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expansive soils
Geotech. Engng,
2000, 143, Oct.,
235±240
A. Sridharan, PhD, DSc and K. Prakash, PhD Paper 12075
Written discussion
& Most of the national codes of practice do applicability to many more ®elds. Many closes 21 December
not give characterization and classi®cation national standard codes of practice such as 2000
of expansive soils, in spite of expansive ASTM designation D2487-93, 2 BS 5930 3 and IS
soils being distributed very widely over 1498 4 follow this modi®ed version of the USCS Manuscript received
almost all geographical locations in the as it stands or with slight modi®cation. 8 June 1999;
world, causing distress to the structures 4. Both systems, namely modi®ed USCS and revised manuscript
accepted 5 June 2000
founded on them and discomfort to the AASHTO, base their classi®cation of soils for
users. A simple user-friendly approach engineering purposes on particle size charac-
based on the free swell ratio, de®ned as teristics, liquid limit (w L ) and plasticity index
the ratio of the sediment volume of soil in (I p ) of soils. The subgrouping of coarse-grained
distilled water to that in carbon tetra- soils is done with the help of parameters such
chloride or kerosene, is formulated con- as uniformity coecient (C u ) and coecient of
sidering the compatibility of the results curvature (C c ) to account for the gradation of
with oedometer free swell tests and the soils. The subgrouping of ®ne-grained soils is
soil clay mineralogy. Statistical illustra- entirely based on a plasticity chart (i.e. I p
tions are provided which clearly indicate plotted against w L ). In addition, some codes of
that while the assessment of soil expan- practice give some useful criteria that need to
sivity based on index properties is an be followed to obtain a rough estimation of soil
overestimation, there is a consistency in characteristics such as angularity (of coarse-
the classi®cations based on oedometer test grained soils), moisture content, consistency,
results and the proposed approach. It is cementation, dry strength, plasticity, dilatancy,
recommended that simple approaches such toughness, organic content (e.g. ASTM desig-
as the one proposed here to classify the nation D2488-93, 5 IS 1498 4 ). However, apart
expansive nature of soils are entered into from IS 1498, 4 these systems do not have the
standard codes of practice. criteria to assess the expansivity of the soil.
Table 1. Soil expansivity prediction by liquid limit soil. This does not account for variations of
density.
Degree of wL: %
9. IS 1498 4 gives a criterion to predict the
expansion
Chen 6
IS 1498 4 expansivity of soils, based on the free swell
index. 16
Low 530 20±35
Medium 30±40 35±50
Vd ÿ Vk
FSI 100
1
High 40±60 50±70 Vk
Very high 460 70±90
where V d is the sediment volume of 10 g of
oven dried soil passing a 425 mm sieve placed in
a 100 ml graduated measuring jar containing
Table 2. Soil expansivity predicted by plasticity index distilled water, and Vk is the sediment volume
of 10 g of oven dried soil passing a 425 mm
Degree of Ip : %
sieve placed in a 100 ml graduated measuring
expansion
Holtz and Gibbs 10
Chen 6 IS 1498 4 jar containing kerosene.
10. However, this method gives negative
Low 520 0±15 512 free swell indices for kaolinite-rich soils and
Medium 12±34 10±35 12±23 may underestimate the expansivity of mont-
High 23±45 20±55 23±32
morillonitic soils, if the soils contain a signi®-
Very high 432 435 432
cant amount of kaolinite clay material. To
eliminate this diculty, Sridharan et al. 17 have
de®ned the modi®ed free swell index (MFSI) as
(Table 3), free swell index (FSI) (Table 3), the ratio of equilibrium sediment volume (V d )
activity and per cent free swell.4,9±14 after 10 g of oven dried soil is mixed thor-
7. Chen 6 observed that there was no con- oughly with the distilled water to form a soil±
clusive evidence of the correlation between water suspension of 100 ml initial volume in a
swelling potential and shrinkage limit. Srid- 100 ml measuring jar and allowed to settle, to
haran and Prakash 15 have also shown that the the dry weight of the soil. Thus
shrinkage limit can not be satisfactorily used to
Vd
predict the swell potential of a soil and that the MFSI
2
mechanisms governing the shrinkage and swel- 10
ling are entirely dierent. 11. Sridharan et al. 18 have observed that the
8. Holtz and Gibbs 10 proposed the per cent sediment volume occupied by unit weight of
free swell test. It consists of pouring slowly dry soil in distilled water together with that
10 cm 3 of oven dried soil (passing a 425 mm in carbon tetrachloride provides useful infor-
sieve) into a 100 cm 3 measuring jar ®lled mation about the soil expansivity and nature
with distilled water and noting the volume of the soil typeÐexpansive/non-expansive/
of the soil after it comes to rest at the combination of both (Table 4).
