A

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

on

“DESIGN & FABRICATION

OF

A TRAINEE RC PLANE”

in partial fulfillment

for the award of the degree

Bachelor of Technology

in

Aeronautical Engineering

Guided By: Submitted By:

Mr. Sanjay Kumar Abhijeet Singh (15/477)

(Asst. Professor, NPIU) Yogesh Rathore (15/626)

Mr. Kuldhir Singh Bhati Yatendra Kumar (15/624)

(Asst. Professor, AE dept.)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY KOTA

May 2019
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Abhijeet Singh (15/477), Yatendra Kumar (15/624) and Yogesh Rathore
(15/626) have submitted the project report entitled “DESIGN & FABRICATION OF AN RC
PLANE’’ in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology
(Aeronautical Engineering). The report has been prepared as per the prescribed format and is
approved for submission and presentation.

Signature of Guide Signature of UG Coordinator

Mr. Sanjay Kumar Dr. Brajesh Tripathi

Asst. Professor Associate Professor

Mechanical Engg. Dept. Mechanical Engg. Dept.

UD, RTU UD, RTU

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks and profound sense of gratitude to Mr. Sanjay Kumar,
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University Departments,
RTU, Kota for initiating us into this work and guided us in the successful completion of
the project entitled “DESIGN & FABRICATION OF AN RC PLANE”

We take privilege to thank Dr. Brajesh Tripathi, Co-ordinator, Aeronautical Engg.

Department, who encouraged us for the selection of project.

Abhijeet Singh (15/477),

Yogesh Rathore (15/626),

Yatendra Kumar (15/624)

 ABSTRACT
A radio-controlled (model) aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is controlled remotely by
a hand-held transmitter and a receiver within the craft. The receiver controls the corresponding
servos that move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on the transmitter, which in
turn affect the orientation of the plane. Flying RC aircraft as a hobby has been growing worldwide
with the advent of more efficient motors (both electric and miniature internal combustion and jet
engines), lighter and more powerful batteries and less expensive radio systems. Scientific,
government and military organizations are also utilizing RC aircraft for experiments, gathering
weather readings, aerodynamic modeling and testing, and even using them as drones or spy planes.
The RC fixed winged Aircraft project is based on designing a light weight glider electronically
controlled using a remote control with operating frequency of 2.4 GHz. The project concentrated on
designing the mechanical part of the model. It was the stepwise execution of procedure to
synthesize the glider. This project did not concentrated on electronics components as the
components used are readily available in markets and need not be programmed by the users.
CERTIFICATE ................................................................... 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................. 3
1. Introduction .................................................................... 7
1.1 Types ........................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.1 Sail plane and glider…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8
1.1.2 Jets……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..9
1.1.3 Flying bird models, or ornithopters ........................................................................................... 10
1.2 Types of kits ............................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.1 Almost Ready to fly ................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2 Bind and fly……………………………………………………………………………………….13

1.2.3 wood kit………………………………………………………………………...…………………14

1.2.4 Form plans or Scratch…………………………………………………………………………….14

1.3 Airframe materials ..................................................................................................................... 15

2. Aerodynamics ............................................................... 16
2.1 How airplanes fly......................................................................................................................... 16
Aerodynamics of RC plane ................................................................................................................ 16
Angle of Attack and lift ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Understanding RC airplane controls ................................................................................................ 18
2.2.1 Throttle ................................................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2 Ailerons .................................................................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Rudder...................................................................................................................................... 20
Other RC airplane controls ................................................................................................................. 21
Flaps .................................................................................................................................................. 21

3. Avionics ........................................................................ 22
3.1 RC channel mixing ........................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.1 Proportional RC airplane controls.................................................................................................. 22
3.1.2 Frequencies and sub-channels ...................................................................................................... 22
3.1.3

3.2 Regulations on use ........................................................................................................................... 23

3.2.1 India.......................................................................................................................................... 23
4. COMPONENTS ........................................................... 24
4.1 Components of Radio Control Plane ............................................................................................. 24
4.2 Transmitter (abbreviated to 'TX') .................................................................................................. 25
4.3 Receiver (abbrev. 'RX') .................................................................................................................. 27
4.4 Servos............................................................................................................................................ 28
4.5 Crystals .......................................................................................................................................... 29
4.6 ESC............................................................................................................................................. 30
4.7 Propeller .................................................................................................................................... 31
4.7.1 RC propeller size labelling.......................................................................................................... 31
4.7.2 IC propeller size recommendations ........................................................................................... 32
4.7.3 EP propeller sizes ...................................................................................................................... 33
4.8 LIPO ........................................................................................................................................... 33
4.8.1 Differences in Lithium Ion (Li-Ion) Lithium Polymer (LiPo) batteries ........................................... 34

5. Steps of fabrication ....................................................... 37

5.1 Wing construction ....................................................................................................................... 37
5.2 Fuselage construction.................................................................................................................. 37
5.3 Tail construction .......................................................................................................................... 38

6. Cost specification and Estimation ................................. 40

6.1 Our Model Specifications .......................................................................................................... 40
6.2 Cost estimation ......................................................................................................................... 40

7. Conclusion .................................................................... 41
8. References .................................................................... 42
 1. Introduction
A radio controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a small flying machine that is
controlled remotely by an operator on the ground using a hand-held radio transmitter. The
transmitter communicates with areceiver within the craft that sends signals
to servomechanisms (servos) which move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on
the transmitter. The control surfaces, in turn, affect the orientation of the plane.

