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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUR
A. Theoretical Review
1. Speaking
(Webster, 1983).
processing information.
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that :
.....the speaker must think of the ideas they wish to express, either
conversation or responding to a previous speaker, b. Change the to
jaw positionsin order to articulate the appropriate sounds, c. Be cons
of the appropriate functional expressions, as well as of the gramm
and cultural features needed to express the idea, d. Be sensitive to
the “register” or style necessiated by the person (s)to whom they are
the situation in which the conversation is taking place,i.e. change th
their thought on the basis of other person’s responses.
their ideas and feelings to others. They already know each other. T
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learn something from their neighborhood by speaking. “In speak
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Search
conscious decisions about the messages we want to Inconvey,
Sign Join but th
(Littlewood, 1981).
Chapter 2 RRL
instrumental
RRL
act. Speakers
Chapter2
talk inSynthesis
order to have THE
of the
some effects on
SPEA
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
They assert things to change their state of knowledge. They ask them
them. They promise, bet, warn, and exclaim to affect them in still ot
a particular way, and then select and utter a sentence they believe w
then put their plan into execution, uttering the segments, words
the woman over there, and so on. Based on this knowledge the s
trying to be cooperative – that they are trying to tell the truth and b
out on a rainy day, for example, and be confident that their listeners
irony.
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policemen or cops.
13
comprehensible events, states, and facts. Thus the invented compound alligator-
shoes will be constructed as “shoes made from alligators”, not as shoes for
on the listener’s status, speakers will address him as Floyd or Mr. Thursby.
Depending on the formality of the situation, they will refer to the police as
policemen or cops.
b. Teaching speaking
5. The Linguistic Devices Available
Many things speakers may want to talk about have no ready linguistic
1) Definition
expression. To refer to an odd-looking house one may have to use a
they are doing: both successful they are, and also what language
Chapter 2 RRLautomatic
RRL their use Chapter2
of these elements become.
Synthesis of theThis means
THE SPEA that they
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious though
teachers may find it helpful to reflect on. The elements from the
produced are;
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students to speak in the classroom. Firstly, speaking activities provide rehearsal Sign In Join
alligators, an unreal analogus to the legitimate horse-shoes.
opportunities – chance to practice real-life speaking in the safety of the classroom.
know provide feedback for both teacher and students. Everyone can see how well
are experiencing. And finally, the more students have opportunities to be active
2) the
on English teaching
listener’s curriculum
status, speakers in Indonesia
will address him as Floyd or
the various elements of language they have stored in their brains, the more
speaking means
identity, (2) negotiating
formulating intended
standard meaning and
competence,(3) adjusting
deciding basic on
co
produce the desired effect on the listener.
deciding material and its explanation, (5) deciding learning stra
classically;
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3) using genre approaches in the learning process and greatly
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3) using genre approaches in the learning process and greatly
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b. Teaching speaking
15
1) Definition
2) English teaching curriculum in Indonesia
According
The spirit of decentralization, to Harmer
as showed (2007:
by act of local 123),
autonomy there
No. 22, are three main reasons for ge
1999 revised by Act of local Autonomy No.32, 2004 and hand in hand with Act
students to speak in the classroom. Firstly, speaking activities provide rehe
No. 20, 2003 has been seen in the 2006 curriculum (School-based Curriculum)
Trusted by over 1 million members
launched by government.
opportunities – chance to practice real-life speaking in the safety of the classro
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Basically, the 2006 syllabus is as similar with the 2004 syllabus. Principle
Secondly, speaking interruptions!tasks in which students try to use any or of the language
of developing the 2004 competence-based syllabus are scientific based, learner’s
knowrelevant,
needs, systematic, provide feedback
consistent for both
and adequate teacher
(Dikdasmen and
2004:11). students. Everyone can see how
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Furthermore, there are six steps of developing this syllabus; (1) writing subject
they are doing: both Cancel
successful
Anytime.
they are, and also what language problems
identity, (2) formulating standard competence,(3) deciding basic competence, (4)
are and
deciding material experiencing. And
its explanation, (5) finally,
deciding learningthe more
strategy, and students
(6) have opportunities to be ac
deciding time allocation and resources (Dikdasmen 2004:25).
the various elements of language they have stored in their brains, the m
The characteristics of Curriculum 2006 are the following (DEPDIKNAS, 2006) :
automatic their use of these elements become. This means that they will be ab
1) emphasizing the attainment of the students’ competence individually and
classically;
use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious thought.