bottom of the jar. The free swell is then 12. The predictive capability of the MFSI is
reported as the increase in the volume of the evident from the following statistical illustra-
soil expressed as a percentage of the initial tions. About 32 soils from various parts of
volume. The major drawback of this method, India, 16 of them kaolinitic (25% 4 w L 4 100%)
which is crude, 6 is that measuring 10 cm 3 of and the remaining 16 montmorillonitic
soil is not that easy and the procedure (47% 4 w L 4 124%), were considered for the
therefore introduces personal judgement as analysis (data from Sridharan et al. 19,20 ). These
one more factor. It is normal to quantify soils are placed on the plasticity chart as shown
10 cm 3 as the volume occupied by 10 g of in Fig. 1. It can be noted that both the kaolinitic
Degree of Colloid Shrinkage Shrinkage Free swell Per cent Per cent
expansion content 10 : limit 10 : % index 4 : % index 4 : % expansion in expansion in
% minus oedometer* oedometer{
0´001 mm as per Holtz as per Seed
and Gibbs 10 et al. 12
0±1´5
Low 517 413 515 550 510
Medium 12±27 8±18 15±30 50±100 10±20 1´5±5´0
High 18±37 6±12 30±60 100±200 20±30 5±25
Very high 427 510 460 4200 430 425
44·4%
22·2%
60 22·2%
(a) (b) (c)
40
Negligible High
20 44·4%
Very
Low
100% high
55·6%
0 Medium
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Liquid limit: %
(d) (e)
Fig. 1. Position of the soils analysed on the
plasticity chart
low to very high degree of expansivity. Plasti- Fig. 2. Prediction of
city index, activity and liquid limit predict a soil expansivity of
and montmorillonitic soils lie above and below high to very high degree of expansivity in kaolinitic soils by:
the A-line. Hence, nothing can be inferred about 55´5, 66´6 and 77´8% of cases respec- (a) liquid limit;
regarding their expansive nature just by their tively. However, the evaluations based on the (b) plasticity index;
position on the plasticity chart. MFSI given in Table 4 are in better agreement (c) activity;
with those from the oedometer tests. (d) oedometer test;
AnalysisÐphase 1 15. Figure 3 illustrates the comparison of and (e) MFSI
13. In the ®rst phase of analysis, 18 soils 19 the evaluation of the degree of expansivity of
(nine kaolinitic and nine montmorillonitic) are montmorillonitic soils by the dierent criteria. Fig. 3. Prediction of
considered. The degree of expansivity of these It can be noted that liquid limit, plasticity index soil expansivity of
soils has been assessed based on their liquid and activity greatly overestimate the soil montmorillonitic soils
limit, 6 plasticity index, activity, 14 percentage expansivity in comparison with those observed by: (a) liquid limit;
swell in the oedometer test 10 and MFSI accord- in oedometer tests. As Chen 6 quotes, while it (b) plasticity index;
ing to Table 4. Winterkorn and Fang 21 and may be true that a high-swelling soil will (c) activity;
Chen 6 suggest that the most useful and reliable manifest a high index property, the converse (d) oedometer test;
assessment of swelling capabilities for expan- need not be true. On the other hand, the and (e) MFSI
sive soils can be obtained from conventional
22·2%
oedometer tests. According to USBR, 10 the 22·2% 22·2% 22·2%
criterion for expansiveness of a soil is the total
volume change of a soil from air dry to a
saturated condition under a surcharge of 7 kPa, 11·1%
77·8%
in an oedometer. Hence, the results obtained 66·7%
from oedometer swell tests conducted on air dry 55·6%
soils assessed as per Table 3 are taken as a (a) (b) (c)
reference point.