Flying RC aircraft as a hobby grew substantially from the 2000s with improvements in the cost,
weight, performance and capabilities of motors, batteries and electronics. A wide variety of models
and styles is available.

Scientific, government and military organizations are also using RC aircraft for experiments,
gathering weather readings, aerodynamic modeling and testing, and even using them as drones or
spy planes.

1.1 Types
There are many types of radio-controlled aircraft. For beginning hobbyists, there are park
flyers and trainers. For more experienced pilots there are glow plug engine, electric powered
and sailplane aircraft. For expert flyers, jets, pylon racers, helicopters, autogyros, 3D aircraft, and
other high-end competition aircraft provide adequate challenge. Some models are made to look and
operate like a bird instead. Replicating historic and little known types and makes of full-size
aircraft as "flying scale" models, which are also possible with control line and free flight types of
model aircraft, actually reach their maximum realism and behavior when built for radio-control
flying.

Figure 1

Kyosho "Phantom 70" biplane

Perhaps the most realistic form of aeromodeling, in its main purpose to replicate full-scale aircraft
designs from aviation history, for testing of future aviation designs, or even to realize never-built
"proposed" aircraft, is that of radio-control scale aeromodeling, as the most practical way to re-
create "vintage" full-scale aircraft designs for flight once more, from long ago. RC Scale model
aircraft can be of any type of steerableairship lighter-than-air (LTA) aviation craft, or more
normally, of the heavier-than-air fixed wing glider/sailplane, fixed-wing single or multi-engine
aircraft, or rotary-wing aircraft such as autogyros or helicopters.

Full-scale aircraft designs from every era of aviation, from the "Pioneer Era" and World War I's
start, through to the 21st century, have been modeled as radio-control scale model aircraft. Builders
of RC Scale aircraft can enjoy the challenge of creating a controllable, miniature aircraft that
merely "looks" like the full scale original in the air with no "fine details", such as a detailed
cockpit, or seriously replicate many operable features of a selected full scale aircraft design, even
down to having operable cable-connected flight control surfaces, illuminated navigation lighting on
the aircraft's exterior, realistically retracting landing gear, etc. if the full-sized aircraft possessed
such features as part of its design.

Various scale sizes of RC scale aircraft have been built in the decades since modern digital-
proportional, miniaturized RC gear came on the market in the 1960s, and everything from indoor-
flyable electric powered RC Scale models, to "giant scale" RC Scale models, in scale size ranges
that usually run from 20% to 25%, and upwards to 30 to 50% size of some smaller full scale
aircraft designs, that can replicate some of the actual flight characteristics of the full scale aircraft
they are based on, have been enjoyed, and continue to be built and flown, in sanctioned competition
and for personal pleasure, as part of the RC scale aeromodeling hobby.

Figure 2

A large (~40 inch wingspan) scale remote control P-51 Mustang.

 1.1.1 Sailplanes and gliders

Gliders are planes that do not typically have any type of propulsion. Unpowered glider flight must
be sustained through exploitation of the natural lift produced from thermals or wind hitting
a slope. Dynamic soaringis another popular way of providing energy to gliders that is becoming
more and more common. However, even conventional slope soaring gliders are capable of
achieving speeds comparable with similar sized powered craft. Gliders are typically partial to slow
flying and have high aspect ratio, as well as very low wing loading (weight to wing area ratio). 3-
channel gliders which use only rudder control for steering and dihedral or polyhedral wing shape to
automatically counteract rolling are popular as training craft, due to their ability to fly very slowly
and high tolerance to error.

Powered gliders have recently seen an increase in popularity. By combining the efficient wing size
and wide speed envelope of a glider airframe with an electric motor, it is possible to achieve long
flight times and high carrying capacity, as well as glide in any suitable location regardless of
thermals or lift. A common method of maximising flight duration is to quickly fly a powered glider
upwards to a chosen altitude and descending in an unpowered glide. Folding propellers which
reduce drag (as well as the risk of breaking the propellor) are standard. Powered gliders built with
stability in mind and capable of aerobatics, high speed flight and sustained vertical flight are
classified as 'Hot-liners'. 'Warm-liners' are powered craft with similar abilities but less extreme
thrust capability.

1.1.2 Jets

Jets tend to be very expensive and commonly use a micro turbine or ducted fan to power them.
Most airframes are constructed from fiber glass and carbon fiber. For electric powered flight which
are usually powered by electric ducted fans, may be made of styrofoam. Inside the aircraft, wooden
spars reinforce the body to make a rigid airframe . They also have kevlar fuel tanks for the Jet A
fuel that they run on. Most micro turbines start with propane, burn for a few seconds before
introducing the jet fuel by solenoid. These aircraft can often reach speeds in excess of 320 km/h
(200 mph). They require incredibly quick reflexes and very expensive equipment, so are usually
reserved for the expert.

In the U.S.A. the FAA restricts flying of such aircraft to approved AMA Academy of Model
Aeronautics sites, where only certified turbine pilots may fly. Also, the AMA requires model
aviation enthusiasts who wish to operate miniature gas turbine powered RC model aircraft, to be
certified in the operation of the type of gas turbine engine, and all aspects of safety in operating
such a turbine-powered model aircraft, that they need to know in flying their model. Some military
bases allow such high tech aircraft to fly within limited airspace such as Kaneohe Marine base in
Hawaii, and Whidbey Island NAS in Washington State.

