NSW Education Standards Authority

Mathematics Advanced Year 12

Calculus Topic Guide

The Mathematics syllabuses are the documents used to inform the scope of content that will
be assessed in the HSC examinations.

Topic Guides provide support for the Mathematics Stage 6 courses. They contain information
organised under the following headings: Terminology; Use of technology; Background
information; General comments; Future study; Considerations and teaching strategies;
Suggested applications and exemplar questions.

Topic Guides illustrate ways to explore syllabus-related content and consequently do not
define the scope of problems or learning experiences that students may encounter through
their study of a topic. The terminology list contains terms that may be used in the teaching and
learning of the topic. The list is not exhaustive and is provided simply to aid discussion.

Please provide any feedback to the Mathematics and Numeracy Curriculum Inspector.

Effective from 2019 Year 11, and Term 4, 2019 Year 12

Date published December 2018

Revision date NA
Contents
Contents ................................................................................................................................2

Topic focus ............................................................................................................................4

Terminology ..........................................................................................................................4

Use of technology.................................................................................................................4

Background information ......................................................................................................4

General comments ...............................................................................................................5

Future study ..........................................................................................................................6

Subtopics ..............................................................................................................................6
MA-C2: Differential Calculus ................................................................................................................ 7

Subtopic focus ................................................................................................................................. 7

C2.1: Differentiation of trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions .................................... 7

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 7

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 8

C2.2: Rules of differentiation................................................................................................................ 8

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 8

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 8

MA-C3 Applications of Differentiation .................................................................................................. 9

Subtopic focus ................................................................................................................................. 9

C3.1: The first and second derivatives ................................................................................................ 9

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 9

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 10

C3.2: Applications of the derivative ................................................................................................... 10

Considerations and teaching strategies ....................................................................................... 10

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 11

MA-C4 Integral Calculus ................................................................................................................. 11

Subtopic focus ............................................................................................................................... 11

C4.1: The anti-derivative .................................................................................................................... 12

Considerations and teaching strategies ....................................................................................... 12

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 12

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 2 of 16
 C4.2: Areas and the definite integral ................................................................................................. 13

Considerations and teaching strategies ....................................................................................... 13

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 15

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 3 of 16
Topic focus
The topic Calculus involves the study of how things change and provides a framework for
developing quantitative models of change and deducing their consequences. It involves the
development of two key aspects of calculus, namely differentiation and integration.

The study of calculus is important in developing students’ capacity to operate with and model
situations involving change, using algebraic and graphical techniques to describe and solve
problems and to predict outcomes in fields such as biomathematics, economics, engineering
and the construction industry.

Terminology
anti-differentiation
approximation
area under a curve
asymptote 
average value of a function
concavity 
concave down
concave up
definite integral
derivative function
equation of a normal
equation of a tangent
even function minimum turning point
first-derivative test odd function
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus optimisation
global maxima point of inflection
global minima polynomial function
horizontal point of inflection primitive function
indefinite integral rational power
integration second derivative
limits of integration stationary point 
local maximum sub-interval
local minimum symmetry properties
maximum turning point trapezoidal rule

Use of technology
While ‘by-hand’ skills for solving equations and curve sketching are essential for students in
this course, graphing calculators or graphing technologies are a suitable means of exploring
many of the concepts studied in this topic and their use is encouraged in teaching and learning.

Interactive and dynamic demonstrations of graphical and geometrical representations of

integrals, for increasing numbers of sub-intervals, are readily available online, and provide
stimulus material for introducing the concepts in this topic. Spreadsheets can be used to
investigate the same ideas.

Computer algebra software can be used to perform the integration process and may be useful
for checking results.

