electronics

Article
Design of a Low-Cost PV Emulator Applied
for PVECS
Intissar Moussa * , Adel Khedher and Adel Bouallegue
Université de Sousse, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sousse, LATIS-Laboratory of Advanced Technology and
Intelligent Systems, Sousse 4023, Tunisia; adel_kheder@yahoo.fr (A.K.); adelbouallegue@gmail.com (A.B.)
* Correspondence: intissar.moussa.essoussi@gmail.com; Tel.: +216-29-150-688




Received: 17 January 2019; Accepted: 14 February 2019; Published: 19 February 2019


Abstract: Applied tests on a real photovoltaic panel for a consolidated analysis require complex
experiment setup and permanent availability of climatic conditions. This method is ineffective
and can damage the PV system. As a result, PV emulators are highly requested in solar energy
conversion and generation research, which rests essentially on a maximum power point tracking
control algorithm (MPPT) and an adapting power stage as the DC-DC converter and PV inverter.
The PV emulator guarantees a controllable light source environment to act as a real PV system in
the laboratory. This paper deals with the study and development of an experimental PV emulator
based on logarithmic approximation of the ideal single diode model (ISDM), which is implemented
using analog electronic components. Mainly, the PV model, the controller, and the power stages,
forming the PV emulator, are described. This simple, low-cost, and efficient device is considered as a
nonlinear power supply template replacing the real PV system for any operating point irrespective
of the environmental condition changes. The emulated current-voltage and power-voltage curves
are validated via resistive load and batteries. Then, the performance of the proposed PV emulator is
evaluated by its ability to recharge properly two 12V 7 Ah batteries.

Keywords: PV emulator; logarithmic amplifier; ideal diode model; PI controller; DC power supply;
operational amplifier; batteries

1. Introduction
To reproduce I = f(V) and P = f(V) characteristics of a PV system in the laboratory for a reliable,
rapid, and efficient PV energy conversion systems analysis and improvement, two methods are
applied. The conventional one consists of developing an experimental platform using the light emitting
diode or the halogen lamp as the controllable artificial light for the PV module [1]. Consequently,
a large amount of power and a wide space area are needed to set-up the necessary equipment to
control and generate the artificial light. In addition, the test bench configuration is complex and the
temperature manipulation is not possible [2]. PV emulators are considered as alternative solutions for
the conventional emulation method. A PV emulator system represents a reconfigurable DC power
source to reproduce the output electrical characteristics of different PV module regardless of external
atmospheric conditions so that the actual PV power system operation can be validated precisely. This
tool offers a convenient ambient condition control for steady state and transient responses, which
allow simple, rapid, and accurate experiments and tests for the PV energy conversion system. There
are commercial PV emulators available in the market offering a variable power range from a PV
module to a PV array emulations such as Elgar ETS60X14C-PVF and Magna Power TSD50050240 [3,4].
Nevertheless, the major disadvantage preventing their frequent use by researchers is a high cost.
Researchers treated and discussed several methodologies of PV emulators over the years. PV cell,
module, and array emulators have been studied for about 30 years. The first PV emulator prototype

Electronics 2019, 8, 232; doi:10.3390/electronics8020232 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

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Researchers treated and discussed several methodologies of PV emulators over the years. PV
cell, module, and
was developed array
based emulators
on the have been
analog circuit studied
[5]. After that,for aboutto30
parallel theyears. The firstofPV
development emulator
technologies
prototype waselectric
related to the developed
field,based on thehave
researchers analog circuit the
improved [5]. projected
After that,studies
parallel
ontoPVthe development
emulators. of
Clearly,
technologies related to the electric field, researchers have improved the projected studies
the PV emulator, as shown in Figure 1, includes three parts called the PV model, the control strategy, on PV
emulators. Clearly,
and the power the PV emulator, as shown in Figure 1, includes three parts called the PV model,
stage.
the control strategy, and the power stage.

I
pv

I
d
V
pv
I
ph

R I
pv
s

I
d
V I
I
ph
R
p pv pv
I
sc
I
R pv
s

I I
d d
1 2
R V
I pv
ph p V V
oc pv

I
R pv
s

I I I
d d d
1 2 3
I R V
ph p pv

Figure 1.
Figure General PV
1. General PV emulator
emulator parts.
parts.