An average turbine aircraft will cost between $150–$10,000 with more than $20,000 all-up
becoming more common. Many manufactures sell airframes such as Yellow Aircraft and
Skymaster. Turbines are produced from The Netherlands (AMT) to Mexico (Artes Jets). The
average microturbine will cost between $2500 and $5000 depending on engine output.

Smaller turbines put out about 12 lbf (53 N) of thrust, while larger microturbines can put out as
much as 45 lbf (200 N) of thrust. Radio-control jets require an onboard FADEC (full authority
digital engine control) controller; this controls the turbine, as on a full-size aircraft. RC jets also
require electrical power. Most have a lithium polymer (LiPo) battery pack at 8–12 volts that
controls the FADEC. There is also a LiPo for the onboard servos that control ailerons, elevator,
rudder, flaps and landing gear.

Of much less complexity are the types of RC jet aircraft that actually use an electric motor-
driven ducted fan instead to power the aircraft. So called "EDF" models can be of much smaller
size, and only need the same electronic speed contoller and rechargeable battery technology as
propeller-driven RC electric powered aircraft use.

Radio-controlled jet aircraft are produced in the colors of various airlines. Among the most popular
airline liveries used by modelers are those of American, Singapore, Pan Am, Etihad and Delta
Airlines.

1.1.3 Flying bird models or ornithopters

Some RC models take their inspiration from nature. These may be gliders made to look like a real
bird, but more often they actually fly by flapping wings. Spectators are often surprised to see that
such a model can really fly. These factors as well as the added building challenge add to the
enjoyment of flying bird models, though some ARF (almost-ready-to-fly) models are available.
Flapping-wing models are also known as ornithopters, the technical name for an aircraft whose
driving airfoils oscillate instead of rotate.
 1.2 Types of kits
There are various ways to construct and assemble an RC aeroplane. Various kits are available,
requiring different amounts of assembly, different costs and varying levels of skill and experience.

Some kits can be mostly foam or plastic, or may be all balsa and ply wood. Construction of wood
kits typically consists of using formers and longerons for the fuselage and spars and ribs for the
wing and tail surfaces. Many designs use solid sheets of balsa wood instead of longerons to form
the fuselage sides and may also use expanded polystyrene for the wing core covered in a
wood veneer, often balsa or obechi. Such designs tend to be slightly heavier but are typically easier
to build. The lightest models are suitable for indoor flight, in a windless environment. Some of
these are made by bringing frames of balsa wood and carbon fiber up through water to pick up thin
plastic films, similar to rainbow colored oil films. The advent of "foamies," or craft injection-
molded from lightweight foam and sometimes reinforced with carbon fiber, have made indoor
flight more readily accessible to hobbyists. EPP (Expanded Polypropylene) foam planes are
actually even bendable and usually sustain very little or no damage in the event of an accident, even
after a nose dive. Some companies have developed similar material with different names, such as
AeroCell or Elapor.

Amateur hobbyists have more recently developed a range of new model designs utilizing
the corrugated plastic or "Coroplast" material. These models are collectively called "SPADs" which
stands for Simple Plastic Airplane Design. Fans of the SPAD concept tout increased durability,
ease of building, and lower priced materials as opposed to balsa models, sometimes (though not
always) at the expense of greater weight and crude appearance.

Flying models have to be designed according to the same principles as full-sized aircraft, and
therefore their construction can be very different from most static models. RC planes often borrow
construction techniques from vintage full-sized aircraft (although they rarely use metal structures).
 Ready to fly

Figure 3

Radio-controlled model of S.E.5a W.W.1 aircraft constructed from an E-flite ARF kit (custom-
made pilot added)

Ready to fly (RTF) airplanes come pre-assembled and usually only require wing attachment or
other basic assembly. Typically, everything that is needed is provided, including the transmitter,
receiver and battery. RTF airplanes can be up in the air in just a few minutes and have all but
eliminated assembly time (at the expense of the model's configuration options.)

1.2.1 Almost ready to fly

Figure 4

This Great Planes Supermarine Spitfire LF Mk XII wears the markings of the 222 Squadron and is
an example of an almost ready to fly model

Almost ready to fly (ARF) airplanes require final assembly typically including engine and fuel tank
installation (or electric motor, speed controller, and battery), servo and pushrod installation, control
surface attachment, landing gear attachment, and sometimes require gluing the left and right wing
halves together. The average ARF airplane can be built with less than 10 to 20 hours of labor,
versus 50 to 100+ hours (depending on detail and desired results) for a typical wood kit. The
fuselage, wing halves, tail surfaces and control surfaces are already constructed. ARF airplanes
typically only include the airframe and some accessories such as pushrods, fuel tank, etc.
Therefore, the power system (glow engine, gas engine, or electric motor and any required
accessories) and radio system (servos, transmitter, receiver, and battery) must be purchased
separately.

1.2.2 Bind-N-Fly

Bind-N-Fly (BNF) aircraft are similar to Ready to fly aircraft, except they do not come with a
transmitter. Because they do not come with a transmitter, they must be bound to one instead. This is
desirable for flyers that already own a transmitter. Like RTF aircraft, Bind-N-Fly models require
minimal assembly.

There are several incompatible radio standards often found with Bind-N-Fly models. Most
commonly seen are the BNF and Tx-R designations. BNF models work with transmitters using the
DSM2/DSMX standard, and Tx-R models use the Tactic/AnyLink standard. A programmable
transmitter which can store custom parameters for multiple models is desirable so that trim and
other advanced functions do not need to be altered when switching models.

