Introduction To Fluid Mechanics

C HAPTER 1
Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics
1.1 About Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces acting on them. (Fluids
include liquids, gases, and plasmas.) Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics,
the study of fluids at rest; fluid kinematics, the study of fluids in motion; and fluid
dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a branch of continuum
mechanics, a subject that models matter without using the information that it is made
out of atoms, that is, it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from
a microscopic viewpoint.
This study area deals with many and diversified problems such as surface
tension, fluid statics, flow in enclose bodies, or flow round bodies (solid or
otherwise), flow stability, etc. For example, various aircrafts and rocket engines
involve fluid flow fields, reaction forces. In the food and chemical process industries,
fluid mechanics is required for the design of transport system and in process design.
In fact, almost any action of a person is doing involves some kind of a fluid
mechanics problem.
Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many
unsolved or partly solved problems. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex.
Sometimes it can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A
modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this
approach to solving fluid mechanics problems. Most of the discussion is limited to
simple and (mostly) Newtonian fluid.
The fluid mechanics study involves many fields that have no clear boundaries
between them. Researchers distinguish between orderly flow and chaotic flow as the
laminar flow and the turbulent flow. The fluid mechanics can also be distinguished
between a single-phase flow and multi-phase flow (flow made more than one phase or
single distinguishable material).
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
There are two main approaches of presenting an introduction of fluid

mechanics materials. The first approach introduces the fluid kinematic and then the
basic governing equations, to be followed by stability, turbulence, boundary layer,
and internal and external flow. The second approach deals with the Mathematical
Analysis to be followed with Differential Analysis, and continue with Empirical
Analysis. This thesis attempts to find a hybrid approach in which the kinematic is
presented first follow by similarity analysis and continued by Differential analysis.
The ideal flow (frictionless flow) should be expanded compared to the regular
treatment. This thesis is unique in providing chapters with the latest developments.
Continuum mechanics
(The study of the physics of continuous
materials)
Fluid Mechanics Solid Mechanics

(The study of the physics of continuous (The study of the physics of continuous
material, which take the shape of their materials with a defined rest shape)
container)
Newtonian Elasticity
fluids
Non-Newtonian Plasticity
fluids
Rheology
(The study of materials with both solid and
fluid characteristics)
Figure 1. 1: Fluid mechanics is a sub discipline of continuum mechanics
1.2 Brief History

*
The need to have some understanding of fluid mechanics started with the need
to obtain water supply. For example, people realized that wells have to be dug and
crude pumping devices need to be constructed. Later, a large population created a
*
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics
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need to solve waste (sewage) and some basic understanding was created. At some
point, people realized that water could be use to move things and provide power.
When cities increased to a larger size, aqueducts were constructed. These aqueducts
reached their greatest size and grandeur in those of the City of Rome and China.
Yet, almost all knowledge of the ancients can be summarized as application of

instincts, with the exception Archimedes (250 B.C.) on the principles of buoyancy.
For example, larger tunnels built for a larger water supply, etc. There were no
calculations even with the great need for water supply and transportation. The first
progress in fluid mechanics was made by Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) who built
the first chambered canal lock near Milan. He also made several attempts to study the
flight (birds) and developed some concepts on the origin of the forces. After his initial
work, the knowledge of fluid mechanics (hydraulic) increasingly gained speed by the
contributions of Galileo, Torricelli, Euler, Newton, Bernoulli family, and D‘Alembert.
At that stage theory and experiments had some discrepancy. This fact acknowledged
by D‘Alembert who stated that, ―The theory of fluids must necessarily be based upon
experiment.‖ For example, the concept of ideal liquid that leads to motion with no
resistance, conflicts with the reality.
This discrepancy between theory and practice is called the ―D‘Alembert

paradox‖ and serves to demonstrate the limitations of theory alone in solving fluid
problems. As in thermodynamics, two different of school of thoughts had created: the
first believed that the solution will come from theoretical aspect alone, and the second
believed that solution is the pure practical (experimental) aspect of fluid mechanics.
On the theoretical side, Euler, La Grange, Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, Rayleigh, Rankine,
and Kelvin made considerable contribution. On the ―experimental‖ side, mainly in
pipes and open channels area, were Brahms, Bossut, Chezy, Dubuat, Fabre, Coulomb,
Dupuit, d‘Aubisson, Hagen, and Poisseuille.
In the middle of the nineteen century, first Navier in the molecular level and
later Stokes from continuous point of view succeeded in creating governing equations
for real fluid motion. Thus, creating a matching between the two schools of thoughts:
experimental and theoretical. However, as in thermodynamics, people cannot
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relinquish control. As results, it created today ―strange‖ names Hydrodynamics,