In the
In theliterature,
literature,some somePV PVemulators
emulatorsare are classified
classified based
based onontheirtheir
powerpower range
range [6–8].
[6–8]. OthersOthers
are
are categorized by PV model representation [9,10], given that PV
categorized by PV model representation [9,10], given that PV cell and its modeling are the most cell and its modeling are the most
important key
important key parts
parts of of any
any PV PV emulation
emulation structures.
structures. Whatever
Whatever the the elaborate
elaborate model, model, thethe goal
goal toto be
be
achieved is to have data in all operating conditions, which is
achieved is to have data in all operating conditions, which is derived from the PV emulator thatderived from the PV emulator that
closely mimics
closely mimics the thebehavior
behaviorof of realreal
solar cells.
solar Through
cells. Throughthe equivalent
the equivalent circuit,circuit,
many models of varying
many models of
complexity degrees have been proposed. The models started
varying complexity degrees have been proposed. The models started with the ISDM as rudimentary with the ISDM as rudimentary one
to the
one Rs -model,
to the Rs-model, thenthento tothethe
RpR-model, the two-diode model, and, finally, the three-diode model.
p-model, the two-diode model, and, finally, the three-diode model.
Relatively, the
Relatively, the more
more complicated
complicated the the model
model is, is, the
the more
more parameters
parameters number number is is important
important requiring
requiring
more computing time and use of complex algorithms by an emulator
more computing time and use of complex algorithms by an emulator to generate output results. to generate output results.
Several control
Several control strategies,
strategies, which
which affect
affect thethe PV PV accuracy,
accuracy, transient
transient response,
response, and and steady
steady state
state
response and
response and connect
connect the the PVPV model
model to to the
the power
power stage,
stage, were
were used
used to to determine
determine and and locate
locate thethe PV
PV
emulator operating point as the real PV module I = f(V) curve. In
emulator operating point as the real PV module I = f(V) curve. In References [11–13], authors used References [11–13], authors used
the direct
the direct referencing
referencing method method as as aa common
common and and simple
simple control
control method
method that that exploit
exploit the the PI
PI regulator
regulator
and power converter dynamic characteristics to find the operating
and power converter dynamic characteristics to find the operating point. However, the wrong sizing point. However, the wrong sizing
of external factors and parameters as well as their dependence
of external factors and parameters as well as their dependence cause significant oscillations at cause significant oscillations at the
the
emulator output.
emulator output. To To overcome
overcome this this problem,
problem, authors
authors in in References
References [14,15]
[14,15] havehave chosen
chosen aa fixed
fixed step
step
size of the duty cycle for controlling the PV emulator to produce a
size of the duty cycle for controlling the PV emulator to produce a more stable output. Furthermore, more stable output. Furthermore,
authors in
authors inReference
Reference[16] [16]have considered
have considered the hybrid-mode
the hybrid-mode controlled method
controlled to improve
method the dynamic
to improve the
performance of the PV emulator affected by the small step size. Despite
dynamic performance of the PV emulator affected by the small step size. Despite the oscillations that the oscillations that have
been been
have reduced and the
reduced and performances
the performances that havethatbeen
haveimproved,
been improved, this method requires
this method a complex
requires control
a complex
algorithm
control and is expensive
algorithm since two
and is expensive different
since systems are
two different controlled,
systems implemented,
are controlled, and powered.
implemented, and
The resistance comparison method determines the output resistance
powered. The resistance comparison method determines the output resistance of the PV emulator of the PV emulator digitally
across itsacross
digitally outputitscurrent
outputand voltage
current and[17].
voltageOther control
[17]. Othertechniques ensuring ensuring
control techniques a numerical reference
a numerical
current–voltage
reference generationgeneration
current–voltage are presented in References
are presented [18,19]. Although
in References [18,19].this procedure
Although thisoffers more
procedure
stable feedback, a very high computation is required and a digital
offers more stable feedback, a very high computation is required and a digital implementation implementation support with high
cost is invoiced.
support with high Thecostanalog-based
is invoiced. method is distinguished
The analog-based with rapidity,
method simplicity,with
is distinguished and rapidity,
low-cost
setup. PV emulators analog control are built around variable resistance,
simplicity, and low-cost setup. PV emulators analog control are built around variable resistance, power amplifier, the DC
power source, and the photo sensor [20–22]. A PV emulator via
power amplifier, the DC power source, and the photo sensor [20–22]. A PV emulator via curve fitting curve fitting employing a current
regulator was
employing presented
a current in Reference
regulator [23].
was presented in Reference [23].
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The power stage part can be interfaced with switching or linear components. The switching
The power stage part can be interfaced with switching or linear components. The switching power
power stage should operate in the buck mode to carefully reproduce the emulated I = f(V) curve [11]
stage should operate in the buck mode to carefully reproduce the emulated I = f(V) curve [11] such
such as the use of DC-DC buck converter, half-and-full bridge DC-DC converter, the three-phase AC-
as the use of DC-DC buck converter, half-and-full bridge DC-DC converter, the three-phase AC-DC
DC voltage source, and the current source rectifier and DC programmable power supply [24–26].
voltage source, and the current source rectifier and DC programmable power supply [24–26]. These
These emulator topologies are highly demanded in high power applications. Linear PV source
emulator topologies are highly demanded in high power applications. Linear PV source emulators are
emulators are also invoked in the literature [27]. They are excellent in dynamic response, have a wide
also invoked in the literature [27]. They are excellent in dynamic response, have a wide bandwidth and
bandwidth and high resolution, and are effective especially in low power applications. The PV
high resolution, and are effective especially in low power applications. The PV emulator is designed to
emulator is designed to predict the behavior of a real PV system to test the MPPT control algorithm
predict the behavior of a real PV system to test the MPPT control algorithm and estimate the efficiency
and estimate the efficiency of the PV energy conversion system and to study and analyze power
ofconverters
the PV energy
and PVconversion system and
system interactions to study and analyze power converters and PV system
[28–33].
interactions [28–33].
For all PV emulator templates, there is always a compromise between rapidity, efficiency,
For all PV
robustness, andemulator
complexity.templates,
The mainthere is always
objective a compromise
is to reproduce between
closely rapidity,
the behavior efficiency,
of the studied
robustness, and complexity. The main objective is to reproduce closely the
PV system. This paper presents a simple, fast, and accurate PV emulator-based analog electronic behavior of the
studied PV system. This paper presents a simple, fast, and accurate PV
component. The proposed PV emulator has a low cost compared with commercial and digital- emulator-based analog
electronic
controlledcomponent.
PV emulators.TheAproposed
logarithmicPV approximation
emulator has a of lowthecost
ISDMcompared with commercial
was considered and
in this study.
digital-controlled PV emulators. A logarithmic approximation of the ISDM was considered
The power stage that consists of the DC power supply feeding a controlled linear voltage regulator, in this study.
The
whichpower
are stage that consists of
parallel-connected to the DC power
variable supply
resistors feeding exhibits
or batteries, a controlled linear
the PV voltage
output regulator,
characteristics.
which are parallel-connected to variable resistors or batteries, exhibits the PV
The performance of the proposed PV test bench is deducted by the comparison between emulatedoutput characteristics.
The performance
curves of the
and reference proposed
ones. PV test
This paper bench is deducted
is organized as follows:bySection
the comparison
2 presents between emulated
the electrical circuit
curves
and theand reference ones.
logarithmic This paperof
approximation is organized
the ISDM. as follows:
Section Sectionthe
3 details 2 presents the electrical
methodology as wellcircuit
as the
and the logarithmic
controller design ofapproximation
the proposed PV of the ISDM. Section
emulator. 3 detailsthe
In this section, thedevice
methodology
is set upasusing
well as the
analog
controller
electronicdesign of thesuch
components proposed
as the PV emulator.amplifier
logarithmic In this section,
and linear thevoltage
deviceregulators.
is set up using analog
Experimental
electronic components such as the logarithmic amplifier and linear voltage regulators.
tests, operation evaluation, and system performance are discussed in Section 4. We finish this paper Experimental
tests, operation
by some evaluation,
remarks and system performance are discussed in Section 4. We finish this paper by
and conclusions.
some remarks and conclusions.
2. PV Model and Characteristics
2. PV Model and Characteristics
Photon absorption from light, electron charges release and a part of solar energy conversion into
Photon absorption from light, electron charges release and a part of solar energy conversion into
electricity are ensured by the key components of the PV systems such as the PV cells. However, the
electricity are ensured by the key components of the PV systems such as the PV cells. However, the
remaining energy of the photon will produce heat lost in the PV module and increase the temperature
remaining energy of the photon will produce heat lost in the PV module and increase the temperature
of the cell. In general, commercial PV modules are housed on metal, and are then covered with anti-
of the cell. In general, commercial PV modules are housed on metal, and are then covered with
reflective coating to minimize the reflection as well as a special laminate for mechanical protection.
anti-reflective coating to minimize the reflection as well as a special laminate for mechanical protection.
For the PV system representation, two types of the PV model are considered either the electrical
For the PV system representation, two types of the PV model are considered either the electrical
circuit model, which includes the PV electricity model and the PV thermal model [34,35], or the
circuit model, which includes the PV electricity model and the PV thermal model [34,35], or the
interpolation model. Figure 2 presents a description of the PV model type in PV emulator
interpolation model. Figure 2 presents a description of the PV model type in PV emulator applications.
applications.

PV Model type

Electrical circuit
Interpolation model model

Simplified model Diode characteristic

Parameter extraction Environment factor

Figure 2. Description of the PV model type considered in PV emulator applications.