Receiver Ready (Rx-R) models are similar to BNF models in that they are mostly assembled but let
the user add their own receiver and battery, avoiding the need to deal with transmitter
incompatibilities.

1.2.3 Wood kit

Figure 5

Figure 6
 Seniorita RC model aircraft of balsa construction, with transparent heat-shrink covering revealing
the balsa inner structure

Figure 7

A large model J-3 Cub, scale RC models are often made of balsa and covered with lightweight
heat-shrinkable polyester fabric covering for a more realistic appearance.

Wood kits come in many sizes and skill levels. The wood, typically balsa and light ply, may either
be cut with a die-cut or laser. Laser cut kits have a much more precise construction and much
tighter tolerances, but tend to cost more than die-cut kits.

Wood kits include the raw material needed to assemble the airframe, a construction manual, and
full-size plans. Assembling a model from plans or a kit can be very labor-intensive. In order to
complete the construction of a model, the builder typically spends many hours assembling the
airframe, installing the engine and radio equipment, covering it, sometimes painting it, installing
the control surfaces and pushrods, and adjusting the control surfaces travels. The kit does not
include necessary tools, so they must be purchased separately. Care must be taken when building
models from wood kits since construction flaws may affect the model's flying characteristics or
even result in structural failure.

1.2.4 From plans or scratch

Planes can be built from published plans, often supplied as full-sized drawings with included
instructions. Parts normally need to be cut out from sheet wood using supplied templates. Once all
of the parts have been made, the project builds up just like a wood kit. A model plane built from
scratch ends up with more value because you created the project from the plans. There is more
choice of plans and materials than with kits, and the latest and more specialized designs are usually
not available in kit form. The plans can be scaled to any desired size with a computer or copy
machine, usually with little or no loss in aerodynamic efficiency.
 1.3 Airframe materials
Several materials are commonly used for construction of the airframe of model radio-controlled
aircraft.

The earliest model radio-controlled aircraft were constructed of wood covered with paper. Later,
plastic film such as Monokote came to be widely used as a covering material. Wood has relatively
low cost, high specific Young's modulus (stiffness per unit weight), good workability and strength,
and can be assembled with adhesives of various types. Light-weight strong varieties such as balsa
wood are preferred; basswood, pine and spruce are also used.

Carbon fiber, in rod or strip form, supplements wood in more recent models to reinforce the
structure, and replaces it entirely in some cases (such as high performance turbine engine powered
models and helicopters). The disadvantage of using carbon fiber is its high cost.
 2. Aerodynamics

2.1 How airplanes fly

The basic principles of why and how airplanes fly apply to all planes, from the Wright Brothers'
first machine Wright Flyer to a modern Stealth Bomber, and those principles are the same for radio
control and full size airplanes alike.

Although the true physics of flying airplanes are quite complex, the whole subject can be simplified
a bit - enough for us to get a fundamental understanding of what makes a plane fly, at least!

Aerodynamics of RC plane

Essentially there are 4 aerodynamic forces that act on an airplane in flight; these
are lift, drag, thrust and weight (i.e. gravity).

In simple terms, drag is the resistance of air molecules hitting the airplane (the backward force),
thrust is the power of the airplane's engine (the forward force), lift is the upward force and weight is
the downward force. So for airplanes to fly and stay airborne, the thrust must be greater than the
drag and the lift must be greater than the weight (so as you can see, drag opposes thrust and lift
opposes weight).

This is certainly the case when an airplane takes off or climbs. However, when it is in straight and
level flight the opposing forces of lift and weight are balanced. During a descent, weight exceeds
lift and to slow an airplane drag has to overcome thrust.
The picture below shows how these 4 forces act on an airplane in flight:
 Figure 8

One of the argued, but commonly discounted, theories of lift generation is related to Newton's 3rd
Law of Action & Reaction, whereby the air being deflected downwards off the lower surface of the
wing creates an opposite reaction, effectively pushing the wing upwards. This may well be the case
but it's the pressure difference between both surfaces that is the commonly agreed factor of lift
generation.

Figure 9

Above: the general movement of air over an airfoil.

The faster a wing moves through the air, so the actions are exaggerated and more lift is generated.
Conversely, a slower moving wing generally creates less lift.
It's important to note, though, that different wing designs (airfoil and shape) generate lift more (and
less) efficiently than other designs at different speeds, depending on what the plane has been
designed for.

A direct reaction to lift is drag and this too increases with airspeed. So airfoils need to be designed
in a way that maximises lift but minimises drag, in order to be as efficient as possible.

Angle of Attack and lift

Another crucial factor of lift generation is the Angle of Attack - this is the pitch angle at which the
wing sits in relation to the relative airflow around it (see pic further up this page).

As the Angle of Attack increases so more lift is generated, but only up to a point until the

2.2 Understanding RC airplane controls

The number of controls required differs between planes; the simplest rc airplanes will have just one
single control while the more complex planes may have five, six or more. Your 'average' rc plane
will have three or four controls, this is by far the most common number.

Incidentally, a controllable function of any rc model is referred to as a channel. An rc airplane with

control to, say, four functions will be called a 4 channelplane, sometimes abbreviated to just 4 ch.

Figure 10

The control surfaces are the hinged sections of the flying surfaces (wing, tailplane and fin) and each
control surface moves - up and down in the case of elevators and ailerons, and left and right in the
case of the rudder.
 2.2.1 Throttle

Figure 11

Throttle controls the speed of the engine and hence how fast or slow the propeller turns.