Hydraulics, Gas Dynamics, and Aeronautics.
The Navier-Stokes equations describe the flow (or even Euler equations),
considered unsolvable during the mid nineteen century because of the high
complexity. This problem led to two consequences. Theoreticians tried to simplify the
equations and arrive at approximated solutions representing specific cases. Examples
of such work are Hermann von Helmholtz‘s concept of vortexes (1858), Lanchester‘s
concept of circulatory flow (1894), and the Kutta-Joukowski circulation theory of lift
(1906). The experimentalists, at the same time proposed many correlations to many
fluid mechanics problems, for example, resistance by Darcy, Weisbach, Fanning,
Ganguillet, and Manning. The obvious happened without theoretical guidance, the
empirical formulas generated by fitting curves to experimental data (even sometime
merely presenting the results in tabular form) resulting in formulas that the
relationship between the physics and properties made very little sense.
At the end of the twentieth century, the demand for vigorous scientific
knowledge that can be applied to various liquids as opposed to formula for every fluid
was created by the expansion of many industries. This demand coupled with new
several novel concepts like the theoretical and experimental researches of Reynolds,
the development of dimensional analysis by Rayleigh, and Froude‘s idea of the use of
models change the science of the fluid mechanics. Perhaps the most radical concept
that affects the fluid mechanics is of Prandtl‘s idea of boundary layer, which is a
combination of the modeling, and dimensional analysis that leads to modern fluid
mechanics. Therefore, many call Prandtl as the father of modern fluid mechanics.
This concept leads to mathematical basis for many approximations. Thus, Prandtl and
his students Blasius, von Karman, Meyer, and Blasius and several other individuals as
Nikuradse, Rose, Taylor, Buckingham, Stanton, and many others, transformed the
fluid mechanics to today modern science.
While the understanding of the fundamentals did not change much, after
World War 2, the way in which it was calculated changed. The introduction of the
computers during the 60s and much more powerful personal computer has changed
the field. Many open source programs can analyze many fluid mechanics situations.
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Today many problems can be analyzed by using the numerical tools and provide
reasonable results. These programs in many cases can capture all the appropriate
parameters and adequately provide a reasonable description of the physics. However,
there are many other cases that numerical analysis cannot provide any meaningful
result (trends). For example, no weather prediction program can produce good
engineering quality results (where the snow will fall within 50 kilometers accuracy.
Building a car with this accuracy is a disaster). In the best scenario, these programs
are as good as the input provided. Thus, assuming turbulent flow for still flow simply
provides erroneous results (see for example, http://ekkinc.com/).
1.3 Some Basic Definitions

In this section, we defined some basic definitions, which are quite useful in the
subsequent chapters. Some of these are taken from Fox and McDonald (1985). Others
are referred to in the text.
1.3.1 Fluid
A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear
stress, no matter how small. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include
liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some an extent, plastic solids. In common usage,
‗fluid‘ is often used as a synonym for ‗liquid‘, with no implication that gas could also
be present.
1.3.2 Density or Mass Density

Density or Mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of mass and volume.
Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density and is denoted by  . The SI
unit of density is kg / m3 .
The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with
the variation of pressure and temperature.
Mathematically, mass density if written as
Mass of fluid
 (1.1)
Volume of fluid
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1.3.3 Viscosity and Shear Stress

Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid, which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two
layers of a fluid apart a distance dy , move one over another at different velocity say
u and u  du as show in Fig. (1.2), the viscosity together with relative velocity
causes the force acing between the fluid layers, is defined as ‗shear stress‘ and is
denoted by the Greek symbol τ or τyx (for two-dimension).
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y
that is the shear stress between layers is proportional to the velocity gradient in the
direction perpendicular to the layers. Hence
u
 yx   (1.2)
y
Y- Dimension
Boundary plate (2D, Moving)
u  du
dy u
du
Velocity profile
Boundary plate (2D, Stationary)
Figure 1. 2: Schematics of viscosity variation and the shear stress
Where  is proportionality constant and is known as co-efficient of dynamic

u
viscosity or simply viscosity. Further, represent the rate of shear strain, a
y
normalized measure of deformation representing the displacement between particles
in the body relative to a reference length. Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear
stress required producing unit rate of shear strain and its unit is Ns/m2.
Equation (1.2) also describes the ‗Newton‘s law of viscosity.‘
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1.3.4 Kinematic Velocity

The kinematic velocity is defined as the ration of viscosity and density. It is denoted
by Greek symbol  and its unit is m2/s. Thus mathematically
Viscosity 
  (1.3)
Density 
1.4 Types of Flow

1.4.1 Compressible and Incompressible flows
An incompressible flow is a flow in which the variation of the density within
the flow is considered constant. In general, all liquids are treated as the
incompressible fluids. On the contrary, flows that are characterized by a varying
density are said to be compressible. Gases are normally used as the compressible
fluids. However, all fluids in reality are compressible because any change in
temperature or pressure result in changes in density. In many situations, though, the
changes in temperature and pressure are so small that the resulting changes in density
are negligible.
The mathematical equation that describes the incompressibility property of the fluid is
given by
D
0 (1.4)
Dt
D
Where is the material derivative defined by
Dt
D 
 V   (1.5)
Dt t
in which V represents velocity of flow and  is the vector differential operator.
1.4.2 Steady and Unsteady Flows