Figure 2. Description of the PV model type considered in PV emulator applications.
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The PV
The interpolation modelisisa mathematical
a mathematical functionthat that interceptsthe the shortcircuit
circuit current
The PV
PVinterpolation
interpolation model
model is a mathematical function function that intercepts
intercepts the short
short circuit current
current
andthe
and the open
open circuit
circuit voltage
voltage for
for producing
producing thethe
I =I f(V)
= f(V) characteristiccurve
characteristic curveofofthe
the
PV PV module.Many
module. Many
and the open circuit voltage for producing the I = f(V) characteristic curve of the PV module. Many
researchers
researchers have considered this model in the PV emulator establishment [14,36,37].
researchershave
haveconsidered
consideredthis
thismodel
modelin inthe
thePV PVemulator
emulatorestablishment
establishment[14,36,37].
[14,36,37].
Accordingtotothe
According theKirchhoff
Kirchhofflawlaw[38],
[38],thethePVPVcharacteristic
characteristicequation
equation is derivedthrough
through the
According to the Kirchhoff law [38], the PV characteristic equation isis derived derived through the the
analyticalmethod
analytical methodand andananelectrical
electrical circuit
circuit represents
represents the the PV
PV model.
model. The
The single
single diode
diodemodel
model is is
the
analytical method and an electrical circuit represents the PV model. The single diode model is the
primitive,
the primitive,common,
common, and popular PV model. In this work, we have used the ideal single diode model
primitive, common, andand popular
popular PV model.
PV model. In thisInwork,
this work, we used
we have have the
used the single
ideal ideal single
diode diode
model
to describe
model to and emulate
describe and the PV
emulate module
the PV characteristics.
module characteristics.
to describe and emulate the PV module characteristics.
The photocurrent,IphIph,
The comesfrom
from a photovoltaiceffect effect thatdepends
depends onthe the semiconductor
The photocurrent,
photocurrent, Iph,, comes
comes from aa photovoltaic
photovoltaic effect that that depends on on the semiconductor
semiconductor
material
material absorption capacity as well as the incident irradiation flux [39]. The ISDM model is depicted
materialabsorption
absorptioncapacity
capacityasaswell
wellas
asthe
theincident
incidentirradiation
irradiationflux
flux[39].
[39].The
TheISDM
ISDMmodel
modelisis depicted
depicted
inin Figure 3.
inFigure
Figure3.3.
I
I pv
pv

I
I d
I d V
I ph D V pv
ph D pv

Figure 3. Electrical circuit of the ISDM.

Figure 3. Electrical circuit of the ISDM.
Figure 3. Electrical circuit of the ISDM.
The output current of the ideal single diode model is given by Equation (1).
The output current of the ideal single diode model is given by Equation (1).
The output current of the ideal single diode modelis qV given by Equation
 (1).
pv
I pv = I ph − Id = I ph − I0 e akT 
(  qV)pv 
 qV pv −
 akT  1 (1)
  akT   
I Ipvpv==I Iphph−−I dI d==I Iphph−−I 0I 0 e e  −−11  (1)
(1)
 
 
where Id is the well-known Shockley diode current, I0 is the saturation current, q is the electron’s charge
Where Id isisthe well-known Shockley isdiode current, I0 isconstant,
the saturation Tcurrent, q is the
the junction
electron’s
constant
Where Id isathe
value, the diode ideal
well-known factor, kdiode
Shockley the current,
Boltzmann’s and current,
I0 is the saturation represents q is the electron’s
charge constant
temperature. value,
Clearly, thisamodel
is the requires
diode ideal factor,
three k is the which
parameters, Boltzmann’s , constant,
are Iphconstant,
I0 , and aand and
in T represents
order to perfectlythe
charge constant value, a is the diode ideal factor, k is the Boltzmann’s T represents the
junction temperature. Clearly, this model requires three parameters, which are I ph, I0, and a in order
characterize the I = f(V)Clearly,
junction temperature. output curve [40]. Graphically,
this model requires threeas illustrated
parameters, in Figure
which 4, areIpvIphcan
, I0, be
and determined
a in order
bytothe
perfectly characterize
superposition of thethe I = f(V)
curve output
vertical curve [40].
translation Graphically,
determined by as
I illustrated
and the exponential Ipv can
in Figure 4,shape
to perfectly characterize the I = f(V) output curve [40]. Graphically, asphillustrated in Figure 4, Ipv can
be determined
defined by Id . by by the superposition of the curve vertical translation determined by Iph and the
be determined the superposition of the curve vertical translation determined by Iph and the
exponential shape defined by Id.
exponential shape defined by Id.
I (A) Id(A) I (A)
Iphph
(A) Id(A) Ipvpv
(A)

-- ==

V (V) V (V) V (V)

Vpvpv
(V) Vpvpv
(V) Vpvpv
(V)

Figure 4. Photocurrent and diode current superposition.

Figure 4. Photocurrent and diode current superposition.
Figure 4. Photocurrent and diode current superposition.
The nonlinear Equation (1) requires a numerical method to be solved. As an approach proposed
The nonlinear
by Reference Equation (1)
[41], equations requires a numerical method
(2)–(4)toto be solved. As an approach proposed
The nonlinear Equationas(1)expressed
requires aby Equations
numerical method could be calculated
be solved. by analyzing
As an approach the
proposed
by Reference
manufacturer [41],
featuresequations
and the as expressed
real measured byI Equations
= f(V) curve (2)–(4)
of thecould
PV be calculated
module. As a by analyzing
typical example,the
by Reference [41], equations as expressed by Equations (2)–(4) could be calculated by analyzing the
manufacturer
the Solarex MSX-60features and
60Wand the real
module will measured
be used to I = f(V) curve of the PV module. As a typical example,
manufacturer features the real measured I =illustrate
f(V) curveandofverify
the PVthis study. As
module. a typical example,
the Solarex MSX-60 60W module will be used to illustrate and verify this study.
the Solarex MSX-60 60W module will be used to illustrate and verify this study.
GIsc
I ph = GInsc(1 + k i ( T − Tn )) (2)
(( ))
I =GI
Gnscn n 1 + k (T − T )
I ph = G 1 + ki (T − Tn )
ph i n (2)
(2)
Gn n
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=
(( II −I
sc − Isc
scn ) )
kkii =
sc n (3)
(3)
T −− Tn
T
n
qVg
− qVg
33 −
1 1  1 )
1
Iscn I sc TT aa ak ak ( − −
 
I0 = I =  TT Tn  Tn
Tn  e
n  e (4)
0 qVocnqVoc
 n
   Tn 
(4)
e  enakT−n 1−1
 akT
 
 
where G and Gn are, respectively, the incident solar irradiance and the solar irradiance at Standard
where G and Gn are, respectively, the incident solar irradiance and the solar irradiance at
Conditions Test (STC) (1000 W/m2 ), I and2 Iscn are the short circuit current, and the short circuit
Standard Conditions Test (STC) (1000 sc W/m ), Isc and Iscn are the short circuit current, and the short
current at STC, respectively, ki is the temperature coefficients of the short circuit current, Vocn is the
circuit current at STC, respectively, ki is the temperature coefficients of the short circuit current, Vocn
open circuit voltage at STC, Vg is the energy band, and Tn is the temperature at STC (25 ◦ C). Typical
is the open circuit voltage at STC, Vg is the energy band, and Tn is the temperature at STC (25 °C).
I = f(V) and P = f(V) curves plotted under STC using SIDM are shown in Figure 5.
Typical I = f(V) and P = f(V) curves plotted under STC using SIDM are shown in Figure 5.