On a glow plug (or petrol) rc airplane engine the throttle works the same as any internal
combustion engine throttle, by changing the amount of fuel and air that enters the combustion
chamber of the engine. The carburettor is operated by a single servo connected to the venturi of the
carb, which opens and closes (thus changing the fuel/air mixture) in response to your throttle stick
movements on the transmitter.

Figure 12

Elevators should be used in conjunction with rudder and/or ailerons when making a turn, to
maintain altitude during the turn and also to get the plane to bank during the turn.
 2.2.2 Ailerons

Not all rc airplane controls include ailerons, in fact the majority of 3 channel radio control trainers
use rudder instead. But where fitted, ailerons control the roll of the airplane about its longitudinal
axis (imagine a straight line running through the centre of the fuselage, from nose to tail).

Figure 13

Ailerons work by changing the amount of lift generation over the wing. As an aileron moves
upwards so it disrupts the smooth airflow over the wing surface and so lift is reduced slightly on
that wing. Over on the other wing the aileron moves downwards and increases lift slightly. As a
result, the airplane tilts and hence rolls towards the side that's experiencing less lift.

2.2.3 Rudder

The rudder is the hinged section of the fin, or vertical stabiliser, at the rear of the airplane.
It's used for directional control by changing the yaw of the airplane and works in the correct
sense i.e. moving the rudder to the left causes the airplane to turn left and vice versa.

Figure 14
 Other RC airplane controls

Other important controls found on more complex rc airplanes includeflaps and retractable landing
gear, or 'retracts'.

Flaps

Flaps are located on the trailing edge of each wing, between the aileron and fuselage. They're used
to generate more lift at slower flying speeds and, at greater deflection, to slow the airplane down
close to landing by causing excessive drag.
Unlike ailerons, flaps are connected in such a way that they both drop exactly the same amount
together so as not to upset the roll attitude of the plane when they are deployed.

Flaps are typically operated with a toggle switch or rotating dial on the transmitter. A dial is the
better option because this allows the pilot to use as little or as much flap as he wants, according to
the situation. Flaps operated by a single position (on/off) toggle switch will be all or nothing.

The trick here is to use elevator compensation, either manually or have it mixed in the radio so that
when flaps are lowered, the elevator automatically drops slightly to help maintain the plane's path.

Figure 15
 3. Avionics

3.1 RC channel mixing

Channel mixing is another type of mixing supported by modern computer radios, whereby two
separate channels can be mixed to operate together.

Another example of a popular channel mix is to have elevator compensation with flap operation -
as the flaps are lowered, the elevators automatically deflect downwards to counteract the natural
tendency for a plane to pitch up as flaps are lowered (a result of extra lift being generated by the
lowered flaps).

3.1.1 Proportional RC airplane controls

You'll often see the word proportional when looking at radio control systems.

By proportional control, we mean that the control surfaces respond directly to how much you move
the stick of your transmitter. In other words, if you only move the stick a small amount then that
channel will only respond a small amount. Moving the stick to the maximum position will move
that channel to its maximum.

Apart from the cheapest rc toys, all modern-day radio control systems are proportional. Non-
proportional functions of an rc model or toy will be simple 'on/off' or 'left/right' functions.

3.1.2 Frequencies and sub-channels

Frequency

Frequency determines the line of communication between a receiver and transmitter. The
transmitter and receiver must both be on the same frequency so the plane can be controlled.

Reserved frequencies

Many countries reserve specific frequency bands (ranges) for radio-control use. Due to the longer
range and potentially worse consequences of radio interference, model aircraft have exclusive use
of their own frequency allocation in some countries.
3.1.3 Channels and frequency control

Traditionally most RC aircraft in the United States utilized a 72 MHz frequency band for
communication - six of these were actually on the 72 MHz band at 80 kHz separation from each
other, with one additional isolated frequency at 75.640 MHz. These remained legal to use until the
1983 FCC reform that introduced "narrowband" RC frequencies - at 40 kHz separation from 1983-
1991, and finally at 20 kHz separation from 1991 onwards, to the present day with fifty frequencies
on 72 MHz solely for flying models. The 75 MHz band became usable only for ground-based RC
modeling (cars, boats, etc.) in the same timeframe, with the transition also occurring through to
1991, having 30 frequencies available at the same 20 kHz channel separation. Canadian modelers
today flying on VHF-band RC gear use the same 72 and 75 MHz frequencies as American
hobbyists do, for the same types of models.

The transmitter radio broadcasts using AM or FM using PPM or PCM. Each aircraft needs a way to
determine which transmitter to receive communications from, so a specific channel within the
frequency band is used for each aircraft (except for 2.4 GHz systems which use spread
spectrum modulation, described below).

3.2 Regulations on use

Various countries have regulations and restrictions on model aircraft operations, even for non-
commercial purposes, typically imposed by the national civil aviation authority.

Only to be flown in daylight unless under written procedures of an authorised organisation (such as
the MAAA)

The model must remain within continuous direct sight of the operator

When within 3 nautical miles of an aerodrome or when within controlled airspace, flight is limited
to 400 ft above ground level

3.2.1 India

There are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate. You
require to be eligible for that grade. For instance, the only requirement in that is your name will be
scripted. If you have to make your own aircraft, then license is required.
 4. COMPONENTS

4.1 Components of Radio Control Plane

The basic components of a typical radio control system are thetransmitter, receiver and servos.
Battery packs, or individual cells, are needed to power all the components. However, receivers and
servos of modern electric power (EP) rc airplanes don't usually have their own battery pack because
their power is taken directly from the motor battery pack via what's known as a BEC- more on that
later.

