CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Overview

The propagation of radio waves signal in the troposphere is affected by many processes

which include the variations of meteorological parameters such as temperature, pressure and

humidity. These are associated with changes in weather in different season of the year. Those

variations in the meteorological parameters have reflected in refractivity changes. Free-air

radio signals are generally enhanced or degraded by atmospheric conditions. The field strength

of radio signal at VHF and higher frequency bands generally vary in the troposphere due to

variation in the refractivity conditions of the air, which in turn depends on the variation in

temperature, pressure and water vapour pressure. Reduced to sea level refractivity No values

remove elevation- dependence of surface refractivity Ns and enhance comparison and/or

contouring of values for different stations (Oyedum, 2010). Radio refractivity N is a measure

of deviation of refractive index n of air from unity which is scaled-up in parts per million to

obtain more amenable figures. Thus, N is a dimensionless quantity measured in N units and

given as:

N = (n − 1) × 106 (1.1)

N depends on meteorological parameters of pressure P (hPa), temperature T (K) and water

vapour pressure e (hPa).

1.2 Atmospheric Parameters

The atmospheric parameters include atmospheric pressure, relative humidity and

atmospheric temperature.

1
1.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure

This is also called barometer pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the

atmosphere of earth (or that of another planet). In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is

closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of the air above the

measurement point.

1.2.2 Atmospheric Temperature

This is a measure of temperature at different levels of the earth’s atmosphere.

1.2.3 Water vapour pressure

This is the partial pressure of the water vapour in any gas mixture in equilibrium with

solid or liquid water.

1.3 Objectives of The Study

The objectives of this study are;

● To find the diurnal variations of reduced-to-sea-level-value refractivity for both wet and dry

seasons.

● To find the seasonal variation over Akure from 2008-2009

●To determine the mean monthly range

2
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Previous Works

Adediji et al. (2014), worked on surface radio refractivity, its diurnal, daily, seasonal and yearly

variation. The studies were carried out in Akure, (7.150N, 5.120E) South-Western Nigeria, by

in-situ measurement of atmospheric pressure, temperature, and relative humidity using

Wireless Weather Station (Integrated Sensor Suit, ISS). Five years of measurement (January,

2007 to December, 2011) were made. And the data obtained were used to compute the surface

radio refractivity and its diurnal, daily, seasonal and yearly variations are analysed. Results

obtained show that the surface radio refractivity, Ns, varies with the time of the day as well as

the seasons of the year. High values of Ns were recorded in the morning and evening hours

while the values were minima around 1,500 h local time. An average value of surface radio

refractivity of 364.74N-units was obtained for this location. The annual maximum mean of

FSV is 15.24 dB and the minimum is 2.20 dB.

Oyedum (2010), studied and observed that reduced to sea level refractivity N0 values remove

elevation- dependence of surface refractivity Ns and enhance comparison and/or contouring of

values for different stations.

Kolawole (1980), revealed that reduced-to-sea-level surface refractivity (N0) in Nigeria varies

from about 390 N-units in the coastal areas to about 280 N-units in the northern parts of the

country.

Zilinskas et al. (2011), worked on yearly, seasonal and daily variations of radio refractivity.

The method proposed in the recommendation of International Telecommunication Union ITU

was used and local meteorological data was used in calculation of radio refractivity. The results

obtained show that the highest values of radio refractivity were observed in Klaipeda (in

3
Seacoast) in the year 2009. And in July, the values of the radio refractivity were highest in all

localities investigated here and over all the time of the day in the year 2009. In the continental

part of Lithuania (in Vilnius and Kaunas), analysis of radio refractivity was also made by using

the meteorological data of longer period (starting from April 2005 up to July 2010). Five-year

meteorological data collected in February, April, July and October were used. It was obtained

that the values of refractivity in the year 2010 were much higher than ones obtained in all the

years of the period investigated.

Owolabi and Williams (1970), showed that surface refractivity in Minna has an annual range

of 300-375N-units while the seasonal trend showed that Ns rises from February to April, is

steady between April and September and decreases from October to a minimum in February.