4 60

3
40
P (W)
I (A)

2
pv

pv

20
1

0 0
5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
V (V) V (V)
pv pv
(a) (b)

Figure 5. Typical PV characteristics under STC: (a) I = f(V) and (b) P = f(V).
Figure 5. Typical PV characteristics under STC: (a) I = f(V) and (b) P = f(V).
The PV modules simulation under real climate conditions remains difficult because the software
The PV
part must bemodules simulation
very efficient under
since the real of
inertia climate conditions
temperature andremains difficult
irradiation because and
is important the software
requires
part must be very efficient since the inertia of temperature and irradiation is important and
more time to be simulated. Therefore, researchers consider the variation of their profiles constant or by requires
more time
the level toto be simulated.
characterize the Therefore,
behavior ofresearchers consider the variation of their profiles constant or
these systems.
by the level to characterize the behavior of these systems.
3. PV Emulator Methodology and Controller Design
3. PV Emulator Methodology and Controller Design
To emulate the behavior of real PV systems in the laboratory, either the PV current is expressed as
To emulate
a function of T, G,the behavior
and of real PV
Vpv as already systems in
widespread or the
we laboratory, either the
express PV voltage PV current
versus is expressed
T, G, and Ipv . These
as a function of are,
representations T, G,respectively,
and Vpv as already widespread
an exponential or we express
or logarithmic form.PVThe
voltage versus
proposed PVT,emulator
G, and Ipvis.
These
designedrepresentations
based on analog are,circuits,
respectively,
which isanconstructed
exponentialaround
or logarithmic
operational form. The proposed
amplifiers, PV
logarithmic
emulator
amplifier, is designed
variable basedadjustable
resistors, on analoglinear
circuits, which
voltage is constructed
regulator, the DC around operational
power supply, amplifiers,
and power loads
logarithmic amplifier, variable resistors, adjustable linear voltage regulator, the DC power
to reproduce Vpv = (T,G,Ipv ) data. Figure 6 presents the general block structure of this PV emulator. supply,
and power loads to reproduce Vpv = (T,G,Ipv) data. Figure 6 presents the general block structure of this
PV emulator.
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I
pv

R
1

V
in AN
s
−
16.7 V
pv

Generalstructure
Figure6.6.General
Figure structureofofthe
theproposed
proposedPV
PVemulator.
emulator.

3.1. Output PV Characteristic Voltage for Linear Voltage Regulator Adjustment

3.1. Output PV Characteristic Voltage for Linear Voltage Regulator Adjustment
By manipulating the logarithm function, Equation (1) is rewritten as:
By manipulating the logarithm function, Equation (1) is rewritten as:
I ph − I pv + I0
 
Vpv = aNs Vt ln I − I + I 0  (5)
V pv = aN sVt ln  ph Ipv0  (5)
 I0 
kT
where Vt = is the thermal voltage and Ns is the number of series PV cells.
q kT
where V =
Considering
t is the
I0 << I phthermal voltage and
− I pv , Equation (1) isNs is the number
simplified of series PV cells.
as follows:
q
Considering I 0 << I ph − I pv , Equation (1) is simplified
I ph − as
I pvfollows:
 
Vpv = aNs Vt ln (6)
I0
 I ph − I pv 
V pv = aN(6)
Mathematical development of Equation lngiven
sVt is  by:  (6)
 I0 
V = aNs Vt ln( I ph − I pv ) − aNs Vt ln( I0 ). (7)
Mathematical development pv
of Equation (6) is given by:
The PV emulator is designedVpv =around
aN sVt ln( I ph − I pv linear
adjustable ) − aNvoltage
sVt ln( I 0 )
regulators to provide a malleable
(7)
output voltage ensuring an accurate imitation of the PV module characteristics. . The output voltage
is controlled by an external
The PV emulator circuit.
is designed The controller
around adjustableislinearimplemented to lead a measured
voltage regulators to providecurrent at the
a malleable
systemvoltage
output outputensuring
as close an
as possible
accurate to the reference
imitation of the PVcurrent.
moduleMoreover, in orderThe
characteristics. to compensate the
output voltage
isvoltage dropby
controlled across the resistor
an external R1 , which
circuit. is equal to
The controller 1.25 V, the output
is implemented PV voltage
to lead is reduced
a measured byat1.25
current theV
determining
system outputthe
as output
close asPVpossible
characteristic
to the voltage
reference as current.
a reference voltage of
Moreover, in the emulator
order as expressed:
to compensate the
voltage drop across the resistor R1, which is equal to 1.25 V, the output PV voltage is reduced by 1.25
V determining the output VPV re f = aNs Vt ln( I ph −
characteristic I pv ) − as
voltage ln( I0 ) − 1.25
aNsaVtreference voltage of the emulator as (8)
expressed:
3.2. PV Emulator Component Controller Modeling
Vare=modeled
Essentially, two parts ref
− I pv )devices
aN sVt ln(byI phanalog − aN sVin
t ln( I ) − 1.25
the0 proposed PV emulator such as(8)the
controller which contains the PV model type, i.e., the output PV characteristic voltage, the PI regulator,
andPV
3.2. treatment
Emulatorfeedback signals
Component stage and
Controller the power stage represented by linear voltage regulators, the
Modeling
DC power supply, and power loads. The current sensor allows us to measure the load current. Then,
Essentially, two parts are modeled by analog devices in the proposed PV emulator such as the
the treatment circuit will process and adapt the corresponding voltage image in order to achieve the
controller which contains the PV model type, i.e., the output PV characteristic voltage, the PI
considered mathematical equation by carefully using the analog component. The obtained voltage
regulator, and treatment feedback signals stage and the power stage represented by linear voltage
is subtracted, through operational amplifiers and resistors, from the reference photocurrent, Iph *.
regulators, the DC power supply, and power loads. The current sensor allows us to measure the load
A logarithmic amplifier consists of operational amplifiers and transistors, as presented in Figure 7. This
current. Then, the treatment circuit will process and adapt the corresponding voltage image in order
circuit provides a logarithmic output for a given input and contributes to reproducing the reference
to achieve the considered mathematical equation by carefully using the analog component. The
voltage Vref .
obtained voltage is subtracted, through operational amplifiers and resistors, from the reference
photocurrent, Iph*. A logarithmic amplifier consists of operational amplifiers and transistors, as
Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15

presented
Electronics in 8,
2019, Figure
7. This circuit provides a logarithmic output for a given input and contributes
232 7 of to
15
reproducing the reference voltage Vref.

Figure 7. Electrical circuit of the logarithmic amplifier.

Figure 7. Electrical circuit of the logarithmic amplifier.
The logarithmic amplifier’s output is a function of:
The logarithmic amplifier’s output is a function of:
R + R12
Eout = 10
R10R+12R12 (VBE2 − VBE1 ) (9)
Eout = (VBE 2 − VBE1 ) (9)
Rthe inherent logarithmic relationship between collector
Logarithmic amplifier principle is based on 12
currents Ic1 and Ic2amplifier
Logarithmic and the voltages VBE1
principle and VBE2
is based on in theinherent
the two bipolar transistors
logarithmic T1 and T2 , given
relationship by
between
the following
collector equation.
currents Ic1 and Ic2 and the voltages VBE1 and VBE2 in the two bipolar transistors T1 and T2,
kT I
given by the following equation. ∆VBE = VBE2 − VBE1 = Ln c1 (10)
q Ic2
The output voltage describing the logarithmic circuitkT I is written as Equation (11).
operation
ΔVBE = VBE 2 − VBE1 = c1
Ln (10)
kT E R I
q
Eout = − 16.7 ln in 13 c 2 (11)
q VDZ R9
The output voltage describing the logarithmic circuit operation is written as Equation (11).
R13
Given that kT
≈ 1, and the input logarithmic E R E = I ph − I pv then
amplifier
VDZ R9 Eout = − 16.7 ln in 13 in (11)
q VDZ R9
kT
R13 Eout = − 16.7 ln Ein (12)
Given that ≈ 1, and the input logarithmic
q amplifier E in = I ph − I pv then
VDZ R9
Some practical values are given in Table 1.
kT
Table 1. Practical valuesEout = −
components 16.7ln
of Ein
the logarithmic amplifier circuit. (12)
q
Symbol Value
Some practical values are given in Table 1.
R9 100 kΩ
R13 700 kΩ
Table 1. Practical values components
VDZ of the
6.9 logarithmic
V amplifier circuit.