2) orienting toward learning outcomes, and diversity;
5) emphasizing
teachers
refers to a minimum statement covering
may find
its evaluation on theitlearning
helpful to reflect
process
know ledges, skills
on.inThe
elements from the way speec
and outcomes
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acquiring or attaining a certain competence.
produced are; values which are reflected in the way of thinking and acting
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p ;
which are reflected in the way of thinking and acting after stu
teaching and learning for Senior High Schools KTSP 2006 , teach
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of Sign In
developing the 2004 competence-based16syllabus are scientific Join learn
based,
valuesidentity,
which are reflected in the way of thinking
(2) formulating and actingcompetence,(3)
standard after students deciding basic competence
learned and finished one of the four language skills (listening, speaking,
deciding material and its explanation, (5) deciding learning strategy, and
reading and writing); Kompetensi Dasar (Basic Competence) refers to a
Chapter 2 RRL RRL Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
sample.doc deciding
minimum statementtime allocation
covering Example
and
know ledges, Rrl and(Dikdasmen
skills,resources
attitudes, Reviewed… 2004:25).
values ENGLISH…
which are reflected in the way of thinking and acting after students learned
and finished one of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading,
The characteristics of Curriculum 2006 are the following (DEPDIKNAS, 2006
writing).; indicator (Achievement Indicators) refers to a specific basic
competence1)
that emphasizing the toattainment
can taken as a standard of theof students’
competence
assess the attainment
The scopes of learning speaking in Senior a individually
High Schools are a
learning process; Materi Pokok (Core Materials) refers to core materials or
classically;
a) Textual ability. It is ability to comprehend and/or prod
lessons that students have to learn in a learning process.
target language.
c) Supports Competence. It includes linguistic competenc
create a text).
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Chapter 2 RRL158):
RRL Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
that the other lacks. They must use the target language to share tha
17
review, and public speaking . The materials’ gradation appears in the use of
information to a classmate.
problems appeared in the communication process with many ways to maintain the
create a text).
b. Jigsaw activities
Jigsaw activities are bidirectional or multidirectional info
Related
d. Speaking titles
teaching techniques
Each person in a pair or group has some information the other pers
Technique is a procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task.
Search Sign In Join
There are some techniques to teach speaking according to Nunan (2003: 156-
example, one student could have a timetable for train travel in Ca
158):
the target language. For example, one student plays the role of a
trying to help the tourist file a report. Role plays give learners pra
d. Simulations
even play money for making their purchases. A check out counter w
18
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information to a classmate.
Each person in a pair or group has some information the other person needs. For
example, one student could have a timetable for train travel in Canada. Another
could have a map of Canada. Without showing each other the visual information,
Chapter
they must2speak
RRLEnglishRRL
to plan a week trip. Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
sample.doc
c. Role plays Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
Role plays are also excellent activities for speaking in the relatively safe
e. Contact assignments
environment of the classroom. In a role play, students are given particular roles in
trying to help the tourist file a report. Role plays give learners practice speaking
stated purpose to talk to people in the target language. For example
the target language before they must do so in a real environment.
d. Simulations
store, they would have to ask how soon a shipment of fresh fr
Simulations are more elaborate than role plays. In a simulation, properties
even play money for making their purchases. A check out counter would be set up
there are tourists, exchange students, or international business per
for the students to practice transactional speaking with the cashier.
results of the class survey and report what they learned. In design
19
stated purpose to talk to people in the target language. For example, at a grocery
store, they would have to ask how soon a shipment of fresh fruit would be
delivered.
there are tourists, exchange students, or international business persons for your
students to talk to in the target language. In a train station or at ferry terminal, for
example, students can interview tourists. Afterwards the students compile the
results of the class survey and report what they learned. In designing a contact
2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques.
assignment, be sure the required information cannot be gotten by reading
available written information. The point is to get the students to speak with people
them.
1. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learners’ needs, from
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meaning, and fluency. 3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful con
Make sure that our tasks include techniques designed to help students to
Search Sign In Join
It takes energy and creativity to devise authentic contexts an
perceive and use the building blocks of language. Do not bore your
it can be done.
coincide, and the two skills can reinforce each other. Skills
20
Search
don’t know why we ask them to do certain things; it usually pays to tell Sign In Join
them. Trusted by over 1 million members
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Cancel Anytime.
Chapter4.2Provide
RRL appropriate
RRL feedback and correction.
Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
It is important to take advantage of teachers’ knowledge of English to
inject the kinds of corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment.
conversations, to 7. Encourage
nominate thequestions,
topics, to ask development
to control of speaking strategies.
so on.
performance (2000:271) :
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1. Imitative
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language form.
2. Intensive
21
me?), using fillers (Uh, I mean, well) in order to gain time to process, and
so on.
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1. Imitative over” certain forms of language.
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sound. Imitation of this kind is carried out not for the purpose of
A good deal of student speech in the classroom is responsive
meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some particular element of
5. Interpersonal (dialogue)
6. Extensive (monologue)
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22
it can even form part of some pair work activity where learners are “going
over” certain forms of language.
3. Responsive
Chapter 2 RRL RRL Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
sample.doc Example
A good deal of student speech in the classroom Rrl : short replies
is responsive Reviewed… ENGLISH…
4. Transactional
5. Interpersonal (dialogue)
6. Extensive (monologue)
b) Highlight the fixed expressions
c) Point out the target structure
d) Provide
Finally, students at intermediate to advanced students
levels are called on to give with the necessary vocabulary
studied.
b. explore features of the general cultural context in which the text ty
23
Terry (2008:5) states that there are three stages in teaching speaking :
model text which has been selected on the basis of the course o
a) Encourage language negotiation
b) Take note of any aspects that may hinder communication
(pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar)
c) Respect students’ ‘wait’time
learner need. An exploration of register involves :
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There are some stages in teaching speaking by using the Text-based
a. introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text type being
studied.
b. Understanding the roles and relationships of the people usin
two cultures.
d. Comparing the model text with other texts of the same or a con
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24
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model text which has been selected on the basis of the course objectives and
a. Building knowledge of the topic of the model text and knowledge of the
Chapter 2 RRL
b. Understanding RRL
the Chapter2
roles and relationships of the people using the textSynthesis
and of the THE SPEA
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
how these are established and maintained, e.g., the relationship between a
c. Understanding the channel of communication being used, e.g., using the
b. compare the model with other examples of the same text type
telephone, speaking face-to-face with members of an interview panel
In this stage :
field-trips, guest speakers, etc.
b. Establishing the social purpose through discussions or sur veys, etc.
a. students begin to contribute to the construction of whole examp
c. Cross-cultural activities, such as comparing differences in the use of the text in
two cultures.
type.
d. Comparing the model text with other texts of the same or a contrasting type,
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a. Listening tasks, e.g., comprehension activities in response to liv
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Search
material, such as performing a task, sequencingSign In
pictures Join
numberi
b. Listening and speaking tasks, e.g., role plays, simulated or authent
Chapter 2 RRLworkplace.
RRL Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
c. Reading tasks, e.g., comprehension activities in response to w
25
b. compare the model with other examples of the same text type
In this stage :
type.
Chapter 2 RRLlearning
RRL cycle can be related to:
Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
text types.
2. Educational Media
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motivate students and can effectively explain and illustrate subjec
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concern is on the use of materials in order to make
Sign Instudents
Join moti
26
In this stage, students investigate how what they have learned in this teaching
27
b. futureAdditionally,
or past cyclesLittlewood
of teaching(1998) defines educational media as any tools,
and learning.
process. Here, media can be anything, material and nonmaterial, physical and
b. Researching other text types used in the same field.
non-physical, those
c. Role-playing whatare useful if
happens tothe
support
samethe
textcommunication
type is used by and interaction
people in the
with different
teaching
roles and learning process. It can be for explaining, motivating, or making clear
relationships.