Adediji et al. (2008) studied and observed that in the planning and design of microwave

communication links, the structure of the radio refractive index in the lower part of the

atmospheric boundary layer is very important. In their work, measurements of atmospheric

pressure, temperature and relative humidity were made in Akure (7.150N, 5.120E), South

Western Nigeria and wireless weather stations (Integrated Sensor Suite, ISS) were ‘positioned

at five different height levels beginning from the ground surface and at intervals of 50m from

the ground to a height of 200m (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200m) on a 220m Nigeria Television

Authority TV tower at Iju in Akure North Local Government area of Ondo State. The

measurement of the atmospheric variables was made every 30minutes every day. The study

used the data for the first year of measurement (January–December 2007) to compute the radio

refractivity and its refractivity gradient in Akure and from these parameters, the vertical

distributions of radio refractivity were then determined. The results obtained show that the

propagation conditions have varying degree of occurrence with sub-refractive conditions

observed to be prevalent between January–July while Super-refraction and Ducting were

observed mostly between August–December.

4
Oyedum et al. (2008), showed that reduced-to-sea-level refractivity in Minna (090 37’N,

06032’E) has considerable diurnal and seasonal tendencies: Maximum values occur in the night

while minimum values occur towards local evening; and a seasonal trend of higher values in

raining season and lower values in dry season. This seasonal trend is in agreement with other

reports over Nigerian stations, including more recent efforts such as Adeyemi (2006) and Titus

and Ajewole (2008).

Ayantunji et al., (2011) worked on the diurnal and seasonal variation of surface refractivity

over Nigeria. Four years in-situ meteorological data from eight locations over Nigeria were

used. It was observed that in all the station studied, the diurnal refractivity variation was caused

majorly by the dry term in the rainy season and the wet term is the major cause of refractivity

variation in dry season except Sokoto and Jos. In Sokoto the result was found to be opposite

and it is attributed to the fact that in dry season the humidity is almost close to zero while in

rainy season the pressure seems to be almost constant but the temperature actuates rapidly and

consequently the humidity. The variation pattern in Jos is as observed because of the altitude

(» 1000 m above sea level). At this altitude pressure variation seems to be insignificant. The

result also show that the surface refractivity generally has higher value during rainy season

than dry season at all location studied. The result also shows that the value of surface

refractivity increases from arid region in the north to the coastal area in south. The result also

show that the diurnal refractivity variation is basically a function of local meteorology and

while seasonal variation is caused follows the climatic condition.

Oyedum (2008), observed that the degree of reliability of terrestrial microwave links are

generally depends on proper assessment of the controlling influence of refractive index

variations in the troposphere. He also observed that the two important radio meteorological

parameters in this regard are the effective Earth radius factor k, and the scale height H. In

particular terrestrial line-of-sight links must be planned on the basis of time-averaged k-values

5
to ensure continuous clearance of the link from the first Fresnel zone. Based on radiosonde data

from three West African meteorological stations of Lagos, Kano and Niamey, values of k and

H were determined and compared. The results show significant the seasonal and climatic

variations which must be taken into consideration for reliable terrestrial microwave links in the

region.

Grabner and Kvicera (2008), also observed that climate is one of the main elements of the

natural environment that has a determining role in natural and human life. Temperature, relative

humidity and pressure are some of the atmospheric parameters that are crucial in determining

the type and nature of the refraction taking place in the atmosphere.

Adediji and Ajewole (2008), studied and conclude that as the world is becoming a global

village, there is the need to study more about the dynamism of the atmosphere as it affects

signal transfer and communication links. The propagation characteristics of electromagnetic

waves are generally affected by the fluctuations in the atmospheric index of refraction caused

by the variations in the meteorological conditions. In the atmosphere the path followed by a

radio ray is dependent upon the gradient of the refractive index (N) along the path. The

atmosphere being horizontally homogenous, only the vertical component of surface radio

refractivity Ns (N-units) is normally used. The effects of the atmosphere on the propagation of

the radio waves ultimately depends upon the meteorological variables which are generally

changing with height.

Ayantunji and Okeke (2011), studied and observed that in free space, electromagnetic waves

will travel in straight line because the velocity of the wave is the same everywhere. The ratio

of the distance a wave would travel in free space to the distance it actually travels in the earth’s

atmosphere is called the refractive index. Experimental results have shown that atmospheric

6
refractivity near the earth’s surface normally varies between 250 and 400N units in the tropical

regions. It should be noted that the smaller the N-Value, the faster the propagation speed.