Symbol Value
Some developments allow us to rewrite REquation
9 100(8)
kΩas follows:

aNs R13 700 kΩ

Vre f = − Eout − aNs Vt ln( I0 ) − 1.25 (13)
16.7VDZ 6.9 V

Some developments allow us to rewrite Equation (8) as follows:

aNs
Vref = − Eout − aNsVt ln(I0 ) −1.25 (13)
16.7
 Electronics
Electronics
Electronics 2018,
Electronics2018,
2018, 7,
7,xxxxFOR
2018,7,
7, FOR PEER
FORPEER
FOR REVIEW
PEERREVIEW
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 8888of
of
of15
of 15
15
15
Electronics 2018,8,7,232
Electronics2019, x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of 15
15

Giventhat
Given
Given thatthe
that thereal
the realPV
real PVoperating
PV operatingarea
operating areais
area islocated
is locatedbetween
located between60%
between 60%and
60% and80%
and 80%of
80% ofits
of itsopen
its opencircuit
open circuitvoltage
circuit voltage
voltage
Given that the real PV operating area is located between 60% and 80% of its open circuit voltage
Given 1
1
1
thatIIIscthe real PV operating area is located
V
VVocococ
ocandand
and from
from
from 11 scscsc,,, the
the
the proposed
proposed
proposed PV emulator
PV
PV emulator
emulator shouldbetween
should
should imitate
imitate 60% and 80%
imitate properly
properly
properly the
the of
PVits
the PV
PV open circuit voltage
characteristics
characteristics
characteristics in this
in
in this
this
V oc and from2 2
2 I sc, the proposed PV emulator should imitate properly the PV characteristics in this
Voc and from 2 Isc , the proposed PV emulator should imitate properly the PV characteristics in this
interval.In
interval.
interval. Inorder
In order2 to
order toachieve
to achieveaaasmooth
achieve smoothtransition
smooth transitionbetween
transition betweenthe
between thedifferent
the differentcomponents
different componentsof
components ofthe
of theemulator,
the emulator,
emulator,
interval.
interval. In In order
order to to achieve
achieve aa smooth
smooth transition
transition between
between the the different
different components
components of of the
the emulator,
emulator,
E
EEin ≥≥≥000..Clampers
Clampersare
in ≥ 0.. Clampers
Clampers areused
are usedat
used atthe
at theoutput
the outputof
output ofthe
of thecurrent
the currentcontroller
current controllerto
controller toprotect
to protectand
protect andmaintain
and maintain
maintain acceptable
acceptable
acceptable
E Ein ≥ 0 . Clampers are used at the output of the current controller to protect and maintain acceptable
in in
in are used at the output of the current controller to protect and maintain acceptable
voltagesat
voltages
voltages atthe
at theemulator
the emulatoroutput.
emulator
emulator output.Synoptic
output.
output. Synopticdiagram
Synoptic
Synoptic diagram
diagram
diagram of
ofof
of the
the
the
the proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed PV
PVPV
PV emulator
emulator
emulator
emulator based
based
on on
based
based onEquation
on Equation
Equation
Equation (13)
voltages at the emulator output. Synoptic diagram of the proposed PV emulator based on Equation
(13)
(13)
(13) isdepicted
is
is
is depicted depicted
depicted ininFigure
in
in Figure Figure
8. 8.
Figure 8.
8.
(13) is depicted in Figure 8.
IIII
pvpv
Ipv
pv
pv
IIII RRRR
ajust
ajust 1111
IIII **** ajust
ajust R
phph
phph
I *
I
ajust 1 VVV
ph V pv
pv
pv
pv

aNaN
aN
aN
−−−− ssss RRRR
aN
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7 cccc
− s R
VVV 16.7 c
Vin
in
in aN
aN
aN VVVln( ln(III )))
ln(
in aNsssstVttt ln(00I00 )
aN V ln( I )
s t 0