Traditional MHz radio control systems were commonly purchased as a complete set that included
the transmitter, receiver, 4 standard servos and a battery charger - an example is shown below, in
this case theFutaba T4YF.

Figure 16

But these days it's more common to buy just the transmitter and receiver, or even just the
transmitter alone, without any servos. This is simply because servo type and size varies so much
these days, because their applications are far more varied than ever before - it would be hard for the
manufacturer to know which type of servo to put in the box, so far better to leave the choice to
pilot.
Also, many mass-produced aircraft (i.e. RTF, BNF & PNP type models) come with servos (and
receiver) already installed, so the buyer doesn't necessarily need separate ones.
4.2 Transmitter (abbreviated to 'TX')
The transmitter, commonly just called the radio, is the main box that you hold and use to control
your rc aircraft.

There are several different configurations of transmitter available within the radio control hobby in
general, the common types are shown below and are (from left to right) traditional 4+ch., single-
stick 3ch. with slide motor control, two-stick 2ch. and a pistol grip 2ch. (commonly used with
surface vehicles). By the way, the collapsible aluminium antenna on them indicates they are all
MHz ones - 2.4GHz TX's have shorter, plastic antennas a shown in the lower picture..

Figure 17
Above: a newer 2.4GHz transmitter, the popular Spektrum DX6.

For the purpose of this page we'll focus on a traditional multi-channel (4 or more) rc airplane
transmitter because that's the type you'll most likely use as you get in to the hobby, be it a MHz or
GHz one.

On a MHz transmitter there is also a collapsible antenna on top of the TX, while a 2.4GHz TX has
a much shorter antenna which doesn't collapse - it's only about 6" (150cm) long compared to the 3'
or 4' long MHz antenna. This difference in length is because 2.4GHz radio waves have a much
shorter wavelength and so require a shorter antenna.

Depending on whether or not the transmitter is computerised or not, there will be a LCD screen to
display all the relevant information to the pilot - programmed settings, menu options, battery
voltage, timer etc.etc....
If the TX isn't computerised then there will be a simple battery voltage meter or indicator lights on
the face of the TX, and no LCD display screen. The majority of transmitters these
days are computer ones, and only the most basic TX's are non-computer.
The main features of a 6 channel MHz computer TX are shown below...

Figure 18

Figure 19
Above: analogue slide/ratchet trims (left) vs. digital trim buttons (right).

As shown above, transmitter trims can be analogue (on the older radios), whereby small tabs need
to be slid one way or another and are held in place by a ratchet, or more commonly on modern
computer radios they are digital; buttons replace the tabs and when depressed each electronic 'beep'
represents one click of a traditional ratchet trim.

When any input is made by the pilot, be it moving a stick, flicking a switch or rotating a dial, a
radio signal is sent out via the transmitter's antenna and is picked up by the receiver, located inside
the model. That signal passes from the receiver directly to the servos and the end result is a
proportional movement of the airplane's control surface, throttle or whatever.
By proportional we mean that the movement of the control surface is a direct representation of how
much movement was applied at the transmitter - a small stick movement will mean little movement
of the control surface, while throwing the stick to its maximum position will mean full deflection of
the control surface (with default travel adjustments in place).
With the exception of basic toy rc transmitters, all radio control TX's are proportional to give us full
control of our models.

4.3 Receiver (abbrev. 'RX')

Figure 20

Above: a MHz RX, left, and a 2.4GHz one, right.

The receiver is located inside the model and is directly connected to each servo (and electronic
speed control - ESC - in electric planes), by fine-gauge wires.
A thin wire antenna extends from within the RX. With a MHz RX this antenna is 3' to 4' long and
must be secured, in its full length, to the outside of the plane (typically attached to the fin or
secured along the length of the fuselage).
Your average GHz RX has two much smaller antennas, not much more than an inch or so in length.

The number of connection slots on a receiver depends on the number of channels i.e. a 5 channel
RX will have 6 slots - one for each channel plus one for the battery pack connection. More complex
receivers will have more slots.

4.4 Servos

Figure 21

Above: servos come in various sizes, weights and strengths.

As previously mentioned, the number of servos in an rc model varies according to the number of
channels that the radio control gear has and the model requires.

Figure 22

Servos typically have three (sometimes 5) fine-gauge wires connecting the PCB to the receiver - a
positive, negative and signal wire which are generally colour coded according to manufacturer. The
wires run into a plastic connector, the 'flat blade' type (shown right, in this case
the Spektrum/JRtype) being the most common. This is pushed into the appropriate channel slot of
the receiver.
Note, though, that there are some compatibility issues between manufacturers although most
connectors of this general type can be modified if necessary i.e if you want to mix one brand of
servo with someone else's receiver.

Digital servos are increasingly commonplace, although analogue ones still make up the bulk of the
share. Digi servos offer faster response times (latency) and more holding power i.e the strength to
hold a large control surface against the airflow, without failing. Obviously the strength of servo
motor and gears also plays a large part in this too!

model you have, and what you want it to do.