According to Grabner and Kvicera (2008), multipath effects occur as a result of large scale

variations in atmospheric radio refractive index, due to the fact that different layers are having

different refractivity. This effect occurs mostly often when the same radio wave signal follows

different paths thereby having different time of arrivals at its target point. This may result to

interference of the radio wave signals with each other during propagation through the

troposphere. The consequence of the large variation in the atmospheric refractive index is that

radio waves propagating through the atmosphere become progressively curved towards the

earth, thus, the range of the radio waves is determined by the height dependence of the

refractivity.

Sarkar (1978), and Judd (1985), also opined that the quality of the radio wave signal reception

and probability of the failure in radio wave propagation are largely governed by radio refractive

index gradient which is a function of meteorological parameter changing in the lower

atmosphere.

Oyedum (2005), showed that based on Ns variability, substantial climate-related differences

exist between the seasonal variability of VHF field strength and radio horizon distance in two

Nigerian stations of Lagos (060 35’N, 030 200E) on the Atlantic coast and Kano (120 03’N, 060

42’E) in sub-sahelian Northern Nigeria.

Kindap et al. (2006), observed that in climate studies, numerical and statistical methods are

used as forecasting methods. Numerical methods are used to simulate the atmospheric

evolution in order to define the current weather changes. They use the global scale model

outputs by converting them to daily weather variables. Accordingly, the downscaling technique

is employed to convert the global scale model output to the regional or local scale.

7
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Instrumentation and Data Collection Technique

The meteorological parameters (pressure, temperature, relative humidity) used to calculate

radio refractivity and reduced-to-sea level refractivity for Akure (Latitude: 7°15′09″ N

Longitude: 5°11′35″ E) South-West Nigeria was gotten from the wireless weather stations

(Integrated Sensor Suite, ISS) that were positioned at ground surface at Iju in Akure North

Local Government area of Ondo State. Akure station elevation (h) is 353 m. The equipment

measures various atmospheric parameters such as temperature, pressure, relative humidity,

dew point etc and logs the values in a console kept within the NTA premises for every 30

minutes. Data logged in the console are downloaded in the computer routinely for analysis.

The scale height used is 9.0 km. The study utilized the data for two years of measurement

(January–December 2008 and 2009) to compute the surface refractivity and the reduced-to-sea

level refractivity respectively. The data for the surface was only utilized for both years of study.

The computation of the data of all the months for the two year was carried out using Microsoft

Excel.

The model of the Wireless Weather Station used in this study is the Davis 6162 Wireless

Vantage Pro2 equipped with the Integrated Sensor Suite (ISS), a solar panel (with an alternative

battery source) and the wireless console. A data logger was connected to the sensor to ensure

a continuous recording of these measured variables which stores 48 data sets per days round

the clock, it takes readings every 30 minutes. The logged-in data were later downloaded

through a dedicated computer configured for the purpose.

The study employs the fixed measuring method using TV tower with the sensor positioned on

the ground surface. By this method, the sensor is positioned on the tower/mast while all other

8
auxiliary devices are on the ground. The signals from the sensors are transmitted to the receiver

(console) by radio waves. The data is then transmitted by wireless radio to the data logger

attached to the console located on the ground from which the data are then copied to the

computer. The study utilized the data collected from the sensor located on the ground surface.

The ISS is in a cylindrical louvered housing. It has a measuring range of 0–100% relative

humidity and−30 to 700C temperature; an error margin of ±2% relative humidity and 0.10C

temperature. The power requirement is 5–15V DC, 2 mA. The Barometric Pressure Sensor is

in a weatherproof housing. It has a measuring range of 600–1,060 hPa, an error margin of ±0.5

hPa at 200C, and a power requirement of 10–30 V DC, 4 mA.

9
Fig. 3.1 The Integrated Sensor Suit (ISS) on site at Iju (A. T. Adediji and M. O. Ajewole)

10
3.2 The Study Area

Akure is a city in south-western Nigeria and lies about 70°15’ north of the equator and 50°15’

east of the Meridian. It is about 700 km Southwest of Abuja and 311 km north of Lagos State.

Akure is the largest city and capital of Ondo State. The city has a population of 588,000 based

on 2006 population census. Akure, Nigeria (Administrative unit: Ondo) - last known

population is approximately 556 300 (year 2015). Akure Residential districts are of varying

density, some area such as Arakale, Ayedun Quarters, Ijoka, and Oja-Oba consist of over 200

persons per hectare, while areas such as Ijapo Estate, Alagbaka Estate, Avenue and Idofin have

between 60-100 people per hectare.