Background information
The development of calculus primarily centred on the solutions of two types of problems: (i)
finding the gradient at a point on a curve and (ii) finding the area enclosed by curved
boundaries. In the 17th and 18th centuries Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (1646–1716) independently developed the foundations of calculus. While they are
credited with the ‘invention’ of calculus their work built upon the basic theory of differentiation
and integration from mathematicians across the world, such as Archimedes

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 4 of 16
(287 BC–212 BC), Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665), Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), James
Gregory (1638–1675) and Isaac Barrow (1630–1677). What separates Leibniz and Newton
from the mathematicians who predated their discoveries is that they connected, in general
terms rather than just graphical terms, that differentiation and integration are inverse processes
and connected areas under curves and functions.

Much of the notation today used to represent differentiation and integration is attributed to the
work of Leibniz. He used 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦 to represent infinitesimal increments in 𝑥 and 𝑦, where 𝑑
was from the Latin word differentia, meaning differential (infinitesimal distance). For integration
𝑏
he introduced the notation ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 which was an elongated form of ‘𝑆’ , which was the first
letter of the word Summa meaning summation, to indicate the sum of infinitely many
infinitesimals of 𝑓(𝑥). Newton used dot notation 𝑥̇ for differentiation with respect to time and
two dots for the second derivative, 𝑥̈ , and so on.

While there are many varying perspectives on who specifically created the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, four key mathematicians associated with it were Newton, Leibniz,
Gregory and Barrow. Each of these mathematicians, independently but concurrently,
developed the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Interestingly only Leibniz provided an
argument for the antiderivative version.

Exploration of development of differential and integral calculus may be of interest to students. It

is an intriguing part of mathematical history that showcases how, independently but at around
the same time, multiple mathematicians extended the field of calculus and the challenges
which occurred as a result of pride and ownership.

General comments
The material in this topic builds on the related content from the Mathematics Advanced Stage 6
Syllabus, including the Year 11 topics of Functions, Calculus, Trigonometric Functions and
Exponentials and Logarithms.

This topic includes essential skills for the further study of Mathematics. Calculus can be divided
into differential calculus, which was introduced in the Year 11 course, and integral calculus.
Integral calculus is concerned with obtaining primitive functions by the opposite process to
differentiation, and with calculating the overall change in a quantity by summing small
elements. Differential and integral calculus are connected together by the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus allows anti-derivatives, also
known as primitive functions, to be used to calculate overall changes in quantities given their
rate of change, even if that rate of change is not constant.

In order to introduce the calculus of trigonometric functions, teachers can choose from a range
of methods, including graphical and numerical demonstrations, as well as analytical proofs,
depending on the interests and prior knowledge of their students.

Students will not be required to reproduce the differentiation of the trigonometric functions by
first principles, nor formal proofs of related results, although teachers may demonstrate this if
they feel that it is appropriate. It is expected that students will be shown reasons for these
𝑑
results based at least on graphical evidence in the case of 𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 and

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥, and use the quotient rule to derive 𝑑𝑥 tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥.

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 5 of 16
Students explore further the relationship between geometrical and analytical properties of
functions, where it will be found useful to consider examples in which the graphs of y = f (x )
and y = f ' (x) are drawn so that visual transfer of information occurs easily. They progress to
the sketching of graphs of functions using information about their derivatives, and to
formulating appropriate conclusions in solving a range of problems about optimisation.

In more advanced work, critical points of a function are described as points where the first
derivative is zero or does not exist. This course is concerned only with simple functions that
may have stationary points, most often well within their domain. Mention may be made of the
3
behaviour of the first derivative at critical points, such as (0,0) for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 , and at end points
of domains, such as (0,0) for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥.

Students would benefit from a dynamic, visual introduction to the ideas of integration.
Geometrical representation assists in understanding the development of this topic, but a
careful development of the ideas is required so that students can see that integration has many
applications, not only in Mathematics but also in other fields such as the sciences and
engineering.

Although the ideas leading to a formal definition of the definite integral are to be discussed and
illustrated with examples, use of the formal definition itself is not required.

For some students, teachers may find it useful to use the language necessary and sufficient
conditions, eg what are the necessary and sufficient conditions for a turning point to exist at a
given point for a differentiable function?