IIII ****
phph
phph
I *
ph

Figure
Figure
Figure 8.
Figure8.
8. Detailed
8.Detailed
Detailed synoptic
Detailedsynoptic diagram
synopticdiagram
synoptic of
diagramof
diagram the
ofthe
of proposed
theproposed
the PVemulator.
proposedPV
proposed PV emulator.
emulator.
Figure 8. Detailed synoptic diagram of the proposed PV emulator.
4.Practical
4.
4.
4. PracticalImplementation
Practical
Practical Implementationand
Implementation
Implementation andExperimental
and
and ExperimentalResults
Experimental
Experimental Results
Results
Results
4. Practical Implementation and Experimental Results
Inorder
In
In
In orderto
order
order totoverify
to verify
verify
verify the
the
the the operation
operation
operation
operation ofthe
of
of of proposed
the
the the proposed
proposed
proposed PV
PV PV emulator,
PVemulator,
emulator,
emulator, a practical
aaapractical
practical
practical implementation
implementation
implementation
implementation of ofofMSX-
MSX-
MSX-of
MSX-60 In order
module to verify
features thehas
operation
been of theout.
carried proposed
Based PVanalog
on emulator, a practical
electronic implementation
components, the PV emulatorof MSX-
60 module
60
60 module features
module features has
features has been
has been carried
been carried out.
carried out. Based
out. Based on
Based on analog
on analog electronic
analog electronic components,
electronic components, the
components, the PV
the PV emulator
PV emulator
emulator
60 moduleoperates
controller featuresashas been the
follows: carried
HX50-P out.sensor
Basedensures
on analog the electronic
current components,
acquisition and, the PV emulator
subsequently, an
controlleroperates
controller
controller operatesas
operates asfollows:
as follows:the
follows: theHX50-P
the HX50-Psensor
HX50-P sensorensures
sensor ensuresthe
ensures thecurrent
the currentacquisition
current acquisitionand,
acquisition and,subsequently,
and, subsequently,
subsequently,
controller operates
amplifier-based as follows:
circuit will process the HX50-P
and sensorthe
condition ensures
recovered the current
image acquisition
voltage. I and,
* is subsequently,
introduced and
anamplifier-based
an
an amplifier-basedcircuit
amplifier-based circuitwill
circuit willprocess
will processand
process andcondition
and conditionthe
condition therecovered
the recoveredimage
recovered imagevoltage.
image voltage.
voltage.ph IIIphph
ph
ph***is
isintroduced
is introduced
introduced
an amplifier-based
adjusted via avia circuit will
potentiometer andprocess
a voltage and condition
divider to the recovered
calculate the input image voltage.
voltage, Iphthe
Einvoltage,
, of * islogarithmic
introduced
and
and
and adjusted
adjusted
adjusted via aaa potentiometer
via potentiometer
potentiometer and aaa voltage
and
and voltage
voltage divider
divider
divider toto calculate
to calculate
calculate the input
the
the input
input voltage,
voltage, EEEinininin,,, of
of the
of the
the
and adjusted
amplifier via
circuit. a
The potentiometer
latter is made and a
around voltage
a divider
double to
amplifier calculate
LF412 the input
component, voltage,
which Eoperates
in, of the
logarithmicamplifier
logarithmic
logarithmic amplifiercircuit.
amplifier circuit.The
circuit. Thelatter
The latteris
latter ismade
is madearound
made aroundaaadouble
around doubleamplifier
double amplifierLF412
amplifier LF412component,
LF412 component,which
component, which
which
logarithmic
even witheven amplifier
a very circuit.
lowaaainput The latter is insensitive
made around a double amplifier LF412 component, which
operates
operates
operates even
even with
with
with veryvoltage
very
very low input
low
low andvoltage
input
input is
voltage
voltage and is
and
and toinsensitive
is
is noise,
insensitive
insensitive given tothat
to
to noise,operational
noise,
noise, given that
given
given amplifiers
that
that operational
operational
operational were
operates
designed to even with
perform a very
mathematical low input voltage
operations and
in analog is insensitive
calculators. to noise,
The output given that
voltageThe operational
variation of
amplifiers
amplifiers
amplifiers were
were
were designed
designed
designed to perform
to
to perform
perform mathematical
mathematical
mathematical operations
operations
operations in analog
in
in analog
analog calculators.
calculators.
calculators. The output
The output
output
amplifiers
the logarithmicwereamplifier,
designed E toasperform
a function mathematical
of its input operations
voltage E , in
and analog
some calculators.
other blocks are The validated output
voltage variation
voltage
voltage variation of
variation of the
of the logarithmic
the logarithmic amplifier,
out
logarithmic amplifier, EEEout
amplifier, out
out as aaa function
outas
as function
function in of of its
of its input
its input voltage
input voltage EEEinininin,,, and
voltage and some
and some
some
voltage variation
experimentally, asof the logarithmic
illustrated in Table amplifier,
2. as Eout as a function of its input voltage Ein, and some other
other
other
other blocksare
blocks
blocks arevalidated
are validated
validated experimentally,
experimentally,
experimentally, asillustrated
as illustratedin
illustrated inTable
in Table2.
Table 2.
2.
blocks are validated experimentally, as illustrated in Table 2.
Table2.
Table
Table
Table 2. Experimentalresults
2.Experimental
2. Experimental
Experimental resultsof
results
results ofthe
of
of thePV
the
the PVemulator
PV
PV emulatoras
emulator
emulator asdifferent
as
as differentblock
different
different block circuits.
blockcircuits.
block circuits.
circuits.
Table 2. Experimental results of the PV emulator as different block circuits.
BlockA
Block
Block
Block A
A
A Block B
Block
Block
Block BB
B Block
BlockC
Block
Block CC
C Block FF
Block
Block
Block FF
4444 Block A 1111 Block B 2020
20
20
Block C 3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
Block F
1919
19 3333
33334 0.5
0.5
0.5 19
0.51 20 3.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
refa (V))
(V ) (V )

(A)
I (A) (A)
IIIppppvvvv(A)
refa (V

1818
18
(V))))

18
EE in (V(V

(V)
(V)
E out(V)
E in (V ) EEininin (V

3
out(V)

22223 19
refa
Vrefa

000
00.5 2222
out
EEout

V
V refa (V ) VV
E

1717
17
17 2.5
I p v (A)

1.5
1.51.5
1.5
1111 18
E out(V)

2 -0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.50 1616
16
16 11112
17
0000 1515
15
15 0.51.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.51
0.5
0.5 1111 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5 2222 2.52.5
2.5
2.5 3333 3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5 -1-1
-1
-1 -1-1-1
-1 -0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5 0000 0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5 1111 1515
15
15 1616
16
16 1717
17
17 1818
1818 1919
19
19 2020
20
20
-0.5
0000 1111 2222 3333 4444 16 EEout
EEout (V)(V) 1 VVV
Vref (V)
(V)
(V)
IIpvIpv (A)
(A)
Ipv(A)
pv(A) EEinEE(V) (V)
(V)
ininin(V)
out(V)
out (V) ref (V)
ref
ref

0 15 0.5
0.5 EEE
1 in
inin=
in =f(I
=1.5 f(Ipv
f(Ipv )))) 2.5
2pv
pv
pv 3 3.5 -1
0 EEEout1=
out
out
out ==f(E
f(E2inin
f(E in
in )))
in 3 4 -1 V
Vrefa
V refa
refa
refa == f(E
-0.5= f(E
f(E0out
out
out
out))) 0.5
out 1 15 IIIIpv
16 =
pv
pv
pv f(V
===f(V
f(V
17 ref))18))
ref
ref
ref 19 2
Ipv(A) Ein(V) Eout (V) Vref(V)

By
By
By Figure
ByFigure
Figure9,
Figure 9,
9, we
9,we
we present
wepresent
present theelectrical
presentthe
the
the electricalscheme
electrical
electrical schemeof
scheme
scheme ofthe
of
of thePV
the
the PVcontroller.
PV
PV controller.
controller.
controller.
Ein = f(Ipv) Eout = f(Ein) Vrefa = f(Eout) Ipv = f(Vref)

By Figure 9, we present the electrical scheme of the PV controller.

Electronics 2018,8,
Electronics2019, 7, 232
x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of
9 of 1515

vcc +vcc
+vcc

Iph
R5 Ein=(Iph – Ipv)

+vcc
R4 -vcc

Ipv +vcc
+vcc
-vcc

R8
+vcc

R3
R6 R7
Current Ipv
Sensor -vcc
-vcc

R2 -vcc
-vcc

R1
a

Ic1 VBE1 VBE2 Ic2 R13 R14 Vcc

T1 T2
+vcc
C1 R11 C2
D1
+vcc

Ein R9
R10
-vcc

R12
-vcc
Eout b

VDD
vcc

Va R23

0v

R18
+vcc
vcc
+vcc

Vb VDD
VDD

R17
R22
R26
Vref a
-vcc
R15 VDD
-vcc
0v
R24 D2
R16 vcc VDD
0v

R20
+vcc
R25
Eout +vcc

R19 0v

R21

-vcc
0v

Clamper
c
-vcc

(Iph-Ipv) R32 C3
R35
+vcc +vcc
+vcc

Iph R27
+vcc
+vcc
+vcc

R31 R34
+vcc

R36 V ref b
R28
-vcc
-vcc
R33
-vcc
-vcc D3
-vcc
-vcc
R29 R30
Ipv PI regulator Clamper d

Vref a
R36 +vcc
+vcc

Vref b Vref
R37

-vcc
-vcc
R40

R38 R39
e

Figure 9. Electrical schematic analog components of the PV emulator controller legend: (a) Treatment
Figure 9. Electrical schematic analog components of the PV emulator controller legend: (a) Treatment
circuit. (b) Logarithmic amplifier circuit. (c) PV characteristic voltage. (d) PI controller circuit.
circuit. (b) Logarithmic amplifier circuit. (c) PV characteristic voltage. (d) PI controller circuit. (e)
(e) comparator circuit.
comparator circuit.
Electronics 2019, 8, 232 10 of 15
Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