4.5 Crystals

Figure 23

Crystals are used in the MHz radio control systems and determine which frequency channel the
radio control gear will operate on. In North America, for example, rc aircraft have a designated set
number of channels that fall in to the 72MHz frequency band, ranging from 72.010MHz to
72.990MHz. There are 50 different channels in all, spread at 20kHz intervals.
Radio control gear cells & batteries

Figure 24

While certain radio control systems can use 'disposable' (alkaline) cells, it's a better idea to
use rechargeable ones wherever possible. Although the initial cost is more, this cost is soon
recouped as rechargeable batteries have an incredibly long life of around 1000 charges. Much
cheaper in the long term!

Where possible, it's always best to use soldered and sealed packs for the TX and RX if they can
take them. The individual cells are soldered together and this greatly reduces the risk of losing a
connection, which would invariably result in your plane going out of control and crashing.

The radio control gear battery level is of paramount importance when it comes to rc flying - if even
just one of the cells has a low voltage then you will not have control over your plane for very long,
since a reduced voltage results in a very reduced radio range!

4.6 ESC
An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an electric
motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. ESCs are often used on
electrically powered radio controlled models, with the variety most often used for brushless
motors essentially providing an electronically generated three-phase electric power low voltage
source of energy for the motor.

An ESC can be a stand-alone unit which plugs into the receiver's throttle control channel or
incorporated into the receiver itself, as is the case in most toy-grade R/C vehicles. Some R/C
manufacturers that install proprietary hobby-grade electronics in their entry-level vehicles, vessels
or aircraft use onboard electronics that combine the two on a single circuit board.

Figure 25
ESC systems for brushed motors are very different by design; as a result brushed ESC's are not
compatible with brushless motors. Brushless ESC systems basically create a tri-phase AC power
output of limited voltage from an onboard DC power input, to run brushless motors by sending a
sequence of AC signals generated from the ESC's circuitry, employing a very low impedance for
rotation. Brushless motors, otherwise called outrunners orinrunners depending on their physical
configuration, have become very popular with "electroflight" radio-control aeromodeling hobbyists
because of their efficiency, power, longevity and light weight in comparison to traditional brushed
motors. However, brushless AC motor controllers are much more complicated than brushed motor
controllers.

4.7 Propeller
Propellers for rc airplanes are nothing more than vertically mounted rotating wings. Their job is to
convert the engine power in to thrust, to pull/push the plane through the air. Thrust is generated in
exactly the same way as lift is generated by the wing, and that's why props have a profile airfoil
section.

Figure 26

The picture above approximately illustrates how the Angle of Attack varies along the blade length.

RC propeller size labelling

All rc propellers are designated two measurements, both given in inches.

Figure 27
The first number is the diameter of the imaginary disc ('arc') created by the spinning prop i.e. the
length of prop from tip to tip. The second number is the pitch and this is the harder of the two to
understand - but we'll give it a go...

The pitch measurement of a prop indicates how far, in inches, that propeller will move through the
air per single revolution of the engine (i.e. every single complete turn of the prop). However, the
pitch measurement of your prop must only be taken as a guideline because real-life factors come in
to play to influence this distance eg the material of the prop, its condition, efficiency, air density on
the day etc.etc...
So, pitch measurement is really only a theoretical value but it is good enough to help you choose
the right size propeller for your airplane and your needs.

Figure 28

So you can see that selecting a different propeller pitch size is going to significantly change your
airplane's performance, with speed being the primary factor.

The diameter of the propeller (10" in the example above) will also effect how the airplane flies, but
also how the engine runs and, again, following your engine manufacturer's recommendations is the
place to start.

In this environmentally-sensitive world that we live, this is a serious consideration to take in to

account when selecting a propeller, especially if your flying site is 'noise sensitive' (eg close to
houses etc.).

4.7.1 IC propeller size recommendations

As already mentioned, following the propeller size recommendations made by your engine
manufacturer should always be your first point of reference. But there are generally recognised
prop size ranges for each engine size and these are the sizes to choose if you're unsure about
propeller selection.
The following propeller size chart (© Top Flight, reproduced with permission) is easy to use; select
your engine displacement along the bottom scale, then follow the vertical line up to the shaded area
to give the prop size range for that engine.

Figure 29

Although this chart is related to Top Flight's Power Point range of props, the size ranges suit all
brands.

4.7.2 EP propeller sizes

It's no secret that matching a prop to an IC engine is fairly easy if you follow the general size
recommendations outlined in the above chart, which have long been accepted in the hobby. Fitting
an incorrect prop would mean the engine would still run, but your plane would perform poorly.

But with the advent of electric power (EP), propeller selection became a whole new minefield!

EP prop selection is much more critical because different combinations of motors, ESCs and
battery packs can generate huge differences in operating speeds and loads.

4.8 LIPO
LiPo batteries (short for Lithium Polymer) are a type of rechargeable battery that has taken the
electric RC world by storm, especially for planes, helicopters, and multi-rotor. They are the main
reason electric flight is now a very viable option over fuel powered models.
RC LiPo batteries have four main things going for them that make them the perfect battery choice
for RC planes and even more so for RC helicopters over conventional rechargeable battery types
such as NiCad, or NiMH.

There are a few down sides with RC LiPo batteries however; once again proving there is no perfect
power solution.

RC LiPo batteries are still expensive compared to NiCad and NiMH, but coming down in price all
the time.

Although getting better, RC LiPo’s don’t last that long, perhaps only 300-500 charge cycles (much
less if not cared for properly).

Safety issues - because of the high energy storage coupled with the volatile electrolyte used in
LiPo’s, they can burst and/or catch fire when mistreated.