A steady flow is one for which the velocity does not depend on time. When
the velocity varies with respect to time then the flow is called unsteady.
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1.4.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Laminar Turbulent
Figure 1. 3: Schematics of laminar and turbulent flow
Laminar flow (Streamlines) is one in which each fluid particle has a definite
path. In such flow, the paths of fluid particulars do not intersect each other. In
turbulent flow, the paths of fluid particles may intersect each other.
Consider water flowing through a pipe at low speeds, there is a nice smooth
condition, which is call laminar flow. The mixing of warm and cold air in the
atmosphere by wind, which causes clear-air turbulence experienced during airplane
flight, as well as poor astronomical seeing.
1.5 Types of Fluids

The fluids are classified in to the following five types:
1. Ideal fluid 2. Real fluid

3. Newtonian fluid 4. Non-Newtonian fluid
5. Ideal plastic fluid
1 Ideal fluid: A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known

as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluid, which
exists, has some viscosity.
2 Real fluid: A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the
fluids in actual practice are real fluids.
3 Newtonian fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly, proportional to
the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as Newtonian fluid.
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Alternately, a fluid, which obeys the Newton‘s law of viscosity, given by equation
(1.2), is known as Newtonian fluid.
4 Non-Newtonian fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to
the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as Non-Newtonian fluid.
In case of such a fluid, the relationship between the shear stress and the rate of
strain is an arbitrary functional relation, either implicit or explicit, given by
 u 
  yx ,   0 (1.6)
 y 
5 Ideal plastic fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is more that the yield
value and the shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid.
Ideal solid Ideal Plastic fluid

Shear stress
Non-Newtonian fluid
Newtonian fluid
Ideal fluid
O
 u 
Velocity gradient  
 y 
Figure 1. 4: Types of fluids
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1.6 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

1.6.1 Newtonian Fluids
Fluids can be classified into two broad categories: Newtonian and Non-
Newtonian. A Newtonian fluid is a fluid that has a constant viscosity independent of
the magnitude of the shear stress. For a parallel flow of a Newtonian fluid, as
discussed in section (1.3), Newton‘s law of viscosity holds [Eq. (1.2)]. Also it is
 u 
observed that when shear stress  yx is plotted against the rate of strain   , the
 y 
result for a Newtonian fluid is a straight line going through the origin of the
 u 
coordinates as shown in Figure (1.3), the graphs  yx plotting versus   are called
 y 
 u 
rheograms. Physically,   is the velocity gradient or the rate of angular
 y 
deformation of the fluid, also known as rate of strain.
The slope of the straight line in any rheogram of a Newtonian fluid represents
the viscosity (or more specifically, the dynamic viscosity) of the fluid. The higher
viscosity of a fluid becomes the steeper the slope in the rheogram. Fluids such as air,
water, oil, glycerin, and honey are described as Newtonian fluids. Figure (1.5) gives
the rheogram of several Newtonian fluids of quite different values of viscosity.
1.6.2 Classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids

For Non-Newtonian fluids, the line in the rheogram either is curved or does
not pass through the origin, or both. Figure (1.6) shows the rheograms of various
types of Non-Newtonian fluids. Note that while the rheogram of a pseudoplastic
fluid curves downward (i.e., having decreasing slope with increased shear), for a
dilatant fluid the rheogram curves upward (i.e. having increasing slope with increased
shear). Otherwise, the two are similar: they both pass through the origin of the
rheogram, as is the case with Newtonian fluids.
As shown in Fig. (1.6), a Bingham plastic (or simply Bingham) fluid is
represented by a straight line in rheograms, but the line does not pass through the
origin. It takes a certain minimum shear stress, called the yield stress,  y to cause a
Bingham fluid to behave like a fluid. For  yx less than  y a Bingham plastic fluid
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Glycerin
 Oil
 yx
1
Water
Air
O
 u 
 y 
 
Figure 1. 5: Rheogram of various Newtonian fluids
Bingham plastic
 yx
Yield-pseudoplastic
Yield dilatant
Pseudoplastic
Newtonian
Dilatan
t
O  u 
 y 
 
Figure 1. 6: Rheogram of various Non-Newtonian fluids
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behaves like a solid rather than a fluid. When  yx becomes greater than  y , behaves
like a Newtonian fluid. Finally, a yield-pseudo plastic fluid is similar to a

pseudoplastic fluid except that it requires a minimum shear (yield stress) to behave
like a fluid, and a yield-dilatant fluid is similar to a dilatant fluid but requires a yield
stress.
*
Non-Newtonian fluids are solutions or suspensions of particulates (i.e., large
molecules or fine solid particles suspended in a pure fluid). Whether a Non-
Newtonian fluid is pseudoplastic, dilatant, or another type depends on not only the
kind but also the concentration of the suspended particles. In some cases, at low
concentration of particulates the fluid is pseudoplastic. It changes to Bingham plastic
when the concentration is moderate, and then changes to dilatant when the
concentration is high. At very low concentration of solids, all fluids behave like a
Newtonian fluid, with increasing viscosity as the concentration of solids increases.
The reason that a pseudoplastic fluid has a decreasing viscosity when the shear
increases is believed to be a reversible breakdown of loosely bonded aggregates by
the shearing action of the flow.
Examples of pseudoplastic fluids include aqueous suspension of limestone, aqueous