3.2.1 Climate and Vegetation

Akure is located in southwestern Nigeria. The climate is hot and humid, influenced by rain-

bearing southwest monsoon winds from the ocean and dry northwest winds from the Sahara

Desert. The rainy season lasts from April to October, with rainfall of about 1524mm per year.

Temperatures vary from 28oC to 31oC with mean annual relative humidity of about 80%. The

area has long been populated. Skeletons of homo sapiens dating to the tenth millennium BC

have been found in a burial site at Iwo Eleru near to Akure. Rock engravings dating back to the

Mesolithic period, have been discovered on the outskirts of Akure at Igbara-Oke, declared a

national monument on 13 March 1963.

11
Fig. 3.2 Map of Nigeria Showing the Location of Akure

12
3.3 Theory of Surface Refractivity and Reduced-To- Sea-Level Refractivity

Surface Refractivity can be expressed as

N = 𝑁𝑑𝑟𝑦 + 𝑁𝑤𝑒𝑡 (3.1)

𝑃 𝑒
𝑁𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 77.6 𝑇 and 𝑁𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 3.732 × 105 (3.2)
𝑇2

Therefore

𝑃 𝑒
𝑁 = 77.6 + 3.732 × 105 (3.3)
𝑇 𝑇2

P: atmospheric pressure (hPa)

e: water vapour pressure (hPa);

T: absolute temperature (K).

The vapour pressure e is given as product of es and the relative humidity H (%)

(3.4)

Relative Humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour to the equilibrium vapour

pressure of water at the same temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the

pressure of the system of interest.

Where es is the maximum (or saturated) vapour pressure at the given air temperature t ◦C,

and may be obtained from:

(3.5)

13
The dependence of refractive index n on the height h is expressed by

ℎ
𝑛(ℎ) = 1 + 𝑁𝑠 × 10−6 exp(𝐻) (3.6)

Reduced to sea level can now be calculated from the surface refractivity with the formula

below:

ℎ
𝑁0 = 𝑁𝑠 exp (𝐻) (3.7)

Where No is the Reduced-sea-level refractivity

Ns is the surface refractivity (N-units), h = Station elevation (km) and H = Scale height

(km). When Ns is made the subject of formula, the equation becomes

ℎ
𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁0 exp(− 𝐻) (3.8)

The relationship between the height dependence of refractive index and reduced to sea level

refractivity is expressed as:

ℎ
𝑛(ℎ) = 1 + 𝑁0 × 10−6 exp(− 𝐻) (3.9)

Radio refractivity may be calculated mathematically as:

𝑃 𝑒
𝑁 = (𝑛 − 1) × 106 = 77.6 + 3.732 × 105 (3.10)
𝑇 𝑇2

Where T(K) = air temperature, P(hPa) = air pressure and e = water vapour pressure. The water

vapour pressure is expressed in equation (3.4) (Hall, 1979).

14
The reduced-to-sea-level of the surface refractivity, No is given in equation (3.7)

Where Ns = surface refractivity (N-units), h = station elevation or height above the sea level of

surface (km) and H = scale height (km). for this geographic zone, it was found that H = 9.0km

and h=0.353km. Hence equation (3.7) can be expressed explicitly as:

𝑁0 = 𝑁𝑠 exp(0.03922) (3.11)

15
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Discussion

Surface data, which include pressure P (hpa), temperature T (K), and water vapour pressure e

(hpa) were used to compute the surface radio refractivity, Ns, and its reduced-to-sea level

values, N0, at hourly basis, using Eqs. (3.3) and (3.7) respectively. The study of the diurnal and

seasonal variations of Ns at Akure was carried out using in-situ measurements of pressure,

temperature, and vapour pressure for a period of two years (2008 and 2009). The measurements

which cover all the seasons of the year, were made for 24 hours each day. The daily mean

values of pressure, temperature, and water vapour pressure were used to compute the diurnal,

daily and seasonal variation of surface refractivity Ns and reduced-to-sea level refractivity N0

of years 2008 and 2009.

Table 4.1 shows daily averages of surface refractivity Ns and it reduced to sea level values No

for the month of February 2008 and 2009. The results show that throughout the whole month,

the surface refractivity and the reduced-to-sea level values were higher in the year 2009 than

that of 2008. N0 in 2008 has the minimum value 301.5299 N-units and maximum value

367.8637 N-units. N0 in 2009 values ranges from 376.0535 N-units to 387.0262 N-units. The

mean values of N0 for the year 2008 and year 2009 are 334.918 N-units and 380.6969 N-units

respectively.