Future study
Students need to ensure that they can efficiently determine and use calculus to describe and
interpret the behaviour of functions and find areas under curves to solve problems to facilitate
work in later topics.

The application of integral calculus to all functions within the scope of this course is met in the
Year 12 Calculus topic and will be built upon in Extension 1 and Extension 2 Calculus topics.

For students studying Mathematics Extension 1, this topic can be taught in conjunction with or
just prior to ME-C2.

Subtopics
 MA-C2: Differential Calculus
 MA-C3: Applications of Differentiation
 MA-C4: Integral Calculus

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 6 of 16
MA-C2: Differential Calculus

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to develop and apply rules for differentiation to a variety
of functions.

Students develop an understanding of the interconnectedness of topics from across the

syllabus and the use of calculus to help solve problems from each topic. These skills are then
applied in the following subtopic on the second derivative in order to investigate applications of
the calculus of trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions.

C2.1: Differentiation of trigonometric, exponential and

logarithmic functions

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ Angle measures, representations and conversions –This relates to content covered in
in MA-T1 (T1.2).
˗ Exponential and logarithmic functions –This relates to content covered in in MA-E1
(E1.1, E1.3).
 Students should be aware that the use of radian measure is fundamental to the calculus of
trigonometric functions.
 It is recommended that teachers choose a method for establishing the results in this
subtopic based on the abilities and interests of their students. If formal proofs of the
derivatives of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are not demonstrated, students should at least be shown
their development based on the shapes of the graphs and the location of turning points.
sin(𝑥+0.001)−sin 𝑥
 It could be demonstrated that the graph of is an approximation to the graph
0.001
of the derivative of sin 𝑥, as shown in the following graph (produced using GeoGebra):

sin(𝑥)
 The result 𝑥 → 1 as 𝑥 → 0, where 𝑥 is in radians, could be established both empirically,
with calculator values, and theoretically and the differentiation of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 from first
principles may be demonstrated, but students are not expected to reproduce it.
 To establish the derivative of the natural logarithm, a light treatment of the geometrical
consequences of the fact that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 are inverse functions is sufficient
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
to show graphically that 𝑑𝑥 (when 𝑦 is defined as a function of 𝑥) and 𝑑𝑦 (when 𝑥 is the
𝑑𝑥 1
corresponding inverse function of 𝑦) are related by 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦 . If 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 then 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 .
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 1 1
Since 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑦 then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 7 of 16
 Note that exponential growth and decay are investigated in Mathematics Extension 1.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 An object is attached to the end of a vertical spring. The object is released at time 𝑡 = 0
and its position at time 𝑡 is given by 𝑓(𝑡) = 5 cos 𝑡. Find the velocity and acceleration of the
object and describe its motion.
 Donald is using the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2.55 + 14.6 ln 𝑥 to model the percentage of women in
the workforce of the USA, for the years between 1960 and 2002, with 𝑥 being the number
of years after 1950. In this context, find and interpret the values of 𝑓(12),
𝑓′(12), 𝑓(22), 𝑓′(22). Use your results to describe how the number of women in the
workforce has changed over the time period. Suggest reasons for your answer.

C2.2: Rules of differentiation

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ Logarithmic laws –This relates to content covered in in MA-E1 (E1.2)
 The derivation of the derivative of tan 𝑥 should be shown:
𝑑 𝑑 sin 𝑥
(tan 𝑥) = ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥(cos 𝑥)−sin 𝑥(−sin 𝑥)
= cos2 𝑥

cos2 𝑥+sin2 𝑥
=
cos2 𝑥

1
= cos2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Investigate the family of functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 for various sets of values of 𝑛 and 𝑘, eg
𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, … and 0 < 𝑘 < 1.
 A range of questions should be experienced in order to practise the techniques. For
example, find the derivatives of:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(3𝑥 + 5)
(b) 𝑓(𝑡) = cos2 𝜋𝑡
𝑥
(c) 𝑦 = 5 tan (7)

(d) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −0.5𝑡 sin 2𝑡

(e) 𝑦 = 5 log(5 − 𝑥)
(f) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥° (following conversion to radians).