and non-aqueous suspension of certain polymers, hydrocarbon greases etc.
The reason that a dilatant fluid has an increasing viscosity when shear
increases is believed to be due to the shift, under shear, of a closely packed particulate
system to a more open arrangement, which entraps some of the liquid. Examples of
such fluids are aqueous suspensions of magnetite, galena, and ferrosilicon.
Examples of Bingham plastic fluids include water suspensions of clay, fly ash,
sewage sludge, paint, and fine minerals such as coal slurry. The yield stress  y for a
Bingham fluid may be very small (less than 0.1 dynes/cm2 for some sewage sludge),
or very large (more than 1010 dyne/cm2 for some asphalts and bitumen). Finally,
some clay-water suspensions at intermediate level of concentration exhibit yield-
pseudoplastic properties.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid
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The aforementioned Non-Newtonian fluids are time-independent. This means their

viscosity under shear does not change with time. Some other Non-Newtonian fluids,
however, have time-dependent rheological properties. For instance, a thixotropic fluid
is a pseudoplastic fluid whose viscosity under constant shear decreases with time.
This is due to particle agglomeration. Water suspension of bentonitic clay, the drilling
fluid used by the petroleum industry, is a thixotropic fluid. Crude oil at low
temperature, such as the oil from the Pembina Field in Canada, is another example of
thixotropic fluid. Another type of time-dependent Non-Newtonian fluid is the
rheopectic fluid. It exhibits negative thixotropic behavior (i.e., the viscosity of the
fluid under shear increases with time).
The development of modern chemical engineering, lubrication technology,
biophysics, biomechanics, biorheology, soil mechanics and other branches of science
and technology, which deal with high polymers, suspensions, pastes, oils, lubricants
and physiological fluids, have made the study of Non-Newtonian fluids important.
The frequent occurrences of these fluids in industries and in day-to-day life have
provided a great impetus to the detailed study of their flow behavior.
1.7 Rheological Aspects of Non-Newtonian Fluids

Non-Newtonian fluids form a part of the wider field called ‗rheology‘, which
is the science of deformation, and flow matter. The main aim of rheology is to predict
the force system necessary to cause a given deformation, flow, or vice versa. The
basis of these predictions is the constitutive equations, which are the relationships
between the stress and the rate of strain tensors. The theoretical study of Non-
Newtonian systems is based on non-linear constitutive equations in contrast to
Newtonian systems that have linear constitutive equations.
For Non-Newtonian fluids, the shearing stress bears a non-linear relation to
the rate of strain. Stress, at a given temperature and pressure, is not a linear function
of the spatial variation of velocity. These types of fluids are classified into three broad
types:
1. The fluid for which the rate of strain at any point is a function of instantaneous shearing
stress
2. Fluids for which the relation between the rate of strain and shearing stress depends on the
time, the fluid is sheared
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3. Fluids, which exhibit both elastic and viscous properties
1.8 Development of Models

The steady-state behavior of Newtonian fluids is expressed by the rheological
equation (1.2) while for Non-Newtonian fluids, the steady-state relation between
shearing stress and the rate of strain shows non-linearity and it is given by any arbitrary functional
relationship, explicit or implicit, given by rheological equation (1.6).
(Bird et. al., 1960; Wilkinsion, 1960; Skelland, 1967)
1.8.1 Power-Law Fluids

u
The relationship between the shear stress  yx and the velocity gradient
y
for certain Non-Newtonian fluids can expressed satisfactorily with the following
power-laws:
n
 u 
 yx  K  (1.7)
 y 
From which
n 1
 u 
  K  (1.8)
 y 
Equation (1.8) is applicable to pseudoplastic fluids when n  1 , dilatant fluids when
n  1 , and Newtonian fluids when n  1 . From Equation (1.8), the two rheological
properties of pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids that can be represented by the equation
are the coefficient K and the power n. The constant K is usually referred as the
consistency index or power-law coefficient, whereas the constant n is referred to as
the flow-behavior index, or power-law exponent. The constant μ, in Equation (1.8) is
the apparent viscosity, which reduces to the dynamic viscosity when the fluid is
Newtonian  n  1 .
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"Parallel" linearstic
combination of
Kelvin material
elastic and viscous
Viscoelastic effects
Material returns to a
Anelastic well-defined "rest
shape"
Apparent viscosity
Some lubricants,
Rheopectic increases with
whipped cream
Time-dependent duration of stress
viscosity Apparent viscosity Some clays, some
Thixotropic decreases with drilling mud, many
duration of stress paints, synovial fluid
Apparent viscosity Suspensions of corn
Shear thickening
increases with starch or sand in
(dilatant)
increased stress water
Paper pulp in water,
Apparent viscosity
Shear thinning latex paint, ice,
decreases with
(pseudoplastic) blood, syrup,
Time-independent increased stress[
molasses
viscosity
Viscosity is constant
Stress depends on
Generalized Non- normal and shear Blood plasma,
Newtonian fluids strain rates and also custard
the pressure applied
on it
Table 1. 1: Classification of Non-Newtonian fluids
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid
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1.8.2 Bingham Fluids