Table 4.2 shows daily averages of surface refractivity Ns and it reduced to sea level value No

for the month of June 2008 and 2009. The surface refractivity and the reduced-to-sea level

values refractivity are higher in year 2009 than that of 2008. However, some days do not agree

with the trend, day eleven, twelve, seventeen, twenty-two, twenty-six, twenty-eight, twenty-

nine and thirty, their surface refractivity and the corresponding reduced to sea level values are

16
higher in 2008 than 2009. N0 in 2008 has the minimum value 378.3794 N-units and maximum

value 389.4533 N-units. N0 in 2009 values ranges from 380.7097 N-units to 393.8595 N-units.

The mean values of N0 for the year 2008 and year 2009 are 384.7383 N-units and 387.9475 N-

units respectively.

Fig. 4.1 shows diurnal Variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day

in the month of January of years 2008-2009. The results show that reduced-to-sea level values

of surface refractivity in the year 2008 are higher than the values in the year 2009 from 0,100h

to 0,900h LT. Fluctuation occurs in the values from 1,000h till 1,500h LT, this fluctuation is

combined with drop in the values for the two years. however, the values for 2009 began to be

higher than 2008 from 1,500h to 2,300h LT. While the values for the two years are almost the

same for the last an hour (2,300h – 2,400h) LT.

Fig. 4.2 Diurnal Variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day in the

month of July of years 2008-2009. The results show that the values of reduced-to-sea level

refractivity in year 2009 is higher than year 2008 from 0,100h to 1,100h LT, fluctuation began

to manifest from 1,200h till 1,900h before the value for year 2009 again became higher from

2,000h till 2,400h LT.

Fig. 4.3 shows diurnal variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day

in the month of March of years 2008-2009. The results obtained show that the diurnal variation

of the reduced to sea level values in the month of March in the year 2009 is completely higher

than that of 2008. The values range from 390 N-units to 398 N-units for the year 2009 and for

2008 the value ranges from 372 N-units to 388 N-units.

Fig. 4.4 shows diurnal variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day

in the month of February of years 2008-2009. It was observed that reduced-to-sea level values

of surface refractivity in year 2009 is completely higher than the year 2008. The values range

17
from 378 N-units to 389 N-units for the year 2009. While in year 2008, it ranges from 309 N-

units to 320 N-units.

Fig. 4.5 shows the seasonal variation of reduced to sea level values for the years 2008 and

2009. It was observed that N0 values for year 2009 is higher than that of 2008 from January to

June. However, fluctuations in the values began from July and occurred till December.

18
4.2 Results

Table 4.1: Daily averages of surface refractivity Ns and it reduced to sea level value No for the

month of February 2008 and 2009

2008 2009

Days Ns (N-Units) N0 (N-Units) Ns (N-Units) N0 (N-Units)

1 296.56 307.78 363.2 376.97

2 304.67 316.20 364.06 377.84

3 314.89 326.81 367.43 381.35

4 340.04 352.91 365.71 379.56

5 351.91 365.24 368.06 381.99

6 349.24 362.47 363.10 376.85

7 351.56 364.86 367.23 381.13

8 350.44 363.71 368.06 382.00

9 353.06 366.42 367.29 381.20

10 344.04 357.06 366.37 380.25

11 340.04 352.91 357.33 370.87

12 325.11 337.42 363.73 377.50

13 309.06 320.76 364.71 378.52

14 293.83 304.95 367.82 381.75

15 306.21 317.80 366.96 380.85

16 295.77 306.97 362.34 376.05

17 295.54 306.72 364.89 378.71

19
18 294.86 306.02 366.76 380.65

19 296.60 307.83 368.08 382.01

20 293.24 304.34 369.48 383.46

21 292.38 303.45 367.91 381.83

22 290.53 301.53 371.86 385.93

23 291.35 302.379 367.26 381.15

24 322.87 335.09 369.23 383.21

25 354.45 367.86 366.06 379.91

26 353.37 366.75 370.38 384.40

27 344.78 357.83 372.90 387.02

28 351.50 364.80 372.40 386.49

29 350.40 363.66

Min 290.53 301.53 362.34 376.05

Max 354.45 367.86 372.90 387.02

Mean 322.70 334.92 366.81 380.69

20
Table 4.2: Daily averages of surface refractivity Ns and reduced to sea level value No for the

month of June 2008 and 2009

2008 2009

Days Ns (N-Units) N0 (N-Units) Ns (N-Units) N0 (N-Units)

