Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an
interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which"
can also be used as a relative pronoun.You will find "who,"
"whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to
people,"which" and "what" used to refer to things and to
animals."Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom"
acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a verbal. The
highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an
interrogative pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first?
"Which" is the subject of the sentence.
Who wrote the novel Rockbound?
Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence?
Whom do you think we should invite?
In this sentence, "who" is the object of the verb "invite."
To whom do you wish to speak?
Here the interrogative pronoun "whom” is the object of the
preposition "to."
Who will meet the delegates at the train station?
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the
subject of the compound verb "will meet." To whom did you
give the paper? In this example the interrogative pronoun
"whom" is the object of the preposition "to."
What did she say? Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is
the direct object of the verb "say."
5) Relative Pronouns
You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or
clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns
are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds
"whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative
pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to
refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and
"whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a
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Inflection:
Most of the adjective take inflection for grad ability with a
three term paradigm. For example.
Positive__________Comparative_______________Superlative.
Tall Taller
Tallest
Young Younger
Youngest.
The comparative and Superlative degree may be expressed
either inflectionally or analytically i.e. more/most.
Function:
Adjective function as head of adjective phrase. Broadly they
have three main functions.
1) Attributive (2) Predicative (3) Post posed
Attributive:
Where it comes before a noun or verb. e.g. ( An
intelligent girl).
Predicative:
Where it comes after the Verb. e.g. (The girl is
intelligent).
Post posed:
Post posed comes immediately after the noun and
before Verb.e.g.(Some one intelligent published the book).
Dependents:
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What is a Preposition?
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other
words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition
introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or
logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as
in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the
noun "book" in space or in time. A prepositional phrase is
made up of the preposition, its object and any associated
adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common
prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after,"
"against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before,"
"behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between,"
"beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except,"
"for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off,"
"on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since,"
"through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under,"
"underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and
"without."
What is a Conjunction?
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and
clauses, as in the following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-coordinating Conjunctions
• You use a co-coordinating conjunction ("and," "but,"
"or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words,
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What is an Interjection?
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey
emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of
the sentence. You usually follow an interjection with an
exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal
academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are
interjections:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
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I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too
high!
Subject: The subject is the agent of the sentence in the
active voice; it is
The person or thing that does the action of the sentence,
and it normally
Precedes the verbThe subject may be a single
noun.Example: “Coffee is delicious.”
“Milk contains calcium.”
The subject may be a noun phrase. A noun phrase is a group
of words
Ending with a noun. (It cannot begin with a preposition.)
Example: That new, red car is John’s.
Mini-test:
1. George likes boats.
2. Mary, John, George, and I went to a restaurant last night.
3. The weather was very bad yesterday.
4. The chemistry professor cancelled class today.
5. The bank closed at two o’clock.
In some sentences there is not a true subject. However, it
and there can often
Act as pseudo-subjects and should be considered as subject
when rules call for
Moving the subject of a sentence.
It is a nice day today.
There was a fire in that building last month.
There were many students in the room.
It is raining right now.
Complement: Complement completes the verb. It is
similar to the subject
Because it is usually a noun or noun phrase; however, it
generally follows the
Verb when the sentence is in the active voice.
Examples of complements:
John bought a cake yesterday. (What did John buy?)
Jill was driving a new car. (What was Jill driving?)
He wants to drink some water. (What does he want to drink?
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She saw Asif the movies last night. (Whom did she see at the
Movies?)
They called Mary yesterday. (Whom did they call?)
He was smoking a cigarette. (What was he smoking?)
Modifier: A modifier tells the time, place, or manner of the
action. Very
Often it is a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is a
group of words
That begins with a preposition and ends with a noun.
Example of prepositional phrases:
In the morning, at the university, on the table
A modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial phrase.
Last night, hurriedly, next year, outdoors, yesterday
Example of modifiers:
Aslam bought a book at the bookstore. (Where did Aslam
buy a book?)
Arif was swimming in the pool yesterday. (Where was Arif
swimming?)
And (When was Jill swimming?)
She drove the car on Main Street. (Where did she drive?)
We ate dinner at seven o’clock. (When did we eat dinner?)
Note: The modifier normally follows the complement, but not
always.
However, the modifier, especially when it is a prepositional
phrase, usually
Cannot separate the verb and the complement.
The Noun Phrase
The noun phrase is a group of words that ends with a noun.
It can contain
Determiners (the, a, this, etc.), adjectives, adverbs, and
nouns. It cannot begin
With a preposition. Remember that both subjects and
complements are generally noun phrases. Count and non-
count nouns: It is possible, however, to count some no count
Nouns if the substance is placed in a countable container.
Glass of milk-one glass of milk, two glasses of milk …
What is Tense?
Tense (noun): a form of a verb used to indicate the time,
and sometimes the continuation or completeness, of an
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3. Post-determiner:
These are items which follow determiner but proceed
adjectives, such as “other, two, first,”
There are three types of post-determiner (1) Cardinal
Numerals (2) Ordinal Numerals (3) Quantifiers.
Examples:
1. Cardinal Numerals (One, two three……..)
2. Ordinal Numerals (first, second, third…..)
3. Quantifiers. (Many, few, several, much, little,)
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Auxiliary Verb:.
Marginal verb. (Most, need, not, used to, does not, ought
to).
Central verb. (Will, shall, would, should, can, could, may,
might)
Be: (Is, am, are/Was, were/been/being)
Have: (Had, has, and having).
Can,Could: (Expression, Ability)
Examples.
1. She can run. (Present time)
2. She could run.(past time)
3. She can come tomorrow.(future time)
Can, May: (Permission)
Example,
1. may I leave the class early.(Formal)
2. Can I use your phone, (Informal)
Expression Advisability
Should, ought to (same meanings)
You should study.
You ought to( stronger) study(
The Past form of Should is ( should have)
Had better: It is used as a threat or giving warning of
bad condition.
E.g. The gas Tank is empty; I had better stop at next
Service Station.
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Expressing Necessity:
Must: It some thing personal feelings. Example,
I must read this book.
You must read this book.
Must (Present/Future)
You must eat it tomorrow. (Future)
You must eat it now.(Present)
Example,
If I won 50 lace rupees, I would go to Spain over vocation.
If they had more money, he would buy a new house.
3rd Condition: (If + Past perfect tens – would have
+past participial)
Impossible situations.
Examples,
If he had got a Camera he would have taken photograph.
If I had time, I would have read more.
If he had won the match, his life would have changed.
Gerund
Definition: Traditionally, "gerund" is the term used to refer
to a certain Latin verb form that could function as a noun
Gerund function is always noun...
Examples,
Playing tennis is a fun.
Use of Gerund.
1. As a subject,
Something is harmful
Singing beards him.
Flying makes me nervous.
2. After certain Verb: (mind, kept,
enjoy)
Would you mind opening a window?
They kept talking.
I enjoy fishing.
3. after Prepositio:
She is good at drawing thing.
4.After Certain Expression: (To look
forward to, to be accustomed to, and to be used to).
Example,
I am looking forward to seeing them.
I am a accustomed to walking for hour.
They used to living in cold climate.
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