For any Bingham plastic fluid (or Bingham fluids, for short), the following law holds:
u
 yx   y   (1.9)
y
Where  y is the yield stress, and  is the coefficient of rigidity, or simply the rigidity
of the fluid.
1.8.3 Yield Fluids

For yield-pseudoplastic fluids and yield-dilatant fluids, the following law can be used:
n
 u 
 yx   y  K   (1.10)
 y 
This is a combination of equations (1.8) and (1.9). The exponent n in Equation (1.10)
is greater than one for yield-dilatant fluids, and less than one for yield-pseudoplastic
fluids. When n  1 , equation (1.10) reduces to equation (1.9), which is for Bingham
fluids. Apart from above, many empirical models are proposed to express this
relationship (Bird et. al., 1960; Wilkinsion, 1960; Skelland, 1967). Some of these
models are listed in Table 1.2.
1.9 Assumptions and Basic Equations

Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some
basic assumptions about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned
into equations that must be satisfied if the assumptions are to be held true. For
example, consider an incompressible fluid in three-dimensions. The assumption that
mass is conserved means that for any fixed closed surface (such as a sphere) the rate
of mass passing from outside to inside the surface must be the same as rate of mass
passing the other way. (Alternatively, the mass inside remains constant, as does the
mass outside). This can be turned into an integral equation over the surface.
Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following basic rules:
(Currie, 1974; Massey and Ward-Smith, 2005; Falkovich and Gregory, 2011)
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1.9.1 Transport Equation

The generic scalar transport equation is a general partial differential equation
that describes transport phenomena such as heat transfer, mass transfer, fluid
dynamics (momentum transfer), etc. A general form of the equation is

   f  t , x,  ,    g  t, x,   (1.11)
t
where f is called the flux, and g is called the source.
All the transfer processes express a certain conservation principle. In this
respect, any differential equation addresses a certain quantity as its dependent variable
and thus expresses the balance between the phenomena affecting the evolution of this
quantity. For example, the temperature of a fluid in a heated pipe is affected by
convection due to the solid-fluid interface, and due to the fluid-fluid interaction.
Furthermore, temperature is also diffused inside the fluid. For a steady-state problem,
with the absence of sources, a differential equation governing the temperature will
express a balance between convection and diffusion.
In general, it can be inferred that all the dependent variables seem to obey a
generalized conservation principle (A conservation law states that a particular
measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system
evolves.). If the dependent variable (scalar or vector) is denoted by  , the generic
differential equation is
   
    V          S
t      (1.12)
Convection Term Diffusion Term Source Term
Transient Term
Here,
  is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity and  is the density, V is velocity .
   
 The transient term, , accounts for the accumulation of  in the concerned
t
control volume.
 The diffusion term,     , accounts for the transport of  due to its gradients.
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 The source term, S , accounts for any sources or sinks that either create or destroy
 . Any extra terms that cannot be cast into the convection or diffusion terms are
considered as source terms.
1.9.2 Mass Conservation Law (Equation of Continuity)

Let W be a fixed sub-region (controlled volume) of D (W does not change with
time) and W denote the boundary of W. The rate of change of mass in W is

W  W , t  dV  W t dV
d d
m W , t   (1.13)
dt dt
Let W denote the boundary of W, assumed to be smooth; let n denote the unit
outward normal defined at points of W and let dA denotes the area element on W .
The volume flow rate across W per unit area is V  n and the mass flow rate per unit
area is  V  n  .
The principle of conservation of mass can be more precisely stated as follows:
The rate of increase of mass in W equals the rate at which mass is crossing ∂W in the
inward direction; that is
W  W  W  V  n  dA
d
(1.14)
dt
This is the integral form of the law of conservation of mass. By the divergence
theorem, this statement is equivalent to
  
      V   W  0 (1.15)
W  t 
Because this is to hold for all W, it is equivalent to


    V   0 (1.16)
t
The last equation is the differential form of the law of conservation of mass, also
known as the continuity equation.
In the case of an incompressible fluid, the density  does not vary and the
continuity equation (1.16) is equivalent to the following equation
 V  0 (1.17)
Page | 18
1.9.3 Balance of Momentum (Equation of Motion)