The power
The power circuit
circuit is is based
based on on the
theLM338
LM338 regulators,
regulators, which
which are
are able
able to
to support
support 55 AA over
overan anoutput
output
voltage range of 1.2 V to 32 V. Parallel-placed linear regulators have been
voltage range of 1.2 V to 32 V. Parallel-placed linear regulators have been completed to enhance thecompleted to enhance the
emulator output
emulator output current,
current,asasshown shown in in
Figure 10, which
Figure allows
10, which us to us
allows reproduce the PVthe
to reproduce modules parallel
PV modules
connection topology.
Electronics 2018, 7, For
x FOReach
PEER variation,
REVIEW the flowing current in the load corresponds
parallel connection topology. For each variation, the flowing current in the load corresponds to the to the emulated
10 of 15 PV
current. Experimental
emulated PVThecurrent. results were
Experimental compared
resultswith the Matlab/Simulink module simulation. An initial
power circuit is based on the LM338were compared
regulators, which arewith
able tothe Matlab/Simulink
support 5 A over an output module
irradiance
simulation. level was
An initial
voltage
set to
range ofirradiance
the STC
1.2 V to 32 level
value and we
was set to the
V. Parallel-placed
have
STC
linear
considered
value and
regulators
both
havewebeen
loads
have as the
considered
completed
variable
boththe
to enhance
resistors
loads as
andvariable
the batteries.resistors
emulator output and batteries.
current, as shown in Figure 10, which allows us to reproduce the PV modules
parallel connection topology. For each variation, the flowing current in the load corresponds to the
emulated PV current. Experimental results were compared with the Matlab/Simulink module
simulation. An initial irradiance level was set to the STC value and we have considered both loads as
the variable resistors and batteries.

Figure 10. Parallel-placed LM338 regulators in the PV emulator power stage.

Figure Figure 10. Parallel-placed
10. Parallel-placed LM338
LM338 regulatorsin
regulators in the
the PV
PVemulator
emulatorpower stage.
power stage.
In order to validate the experimental results, we have considered that the PV emulator operates
In order to validate the experimental results, we have considered that the PV emulator operates
InSTC
under order to validate
with a constantthetemperature
experimental andresults, we haveequal
an irradiation considered ◦C that the PVW/m
emulator
2 operates
under STC with a constant temperature and an irradiation equaltoto25
25 °C and
and 1000
1000 W/m2 to to obtain
obtain the
under STC
emulated with a
electrical constant temperature
characteristics I = f(V) and
and P =an irradiation
f(V). A photo equal
of the to
PV 25 °C
emulator andis 1000 W/m
presented
the emulated electrical characteristics I = f(V) and P = f(V). A photo of the PV emulator is presented
2 to obtain
in Figure 11.
the emulated
The simulation electrical
in Figure characteristics
parameters of the Solarex
11. The simulation I = f(V) and P
polycrystalline
parameters = f(V). A
of the Solarex silicon photo of
PV module
polycrystalline the
siliconarePV emulator
PVlisted inare
module Tableis
listedpresented
3. in
in FigureTable
11. The
3. simulation parameters of the Solarex polycrystalline silicon PV module are listed in
Table 3.

Figure 11. Photo of the experimental test bench.

Electronics
Electronics 2018,
2018, 7,
7, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 11
11 of
of 15
15

Electronics 2019, 8, 232 Figure

Figure 11.
11. Photo
Photo of
of the
the experimental
experimental test
test bench.
bench. 11 of 15

Table
Table 3.
3. Manufacturing
Manufacturing PV
PV module
module parameters
parameters of
of Solarex
Solarex MSX-60.
MSX-60.
Table 3. Manufacturing PV module parameters of Solarex MSX-60.
Typical
Typical Electrical
Electrical Characteristics
Characteristics Temperature
Temperature Characteristics
Characteristics
Typical Electrical Characteristics Temperature Characteristics
Designation
Designation Value
Value Designation
Designation Value
Value
Designation Value Designation Value
Maximum
Maximum power
power (P max)
(Pmax ) 60
60 W
W Temperature
Temperature coefficient
coefficient of
of power
power −(0.5)%/°C
−(0.5)%/°C
Maximum power (Pmax ) 60 W Temperature coefficient of power −(0.5)%/◦ C
Voltage
Voltageat
Voltage at P
at PPmax (V
max(V
max )
mp) )
(Vmp
mp 17.1
VV
17.1
17.1 V Temperature
Temperature
Temperature coefficient
coefficient
coefficient of V
of Vovof Vov −(80)mV/
ov −(80)mV/°C
◦C
−(80)mV/°C
Current at PPmax ◦C
Current max(I(Imp)) ) 3.53.5
AA Temperature coefficient of I (0.065)%/
Current atat Pmax (Impmp
3.5 A Temperature
Temperature coefficient
coefficient sc of Isc
of Isc (0.065)%/°C
(0.065)%/°C
Open-circuit voltage (Voc ) 21.1 V Nominal operating cell temperature 49 ◦ C
Open-circuit
Short-circuitvoltage
Open-circuit current(V
voltage (V oc))
(Iscoc ) 21.1
A V
21.1
3.8 V Nominal
Nominal operating
Operatingoperating cell temperature
cell temperature
interval temperature ◦
[−40 C,+85 49°C
◦ C]
49°C
Short-circuit
Short-circuit current (Iscsc))
current (I 3.8
3.8 A
A Operating
Operating interval
interval temperature
temperature [−40
[−40 °C,+85
°C,+85 °C]
°C]
The experimental PV characteristics shapes plotted under STC using resistive load are shown in
The
The experimental PV characteristics shapes plotted under STC using resistive load are shown in
Figure 12.experimental PV characteristics shapes plotted under STC using resistive load are shown in
Figure
Figure 12.
12.
4 60
4 60

3
3
40
40

(W)
(A)

PPpvpv(W)
Ipv(A)

2
2
Ipv

20
20
1
1

0 0
00 5 10 15 20 25 00 5 10 15 20 25
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
V
Vpv (V) V (V)
pv(V) Experimental results
Experimental results
Vpv
pv (V)
(a)
(a) (b)
Simulation results
Simulation results (b)

Figure 12. PV emulated characteristics using the resistor load under STC: (a) I = f(V) curve.
Figure
Figure 12.
12. PV
PV emulated
emulated characteristics
characteristics using
using the
the resistor
resistor load
load under
under STC:
STC: (a)
(a) II == f(V)
f(V) curve.
curve. (b)
(b) P
P ==
(b) P = f(V) curve.
f(V) curve.
f(V) curve.
The level of irradiation was set for the photovoltaic emulator via the potentiometer. From the
The
The level
level of
of irradiation
irradiation was
was set
set for
for the
the photovoltaic
photovoltaic emulator
emulator via the
the potentiometer. From the
analysis, we have some findings regarding the performance of thevia potentiometer.
proposed emulator. From
Since the
the
analysis,
analysis, we have some findings regarding the performance of the proposed emulator. Since the
operatingwe have
point some
of the PVfindings
module regarding
is measured thebetween
performance
60% and of 80%
the proposed
of Voc , thisemulator.
emulator Since
is ablethe
to
operating
operating point
point of
of the
the PV
PV module
module is
is measured
measured between
between 60%
60% and
and 80%
80% of
of V
V oc ,, this
this emulator
emulator is
is able
able to
to
repeat the simulated PV module dynamic behavior with acceptable accuracy. Afterward, two 12V
oc
repeat
repeat the
the simulated
simulated PV module dynamic behavior with acceptable accuracy. Afterward, two 12V 77
7 Ah batteries placed PV module
in series anddynamic
partiallybehavior with
discharged acceptable
have replaced accuracy.
the resistor Afterward,
load. The two 12V
results are
Ah
Ah batteries
batteries placed in series and partially discharged have replaced the resistor load. The results are
illustrated inplaced
Figurein13.series and partially discharged have replaced the resistor load. The results are
illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 13.
13.
44 60
60