1 364.58 378.38 379.49 393.86

2 370.78 384.81 377.60 391.89

3 367.70 381.62 376.72 390.98

4 371.59 385.66 373.46 387.59

5 372.14 386.23 375.01 389.21

6 371.60 385.67 372.77 386.88

7 374.76 388.95 377.08 391.36

8 367.89 381.81 378.70 393.03

9 367.77 381.69 378.05 392.37

10 368.44 382.39 377.85 392.15

11 373.13 387.25 372.59 386.69

12 373.15 387.27 370.51 384.54

13 369.28 383.26 372.30 386.39

14 373.89 388.05 375.49 389.70

15 365.88 379.73 372.34 386.43

16 368.06 381.99 371.29 385.33

17 371.56 385.63 371.38 385.44

18 370.63 384.67 374.61 388.79

19 368.67 382.63 378.30 392.63

21
20 366.57 380.35 370.25 384.33

21 369.63 383.62 371.11 385.16

22 372.40 386.50 371.51 385.57

23 369.65 387.00 374.52 388.69

24 369.65 383.64 373.91 388.06

25 371.24 385.29 376.60 390.85

26 375.25 389.45 372.84 386.96

27 370.53 384.56 371.19 385.24

28 373.99 388.15 366.82 380.71

29 374.38 388.55 370.28 384.30

30 373.28 387.34 369.28 383.26

Min 364.58 378.38 366.82 380.71

Max 375.25 389.45 379.49 393.86

Mean 370.60 384.74 373.79 387.95

22
 No 2008 No 2009

400
REDUCED TO SAE LEVEL REFRACTIVITY (N-UNITS)

390

380

370

360

350

340

330
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
TIME OF THE DAY (HRS)

Fig. 4.1 Diurnal Variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day in

the month of January of years 2008-2009.

23
 No 2008 No 2009
394
REDUCED TOSEA LEVEL REFRACTIVITY (N-UNITS)

392
390
388
386
384
382
380
378
376
374
372
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
TIME OF THE DAY (HRS)

Fig. 4.2 Diurnal Variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day in the

month of July of years 2008-2009

24
 No 2008 N0 2009
410
REDUCED TO SEA LEVEL REFRACTIVITY (N-UNITS)

400

390

380

370

360

350

340
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
TIME OF THE DAY (HRS)

Fig. 4.3 Diurnal Variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day in the

month of March of years 2008-2009

25
 No 2008 No 2009
400

390

380
REDUCED TO SEA LEVEL REFRACTIVITY

370

360
(N-UNITS)

350

340

330

320

310

300

290
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
TIME OF THE DAY (HRS)

Fig. 4.4 Diurnal Variation of reduced-to-sea level of surface refractivity for a typical day in the

month of February of years 2008-2009

26
 No 2008 No 2009
400

390

380
REDUCED TO SEA LEVEL REFRACTIVITY

370

360
(N-UNITS)

350

340

330

320
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MONTHS

Fig.4.5 Seasonal variation of reduced to sea level Refractivity for the years 2008 and 2009

27
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The study presented the result of two years of measurement of some tropospheric parameters

for the determination of surface refractivity and reduced-to-sea level refractivity in Akure.

From this study therefore, the surface radio refractivity varies with the time of the day as well

as the seasons of the year which result in the variation of reduced-to-sea level refractivity values

respectively. Also, the values of reduced-to-sea-level refractivity in year 2009 were higher than

that of 2008.

5.2 Recommendations

The finished project is recommended for use in radio design and communication links. It is

also important for good of terrestrial radio links over Akure Southwest Nigeria.

28
 REFERENCES

Adediji, A.T. Ajewole M.O, and S. E. Falodun (2011): "Distribution of radio refractivity

gradient and effective earth radius factor (k-factor) over Akure, South Western Nigeria

Original Research Article," Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, vol.

73, pp. 2300-2304.

Adediji, A.T., & Ajewole, M. O. (2010). Microwave anomalous propagation (AP)

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