The motion of a fluid is generally govern by the equation of continuity derived
above along with the conservation of linear momentum. The conservation law of
momentum states that the rate of change of linear momentum over a control volume
W bounded by W must equal what is created by external forces acting on the
control volume, minus what is lost by the fluid moving out of the boundary. Thus
W  V W  W  f dW  W   n d W
d
(1.18)
dt
Where V is velocity of the fluid,  is the density, f is the body force per unit mass
and  is the linear momentum current density given by
   V V   (1.19)
in which  is the Cauchy stress tensor and ⊗ denotes the tensor product.
Unless the fluid is made up of spinning degrees of freedom like vortices,  is a
symmetric tensor. In general, (in three dimensions)  has the form:
  xx  xy  xz 
 
    yx  yy  yz 
 
  zx  zy  zz 
Where  ' s are normal stresses and  ' s are tangential stresses. (Shear stresses)
Using the divergence theorem, the last part of the right hand side of equation (1.18)
can be written as
W   n d W  W    dW (1.20)
Substituting equation (1.20) into equation (1.18), we have
W  VdW  W  f dW  W    dW
d
(1.21)
dt
Since the control volume W is invariant in time, we can take the derivative under the
integral and equation (1.21) becomes
 
W  t   V       dW  W  f dW (1.22)
For an arbitrary volume W we can drop the integral and we have


t
 V        f (1.23)
Page | 19
Hence, from equation (1.19) and (1.23), the general form of the equation of motion is
written as
V
   V  V       f (1.24)
t
Equation (1.24) is also known as general form of Navier–Stokes equations for the
conservation of momentum. In this equation, the force f is the body force per unit
volume, for example, gravity and electromagnetic forces. In this thesis, flows of Non-
Newtonian fluids with applied magnetic field are considered. Such a fluid is known as
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and the equation of motion is given by
V
   V   V    P  J  B (1.25)
t
Here J is the current density and B   B0  b  is total magnetic field, B0 and b are
applied and induced magnetic fields, respectively.
1.9.4 Conservation of Energy (Equation of Energy)

So far, we developed the continuity equation and equation of motion in earlier
sections. In general, for three-dimensional studies, these vector forms of the equations
together provide the system of three equations in the four scalar quantities like
components of the fluid velocity V , the density  and the pressure p . Thus, one
might suspect that to specify the fluid motion completely, one more equation is
needed. This is in fact true, and conservation of energy will supply the necessary
equation in fluid mechanics. This situation is more complicated for general continua,
and issues of general thermodynamics would need to be discussed for a complete
treatment. At present, we shall confine ourselves to two special cases of fluid. (There
may be other cases) For fluid moving in a domain W  D , with velocity field V , the
kinetic energy
W 
1
E kinetic  V 2
dW (1.26)
2
Where V 2

 u 2  v 2  w2  is the square length of the vector function V . We
assume that the total energy of the fluid can be written as

E total  Ekinetic  Einternal (1.27)
Page | 20
where Einternal is the internal energy, which is energy we cannot ―see‖ on a

macroscopic scale, and derives from sources such as intermolecular potentials and
internal molecular vibrations. If energy is pumped into the fluid or if we allow the
fluid to do work E total will change. The rate of change of kinetic energy of a moving
portion Wt of fluid is calculated using the transport theorem as follows:
d 1  1
W  V W  Dt
d D
E kinetic   2
dW   V 2
dW (1.28)
dt dt  2 t  2 t
D
Where is the material derivative, given by equation (1.5), equation (1.28)
Dt
becomes
  V 
W
d
E kinetic   V    V  V  dW (1.29)
dt t   t 
A general discussion of energy conservation requires more thermodynamics than we
shall need. At present, we limit ourselves here for two examples of energy
conservation.
1.9.4.1 Incompressible Fluid

For such a fluid, we assume all the energy is kinetic and that the rate of change
of kinetic energy in a portion of fluid equals the rate at which the pressure and body
forces do work:
W pV  n dA  W V  f dW
d
E kinetic   (1.30)
dt t t
By divergence theorem and for incompressible fluid  V  0 , we get from (1.29) and
(1.30) as
  V 
W  V   t  V  V  dW  W V  p   V  f  dW
t t
(1.31)
The preceding equation is also a consequence of balance of momentum. This

argument, in addition, shows that if we assume E  E kinetic , then the fluid must be
incompressible (unless p  0 ). In summary, in this incompressible case, the Euler

equations are:
Page | 21
DV 
  p   f 
Dt

D  (1.32)
0
Dt 

 V  0 
With the boundary conditions
V  n  0 on D (1.33)
1.9.4.2 Isentropic Fluid

A compressible flow will be called isentropic if there is a function w, called
the enthalpy, such that
1
w  p (1.34)

This terminology comes from thermodynamics. We shall not need a detailed
discussion of thermodynamics concepts in this thesis, and so it is omitted, for the sake
of convenience, we just make a few general comments. In thermodynamics, one has
the following basic quantities,
p : Pressure
ρ : Density
T : Temperature
s : Entropy
w : Enthalpy
  w   p   : Internal energy per unit mass
These quantities are related by the First Law of Thermodynamics, which we accept as
a basic principle:
1
dw  Tds  d (1.35)