33
40
40
(W)
(A)

PPpvpv(W)
Ipv(A)

22
Ipv

20
20
11

00 00
55 10
10 15
15 20
20 25
25 00 55 10
10 15
15 20
20 25
25
V
Vpv (V) V (V)
pv(V) Simulation
Simulation results
results
Vpv
pv(V)
(a)
(a) Experimental (b)
(b)
Experimental results
results

Figure
Figure 13.
13. PV
PV emulated
PV emulated characteristics
emulated characteristics using batteries
using batteries under
batteries under STC:
under STC: (a)
(a) III === f(V)
STC: (a) curve. (b)
f(V) curve. (b) P
P ==
= f(V)
f(V) curve.
f(V) curve.
curve.

Note that
Note that the
the obtained
obtained II = f(V) and
= f(V) and P
P === f(V)
f(V) characteristics
f(V) characteristics from
characteristics from the
from the emulator
emulator near
near the
the operating
operating
point of the
point of
of theMSX-60
the MSX-60PV
MSX-60 PVmodule
PV module
module areare
are very
very
very close
closeclose
to to simulated
to simulated
simulated onesones
ones for for load
for this
this this type.
load load
type. type.
The The results
The results
results agree,
agree,
agree, which proves the efficiency and accuracy of the designed emulator system by analog electronic
Electronics 2019, 8, 232 12 of 15
Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

which proves the efficiency and accuracy of the designed emulator system by analog electronic
components. During the emulation experiment via batteries, as given in Figure 14, current, Ibat and
components. During the emulation experiment via batteries, as given in Figure 14, current, Ibat and
voltage, Vbat were plotted as a function of the recharge time of the batteries while the generated battery
voltage, Vbat were plotted as a function of the recharge time of the batteries while the generated battery
voltage is plotted versus the current battery.
voltage is plotted versus the current battery.
3 24 24

2.5
22 22

2
20 20

Vbat(V)
Ibat(A)

Vbat(V)
1.5

18 18
1

0.5 16 16

t(min) t(min) Ibat(A)

0 14 14
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 1 2 3
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14. Batteries recharging profiles versus time: (a) Ibat . (b) Vbat . (c) battery generated voltage.
Figure 14. Batteries recharging profiles versus time: (a) Ibat. (b) Vbat. (c) battery generated voltage.

At the beginning of the recharging process, the current, Ibat , is limited and the voltage, Vbat ,
At the beginning of the recharging process, the current, Ibat, is limited and the voltage, Vbat,
increases slightly until reaching regulated voltage. Afterward, the second so-called filling phase
increases slightly until reaching regulated voltage. Afterward, the second so-called filling phase is
is ensured and the battery voltage remains perfectly stable while the battery current decreases.
ensured and the battery voltage remains perfectly stable while the battery current decreases. The
The recharging process is completed when the Ibat falls below the threshold, which is defined according
recharging process is completed when the Ibat falls below the threshold, which is defined according
to the battery nature. Batteries behave as a voltage generator, as presented in Figure 14c, which
to the battery nature. Batteries behave as a voltage generator, as presented in Figure 14c, which
represents the electrical characteristic Vbat = f(Ibat ) of the batteries. Consequently, the behavior of the
represents the electrical characteristic Vbat = f(Ibat) of the batteries. Consequently, the behavior of the
proposed PV emulator based on the analog components is validated and the batteries are successfully
proposed PV emulator based on the analog components is validated and the batteries are successfully
recharged through this experimental device.
recharged through this experimental device.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusion
In this paper, a low cost PV emulator based on ideal single diode model linearization was
In this Apaper,
presented. detailed a low
studycostwas
PV carried
emulator outbased on ideal mathematical
by analyzing single diode modelequations linearization was
and electrical
presented. circuit
equivalent A detailed study was of
representation carried out by analyzing
the constructed PV source.mathematical
The proposed equations
emulatorand has
electrical
been
designed to precisely reproduce accurate I = f(V) and P = f(V) characteristics of a typical 60 Wbeen
equivalent circuit representation of the constructed PV source. The proposed emulator has PV
designed to precisely reproduce accurate I = f(V) and P = f(V) characteristics
module in the laboratory at different load and environmental conditions by evaluating the transient of a typical 60 W PV
module in the laboratory at different load and environmental conditions
and steady state responses. Mainly, two stages are considered in the proposed work. The emulator by evaluating the transient
and steadystage
controller state consists
responses. of aMainly, two stages
PI regulator are considered
and logarithmic in the proposed
approximation of thework. The emulator
PV characteristic
controllerwhich
voltage, stage isconsists of a PI through
implemented regulatoranalog
and logarithmic approximation
electronic components, of the PV
whereas the characteristic
power stage
voltage, which is implemented through analog electronic components,
includes a DC power supply, linear voltage regulators, resistive load, and a series whereas the of
power stage
connected
includes a DC power supply, linear voltage regulators, resistive load,
batteries. The emulator was extended to emulate three photovoltaic modules, which are connected in and a series of connected
batteries.The
parallel. Thecomparison
emulator was extended
between the to emulatePV
reference three photovoltaicand
characteristics modules, which are
experimental connected
results shows
in parallel. The comparison between the reference PV characteristics and experimental
that the emulated output results are highly similar to the transient response for both resistive load results shows
and
that the emulated output results are highly similar to the transient response
batteries. The batteries as load type of the PV emulator and the recharging process prove the emulator for both resistive load
and batteries.As
performance. The batteries
a result, the as load type
proposed of the
control PV emulator
strategy provides and the recharging
a perfect matchingprocess prove the
among simulated
emulator performance. As a result, the proposed control strategy provides a
curves by ensuring simple, fast, and accurate emulation of the PV characteristic near the PV operatingperfect matching among
simulated
points. Thecurves
emulator by ensuring
developed simple,
in thisfast,
study andis accurate emulation
a useful device of the
for the PV characteristic
researcher near the
and the industrial
PV operating points. The emulator developed in this study is a useful device
sector that can support future studies about PV energy conversion system applications. The proposed for the researcher and
the industrial sector that can support future studies about PV energy conversion
experimental test bench has the advantage of high bandwidth, which is an essential criteria for testing system applications.
The proposed
high frequencyexperimental
MPPT algorithms. test bench has the advantage of high bandwidth, which is an essential
criteria for testing high frequency MPPT algorithms.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, I.M. and A.K. Methodology, I.M. and A.B. Software, I.M. Validation,
I.M. and A.K. Investigation, I.M. Writing—original draft preparation, I.M. Writing—review and editing, A.K.
Visualization, I.M. Supervision, A.K.
Electronics 2019, 8, 232 13 of 15

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, I.M. and A.K. Methodology, I.M. and A.B. Software, I.M. Validation,
I.M. and A.K. Investigation, I.M. Writing—original draft preparation, I.M. Writing—review and editing, A.K.
Visualization, I.M. Supervision, A.K.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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