14. Figure 2 shows the comparison of such 11·1%
Negligible High
an assessment for kaolinitic soils. While the 33·3% 44·4%
22·2%
oedometer tests assign a low degree of expan- Very
Low
sivity for those soils true to their mineralogy 33·3%
high
(note that kaolinite is a non-expansive clay 11·1%
Medium
mineral), the criteria based on liquid limit,
plasticity index and activity show a large 22·2% 22·2%
percentage of the non-expansive soils to have a (d) (e)
237
SRIDHARAN AND PRAKASH
predictions of soil expansivity based on the Modified percent Free swell ratio
expansion
proposed MFSI are again quite satisfactory.
11·1% 11·1% 11·1%
16. It is not untimely to mention that the
mechanisms controlling the liquid limit of
kaolinitic and montmorillonitic soils are
entirely dierent from each other. While the
liquid limit of a kaolinitic soil is controlled by
the particle arrangement and the interparticle 88·9%
77·8%
attractive forces, that of a montmorillonitic soil (a)
is controlled by the double layer thickness. 20,22
Hence, higher liquid limits do not necessarily
11·1%
mean expansive montmorillonitic soils. This is 22·2%
11·1%
22·2%
the reason why the liquid limit and the related
index properties, without any consideration of 22·2%
clay mineralogy, cannot satisfactorily indicate 11·1%
the soil expansivity. Instead, they may give an 55·6%
altogether dierent and wrong picture. Fig. 4. Prediction of
44·4%
17. It has been observed by the authors that (b) soil expansivity by
there are instances wherein the values of proposed oedometer
sediment volumes, obtained from free swell per cent expansion
Negligible High
tests, in water and carbon tetrachloride do not and free swell
fall into any of the categories listed in Table 5, ratio criteria for:
Low Very high
thus resulting in ambiguity. This limitation can (a) kaolinitic soils; and
be avoided by the use of the ratio of equi- (b) montmorillonitic
Moderate
librium sediment volume of 10 g oven dried soil soils
passing a 425 mm sieve in distilled water to that
in carbon tetrachloride, which is de®ned herein swelling potential observed by compacted soils
as `free swell ratio'. It is the authors' experience at maximum dry density and optimum moisture
that while dealing with the Indian black cotton content conditions, under a surcharge of 7 kPa
soils, the expansion predictions by the oed- (Table 3). In order to prove the enhanced
ometer test proposed by Holtz and Gibbs 10 are capability of the proposed free swell ratio in
slightly underestimated. With this experience, classifying the soils, the second phase of
considering the clay mineralogy of the soils, the analysis is done as follows.
authors propose a criterion for classifying the 20. Fourteen soils, 23 seven kaolinitic and
soils based on their expansive nature as shown seven montmorillonitic, compacted at standard
in Table 5. Proctor's maximum dry density and optimum
18. Figure 4 indicates the statistical predic- moisture conditions, were allowed to swell
tions of soil expansivity of 18 soils, considered under a surcharge of 7 kPa. Using the criteria of
in the ®rst phase of the analysis, by the Seed et al. 12 and that based on the proposed free
proposed classi®cation based on expansion from swell ratio, the 14 soils are classi®ed with
oedometer tests and free swell ratio. It can be respect to their expansive nature; the results
observed that the predictions based on the two are shown in Fig. 5. A very good correlation is
methods proposed match very well and also that observed between the predictions from two
the predictions based on the proposed free swell entirely dierent testing procedures which
ratio (i.e. Fig. 4) are in line with those from the indicates the acceptability of the free swell
consideration of Table 4 (i.e. Figs 2 and 3). ratio for predicting the soil expansivity.
21. The determination of sediment volume
AnalysisÐphase 2 of highly expansive soils in distilled water can
19. Seed et al. 12 have also proposed an be problematic, as such soils take a prohibi-
expansivity classi®cation based on per cent tively long time to settle. This diculty can be
238
CLASSIFICATION
PROCEDURES FOR
EXPANSIVE SOILS
34
85·7% 100%
(a)
26
14·2%
42·9%
18 Fig. 6. Comparison of
42·9%
equilibrium sediment
volumes in 0´025%
57·1% 42·9% 45˚ NaCI solution with
10
10 18 26 34 42 those in distilled
(b) Sediment volume in water: cm3 water 23
Low High
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240