RC LiPo batteries require unique and proper care if they are going to last for any length of time
more so than any other battery technology. Charging, discharging, storage, and temperature all
affect the lifespan – get it wrong and a LiPo is garbage in as little as one mistake!

4.8.1 Differences in Lithium Ion (Li-Ion) Lithium Polymer (LiPo) batteries

In the RC world today, most battery packs are of the LiPo type.Li-Ion and LiPo batteries have
essentially the same chemical make-up, they both rely on lithium ion exchange between the lithium
carbon cathode & anode, and are cared for in the same way; the primary differences are in how the
cells are packaged and the type of electrolyte that is used.

Li-Ion batteries use a flammable solvent based organic liquid as the electrolyte. This electrolyte is
responsible for the lithium ion exchange between the electrodes (anode and cathode) just like any
type of battery.

LiPo hybrids use the same flat cell structure as their dry counter parts meaning they have the same
flexibility with sizes and shapes allowing for very specialized shaped battery packs perfect for use
in our RC models.
 Figure 30

Almost every RC LiPo battery cell is packaged in a pouch coincidentally called a pouch cell. The
picture to the right shows a typical 2 cell LiPo RC battery pack.

Pouch cells are the perfect solution for building multi celled battery packs since the flat pouch cell
can be stacked with no wasted air spaces like found within round celled battery packs. Of course
since LiPo’s use this light weight pouch instead of a metal can, less weight is the result making
LiPo’s the preferred choice over Li-Ion in a weight conscious application such as RC aircraft.

Figure 31

If you ever open up a LiPo pouch cell, this is what you will find. A long piece of very thin plastic
film (the polymer) with the thin lithium carbon coated aluminum & copper anode & cathode
electrodes laminated in an alternating pattern on the front and back side of the polymer separator
film. The works will be saturated in the greasy solvent based organic electrolyte.

This long film (over 7 feet long in the case of this 5000 mAh cell), is then folded accordion style
back and forth upon itself. The entire folded cell matrix is then heat sealed into the foil pouch with
all air removed along with the gelled electrolyte; which incidentally has a very sweet solvent smell
much like nail polish remover/acetone.
 5. Steps of fabrication
Fabrication of RC plane is very simple and yet very logical. For making a RC plane first thing is to
finding good material which have specifications of lightness in weight and also cost effectiveness.
A chord length of 18cm is assumed for all calculations. This fabrication mainly consists of wing
construction, Fuselage construction, Tail construction.

5.1 Wing construction

Wing construction consists of aileron and rest of the wing. According to assumed chord and ratios
of wingspan and chord, wingspan is 108cm as it is 6th times of chord length. As aileron width is
1/4th times of wingspan, it is 27cm. And aileron length is 1/4 th of chord then it will be 4.2cm.

5.2 Fuselage construction

Fuselage is hardest part to make as it needs some taper and some circular upper part. It consists of
cockpit and rest of the cockpit. In such type of RC plane cockpit is usually of 1 to 1.5 of chord
length. So cockpit is of 22 cm. And rest of the cockpit is 75% of wingspan that means its length is
75 cm. Its height is decided by taking 10 to 15% of its length means its height is 8 cm. Also its
height varies from cockpit to tail.
5.3 Tail construction

Tail construction mainly consists of two parts i.e. Horizontal Elevator and vertical elevator or
rudder. For the rudder according to RC plane fabrication manuals base of 8 cm and height of 18
cm is suitable for this type of plane. And for horizontal elevator base is 40 cm and height is 12
cm.
Next steps are to join wing, fuselage and rudder with the help of glu and faviquik. Other
electronic instruments like servos, motor, battery and electronic speed controller are joined in a
circuit. A receiver is also used for receiving signals from transmitter.
 6. Cost specification and Estimation

6.1 Our Model Specifications

 Wing span 100cm
 Fuselage length 65cm
 Dihedral angle 4.5degree
 Motor 1400Kv
 Propeller size 7X5
 Battery 1100mAh
 Servos 9g
 ESC 40A
 Radio 6Channel
 Weight 450gm
 Payload 250gm

6.2 Cost estimation

 Motor Rs. 1750
 Coro-plast Rs. 300
 ESC Rs. 905
 Servos Rs. 1100
 Battery Rs. 1155
 Propeller Rs. 220
 Radio Rs. 11000
 Radio charger Rs. 950
 Battery charger Rs. 1750
 Covering sheet Rs. 240
 Tools and Adhevies Rs. 440

Total Cost - 19810

 7. Conclusion
It has been demonstrated that a systems approach to analyzing how the RC plane functions
sheds light on how the system works and what is required to design such a complex system.
Applying concepts and modeling tools obtained from the Systems Engineering course has
allowed our team to divide and analyze our system in a top-down approach and, in some
cases, a bottom-up approach. By using these applied concepts and tools, the tables and
figures in this paper can be used to redesign and fully test the RC plane system
 8. References
1. D. M. Buede. The Engineering Design of Systems. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2009.
2. B. Kannan, M. Schulze, A. Sowers. ”Robotic Vacuum Cleaner,” Systems Engineering,
2008.
3. J. Tyson. “How Radio Controlled Toys Work,” How Stuff Works [Online].
4. Megson, T.H.G. An Introduction to Aircraft Structural Analysis. Kidlington Oxford:
Elsevier Ltd, 2007
5. Buczynski James. Propeller Selection Guide. Johnson County, N.Y.: Academic Press,
2007, pp. 252-270