From thehow
e. Researching above discussion
a key languageit feature
can be used
concluded
in thisthat
texteducational media
type is used are
in other
2. Educational Media
b. Types of educational
a. Definition media
of educational media
for example,
Atkinson says
(1984) statethat
thateducational media
there are seven typesare supporting media:
of educational materials that
print can
media,
models/dioramas,
concern is on the maps,
use ofglobes, andindrawings,
materials order to photographic
make studentsmedia, audiotomedia,
motivated learn
television/video,
something and tocomputers,
make clear simulation
the contentand
of agames.
subject.
can be classified into 5 types (Nation: 2001). They are simulation activity which
includes games, role play, and simulations; visual form which includes
Related titles and media that can be used by other senses which include
multimedia technique,
27
between the teacher and the students more effective in the teaching learning
process. Here, media can be anything, material and nonmaterial, physical and
28
non-physical, those are useful to support the communication and interaction in the
From the above discussion it can be concluded that educational media are
Atkinson (1984) state that there are seven types of educational media: print media,
can be classified into 5 types (Nation: 2001). They are simulation activity which
Chapter
includes 2games,
RRL role RRL
play, and simulations; Chapter2 Synthesis
visual form which includes of the THE SPEA
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
photographic, graphic and photographic combination; audio form, audiovisual or
(ix) audio form (x) television (xi) computer (xii) games
multimedia technique, and media that can be used by other senses which include
more interesting for the students than the one using nothing. Pictures as one kind
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28
real description of an object which are portable and can be used anytime and help
are as following :
the general idea and forms of an object or action which are particular to a culture.
c. Pictures as media in the teaching learning process
It is generally accepted in language teaching that students must learn to
Based on the discussion above, delivering materials in the teaching
deal with chunks of language above the level of the word or the sentence. The
learning process accompanied by media will be clearer, more meaningful, and
non-verbal information helps students to predict what the text might be about, and
more interesting for the students than the one using nothing. Pictures as one kind
this ability helps them to recognize the meaning more quickly. Pictures can
of media also give impression of this.
represent these non verbal sources of information.
books, etc. Second, pictures have been familiar in the teaching learning process.
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29
real description of an object which are portable and can be used anytime and help
there are some reasons for using pictures in teaching and learning process. They
are as following :
the general idea and forms of an object or action which are particular to a culture.
to represent tiny objects. Here a picture of small animal can be made larger
Related titles accepted in language teaching that students must learn to
It is generally
its actual size Fourth pictures are easy to manage By employing a picture
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its actual size. Fourth, pictures are easy to manage. By employing a picture
deal with chunks of language above the level of the word or the sentence. The
computer.
represent these non verbal sources of information.
According to Kemp and Snellie (1989) in Burden (1994:138) the uses of
Moreover Hamalik (1982:81) lists some of advantages of pictures. T
pictures as instructional media have several purposes : 1) to motivate an interest
or a degree ofare:
action; 2) to present information; 3) to provide instruction.
pictures are that they can translate abstract ideas into a more realistic format;
allow instruction to move down from level of verbal symbols to a more conc
and calendars. They are easy to be used because they do not require
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In the English teaching learning process pictures have been employed as media in
most levels of learning, from elementary to university. Third, pictures can be used
to represent tiny objects. Here a picture of small animal can be made larger than
its actual size. Fourth, pictures are easy to manage. By employing a picture of a
Trusted by over 1 million members
computer, a teacher does not need to bring a real computer to describe the parts of
Chapter 2 RRL RRL Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
Try sample.doc
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computer.
FREE for 30 days to access over
Example Rrl 125 million titles without
Reviewed… ads or
ENGLISH…
interruptions!