The first law is a statement of conservation of energy; a statement equivalent to (1.35)
is, as it readily verified,
Page | 22
p
d  Tds  d (1.36)
2
Hence, according to the law of conservation of energy we have
d
        q  r (1.37)
dt
Where  is the specific internal heat, q is the heat flux vector, r is the radiant heat
vector,  is the Cauchy stress tensor,   V is the velocity gradient and  as

denotes the tensor product.
The velocity gradient for V  v1e1  v2e2  v3e3 , is defined as
 v1 v2 v3 

 
 x1 x1 x1 
   v j  v1 v2 v3 

= V   ei  v j e j  ei e j  
 xi  xi  x2 x2 x2 
 v v2 v3 
 1 
 x3 x3 x3 
In the absence of radiant heating, the equation (1.37) takes the following form:
dT
 Cp      k 2T (1.38)
dt
Where   T C p , q  kT , C p is the specific pressure heat, k is the thermal
conductivity and T is the temperature.
Page | 23
1.10 Some Interesting Examples Related to Fluid Mechanics

1.10.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
We know about the use of oil to lubricate moving machine parts. How does
oil "lubricate"? One of the objectives of lubrication is to prevent direct contact
between metallic surfaces subjected to relative motion, and thus eliminate solid-to-
solid friction. This is achieved by a phenomenon known as hydrodynamic lubrication.
Consider two flat surfaces inclined at a small angle to each other and moving
relative to each other as shown in figures (a) and (b). The gap between the two
surfaces is very small, and this gap becomes the characteristic length dimension L for
the flow. Consequently, this is a very low Re (Reynolds Number) flow. The liquid is
drawn between the two surfaces by viscous action and the no-slip boundary condition
will give the velocity profiles shown [Fig. (a)]. These velocity profiles are untenable
from the point of view of the continuity equation and continuity is satisfied by the
generation of pressure in the space between the surfaces. This pressure tends to drive
the liquid outwards at both ends, thereby altering the velocity profiles so that they
satisfy the continuity condition [Fig. (b)]. The pressure is maximum at some interior
location and falls off to the ambient value at the two ends. This pressure supports the
load and prevents the surfaces from touching.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is responsible when we slip on a wet pavement, although a

second hydrodynamic mechanism, known as the squeeze film effect, also comes into
play. The squeeze film effect has to do with the relative velocity normal to the
surfaces. This normal relative motion tends to drive out the liquid between the
surfaces. The inertial resistance of the liquid film to rapid acceleration causes the
build-up of pressure in the fluid film. Viscosity enhances the effect.
Pressur
e
(a) (b)
Page | 24
1.10.2 The Swing of a Cricket Ball

The picture illustrates the situation in the so-called "out swing". The plane of
the seam is inclined towards first slip. The air stream divides at the leading end of the
ball. One branch flows over the polished side, stays laminar and experiences early
boundary layer separation. The other branch trips over the seam, becomes turbulent
and flows over the "rough" side of the ball. Because of turbulent mixing, the
separation on this side is delayed and the boundary layer stays attached to the surface
of the ball most of the way (the seam acts as a vorticity generator). In the separated
region of the flow on the onside, the pressure is atmospheric, whereas the pressure
over most of the other side of the ball (the off side) is below atmospheric. This
pressure difference moves the ball towards the offside, away from a right-handed
batsman. Another way to look at it is to recognize that the asymmetrical boundary
layer separation on the two sides effectively deflects the wake to the onside. The
deflection must be due to a force, whose reaction on the ball is what causes the ball to
deviate from its original path.
For the swing to be sustained, the seam must retain its orientation. That is achieved by
giving the ball a slight backspin at the instant of delivery. The backspin stabilizes the
seam inclination by virtue of the gyroscopic effect.
1st Slip 
Polished side
OFF SIDE
Rough side ON SIDE
Page | 25
1.10.3 A Spoon Against the Flow from a Tap (Coanda Effect)

Here is an experiment we can carry out easily. Dangle a
spoon lightly from your fingers and bring its convex side in
contact with the stream of water issuing from a tap. Just let the
surface of the spoon touch the stream gently. We will find that
the spoon is pulled towards the jet quite strongly. Why does the
jet draw the spoon towards itself and not push it away? This is
due to Coanda effect, (named after Romanian aerodynamics
pioneer Henri Coandă) that has tendency of a fluid jet to be
attracted to a nearby surface.
*
The Coanda effect has important applications in various high-lift devices on
aircraft, where air moving over the wing can be "bent down" towards the ground
using flaps and a jet sheet blowing over the curved surface of the top of the wing. The
bending of the flow results in aerodynamic lift. The flow from a high-speed jet engine
mounted in a pod over the wing produces enhanced lift by dramatically increasing the
velocity gradient in the shear flowin the boundary layer. In this velocity, gradient
particles are blown away from the surface, thus lowering the pressure there.
1.10.4 The Wind at the Base of a Tall Building
S S
Figure 1. 7: Front and rear stagnation point (S) in the flow past an object
We may know from experience that the foot of a tall building is a windy place! The
reason for that is as speed of the ground height, from the ground. When this
follows, the airflow over the increases with zero exactly at surface (no slip!), flow an
obstacle like a tall building, it stagnates against the surface of the building. A
stagnation point is a point of zero velocity and it occurs where a streamline and a solid
*
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coand%C4%83_effect
Page | 26
surface meet at right angles to each other (the impermeable wall and the no-slip
boundary condition). By Bernoulli's equation, all the kinetic energy is converted to
pressure energy at the stagnation point, the pressure going as the square of the
velocity. Now if we look at the picture of the building (c). The stagnation points near
the top of the building, where the faster layers of air are brought to stagnation, are at
higher pressure than those near the foot of the building. A pressure gradient exists
down the face of the building and this pressure gradient drives a downward flow of
air, which fans out into the "wind" as it approaches the ground.
Stagnation pressure
Wind
(c)
Page | 27
Fluid Model Stress Vs Rate of Strain
 1 u 
1. Prandtl  y x  A sin 1  
 C y 
u 1  1 u 
2. Powell Eyring  yx    sinh 1  
y B  C y 
 A 
     u
3.  yx  u
Williamson B  y
 y 
n 1
u u
4. Power Law  yx K
y y
1 u 1 
5. Eyring  yx   C sin   y x 
B y A 
u  n 1 
6. Ellis    A B  yx  y x
y  
 1 u 
7. Prandtl-Eyring  y x  A sinh 1  
 B y 
n
u u
8. Sisko  yx  A B
y y
 0   
   2  u
9. Reiner-Philippoff  yx    yx  
1   y
   0  
n
 u  1  u
10. Sutterby  yx  0  B  sinh 1  B u  
 y   y   y
Table 1. 2: Different models for Non-Newtonian fluids
Here A, B, C, n 0 and  are material constants, that characterize the fluid.
Page | 28

Introduction To Fluid Mechanics

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Introduction To Fluid Mechanics

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C HAPTER 1

There are two main approaches of presenting an introduction of fluid

Fluid Mechanics Solid Mechanics

Figure 1. 1: Fluid mechanics is a sub discipline of continuum mechanics

1.2 Brief History

Yet, almost all knowledge of the ancients can be summarized as application of

This discrepancy between theory and practice is called the ―D‘Alembert

relinquish control. As results, it created today ―strange‖ names Hydrodynamics,

1.3 Some Basic Definitions

1.3.2 Density or Mass Density

Mathematically, mass density if written as

1.3.3 Viscosity and Shear Stress

Boundary plate (2D, Stationary)

Figure 1. 2: Schematics of viscosity variation and the shear stress

Where  is proportionality constant and is known as co-efficient of dynamic

Equation (1.2) also describes the ‗Newton‘s law of viscosity.‘

1.3.4 Kinematic Velocity

1.4 Types of Flow

1.4.2 Steady and Unsteady Flows

1.4.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flows

Figure 1. 3: Schematics of laminar and turbulent flow

1.5 Types of Fluids

1. Ideal fluid 2. Real fluid

1 Ideal fluid: A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known

Ideal solid Ideal Plastic fluid

Figure 1. 4: Types of fluids

1.6 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

1.6.2 Classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids

Figure 1. 5: Rheogram of various Newtonian fluids

Figure 1. 6: Rheogram of various Non-Newtonian fluids

like a Newtonian fluid. Finally, a yield-pseudo plastic fluid is similar to a

Examples of pseudoplastic fluids include aqueous suspension of limestone, aqueous

The aforementioned Non-Newtonian fluids are time-independent. This means their

1.7 Rheological Aspects of Non-Newtonian Fluids

3. Fluids, which exhibit both elastic and viscous properties

1.8 Development of Models

1.8.1 Power-Law Fluids

Table 1. 1: Classification of Non-Newtonian fluids

1.8.2 Bingham Fluids

1.8.3 Yield Fluids

1.9 Assumptions and Basic Equations

1.9.1 Transport Equation

1.9.2 Mass Conservation Law (Equation of Continuity)

Because this is to hold for all W, it is equivalent to

1.9.3 Balance of Momentum (Equation of Motion)

Substituting equation (1.20) into equation (1.18), we have

For an arbitrary volume W we can drop the integral and we have

applied and induced magnetic fields, respectively.

1.9.4 Conservation of Energy (Equation of Energy)

assume that the total energy of the fluid can be written as

where Einternal is the internal energy, which is energy we cannot ―see‖ on a

portion Wt of fluid is calculated using the transport theorem as follows:

1.9.4.1 Incompressible Fluid

The preceding equation is also a consequence of balance of momentum. This

incompressible (unless p  0 ). In summary, in this incompressible case, the Euler

With the boundary conditions

1.9.4.2 Isentropic Fluid

vector,  is the Cauchy stress tensor,   V is the velocity gradient and  as

 v1 v2 v3 

conductivity and T is the temperature.

1.10 Some Interesting Examples Related to Fluid Mechanics

Hydrodynamic lubrication is responsible when we slip on a wet pavement, although a

1.10.2 The Swing of a Cricket Ball