Moreover Hamalik (1982:81) lists some of advantages of pictures. They
are:
at all
allow instruction levels
to move downof instruction
from level of verbal and intoall
symbols disciplines.
a more concrete
and widely available. They provide common experiences for as entire group.
visual detail makes it possible to study objects which would otherwise
It is clear that the functional pictures should contain one style picture
and there should not be irrelevant details; otherwise the picture has illustra
the four language skills. Wright (1989) divides the roles of pictures on langu
31
equipment. Also, they are relatively inexpensive and it can be used in many ways
Moreover Gerlach and Ely (1980:277) state that pictures are inexpensive
and widely available. They provide common experiences for as entire group. The
32
Pictures
Wright, however, in a testthese
discusses may four
be functional
activities or illustrative.
under If the pictures
two categories: are
receptive
and productive.
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functional, that is, if they are the means of teaching meaning, it is Sign In Join
important to make sure that the pictures are not ambiguous. To be
clear, a picture should contain only what the words mean; there
In listening
should andbe reading
nothingactivities,
in the pictures
picture have
that some
is notroles:
mentioned in the
sentences. All the irrelevant details must be removed… illustrative
a. To interest
pictures the student.
are useful to focus the attention of the students on what the
b. Tosays
text helpbytohelping
translate thetomeaning
him imagineofit. the
Thegist of the often
pictures, text orcome
individual
in the
item of language.
form of crowded scenes, illustrating a single theme, like the family
leaving on a holiday the countryside, summer, etc.
c. To give a context for the language and students’ activity.
d. To give cultural information.
e. To contribute to the search for specific information in the text and
to that
It is clear help the
the functional
students demonstrate it non-verbally.
pictures should contain one style picture only
(Wright, 1989: 119)
and there should not be irrelevant details; otherwise the picture has illustrative
ambiguity of students’
concepts concrete, interpretation.
representing The that
objects mostare
useful contribution
difficult to find,ofrepresenting
a picture is
to contribute
objects in too
that are the big,
students’ understanding
representing objectsof a more
that generaltocontext
are difficult whichthe
use, giving is
made
same up of pictures.and motivating students to learn. So, pictures are very
experiences
In speaking
appropriate as mediaand
in writing activities,
the teaching pictures
learning have some roles:
process.
In mastering a language
a. To motivate to students,
the students vocabulary
to want to speak cannot
or write.be separated from
b. To create a context within which they response will have meaning.
c. To skills.
the four language provide the student
Wright with information
(1989) divides the roles of to use inoncontrolled
pictures language
practice work. Pictures showing objects, actions, events, and
relationships can cue answers to questions, substitutions and
sentences completions.
d. To guide spoken and written descriptions or narrations or dialogue.
e. To promote discussion and provide reference.
used by the teachers due to the fact that there are some advantages of using
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33
is obvious that those advantages can make the students understand better.
There are some speaking activities in the classroom which use pictures as
language. These media are very appropriate to support the learning process. So it
SimilarSearch
research was done by Yeri Eko Munajat in the year of 2007. He Sign In Join
34
high school in Yogyakarta. The result was that pictures are effective media to
improve the student’s speaking ability in the school target. The researcher of this
study is going to have the similar action research to prove and strengthen the
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effectiveness of pictures in teaching and learning speaking.
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p g g p g
Speaking is a way to communicate the idea that is arranged and developed on the
and learning speaking which are coming from two factors, the teachers and the
Chapter 2 RRL RRL Chapter2 Synthesis of the THE SPEA
students. Teachers still face problems in which they cannot create an atmosphere
sample.doc Example Rrl Reviewed… ENGLISH…
where the students are expected to speak. They also get some difficulties in
motivating the students to speak English. Meanwhile students are still lack of
awareness in learning speaking for they seldom use it in their daily lives and also
The teacher can support the students in learning speaking through media.
the students are expected to speak. Educational media are any supporting
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35
This study proposes that pictures are media which can enhance the
students speaking ability. Pictures can create a context in which the students are
expected to practice speaking and motivate them to learn speaking. Pictures are
media which can make abstract concepts concrete, representing objects that are
difficult to find, representing objects that are too big, representing objects that are
difficult to use, giving the same experiences and motivating students to learn.
English. When they are motivated in speaking English, they will learn to use
English actively and improve their ability in communicating each other by using
each other.
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