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 8 of 16
MA-C3 Applications of Differentiation

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to introduce the second derivative, its meanings and
applications to the behaviour of graphs and functions, such as stationary points and the
concavity of the graph.

Students develop an understanding of the interconnectedness of topics from across the

syllabus and the use of calculus to help solve problems such as optimisation, from each topic.
The solution of optimisation problems is an important area of applied mathematics and involves
the location of the maximum or minimum values of a function.

C3.1: The first and second derivatives

Considerations and teaching strategies

 The geometrical significance of the sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) is to be understood, including the
determination of whether or not 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing or decreasing.
 As the derivative has been introduced geometrically as the gradient of the tangent to a
curve, a geometrical argument is all that is needed to establish that a function is
increasing, where the first derivative is positive (and vice versa).
 A stationary point of 𝑓(𝑥) is defined to be a point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) where the tangent
𝑑𝑦
is parallel to the 𝑥-axis. At such a point, 𝑑𝑥 = 0. A turning point of 𝑓(𝑥) is a point where the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is locally a maximum or a minimum. For differentiable functions, all turning
points are stationary; but there are stationary points of some functions at which the tangent
‘crosses the curve’ and which are not turning points. Therefore, the criterion for a turning
point is the change in sign of 𝑓′(𝑥), and the identification of the type of stationary point
should be made by considering the sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) on either side of the point. This is known
as ‘the first-derivative test’.
 A useful way to represent and set out the first-derivative test is using a table.
For example, determine the nature and position of the local maxima/minima of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 11.
Solution: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 11, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 at 𝑥 = 3
Construct a gradient table:

𝑥-value 2.9 3 3.1

𝑑𝑦
–0.2 0 0.2
𝑑𝑥
Direction of curve

The directions of the curve indicate that the turning point is a local minimum.
Some students may prefer to use 3 − 𝜀 and 3 + 𝜀 instead of particular values, and to use
the factorised form 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 3) to determine the sign of the derivative.

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 9 of 16
 The geometrical significance of the sign of the second
derivative can be established by drawing a series of
tangents that are, for example, all positive and all
increasing. The curve that has such tangents will be
concave upwards. The rate of change of the gradients of
these tangents is positive, so the derivative of the first
derivative is positive.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
 If 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0 over an interval, the curve is concave upwards over that interval, and if 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0
over an interval, the curve is concave downwards over that interval.
𝑑2 𝑦
 At a point of inflection, the sign of 𝑑𝑥 2 changes when passing through the point.
 The second derivative may be used to distinguish between maximum and minimum turning
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
points. The criterion should be used with caution, since the conditions = 0, 2 ≠ 0 are
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sufficient but not necessary. For example, 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 has a minimum point at the origin where
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0. On the other hand, the curve 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3 has a horizontal point of inflection
at 𝑥 = 1.
˗ It may be useful to use the language necessary and sufficient conditions. For example,
what are the necessary and sufficient conditions for a turning point to exist at a given
point for a differentiable function?
𝑑2 𝑦
 Some students will find it interesting to explore curves that have points at which 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥
but the sign of the second derivative does not change and there is no stationary point. For
example, explore the behaviour of 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 4 at 𝑥 = 0.
 Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity, and velocity is defined as the rate
of change of displacement. To avoid ambiguity, when the largest magnitude of
displacement, velocity or acceleration is required, the wording ‘greatest magnitude’ should
be used.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 9 by identifying stationary points
and determining their nature.
1
 By considering the sign of the first derivative, show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = is
3𝑥−2
decreasing throughout its domain.
 In certain contexts, the point of inflection identifies a significant change in the function. For
example, in the case of a graph of increasing revenue against time that is initially concave
up and changes to concave down, a point of inflection indicates the time at which the rate
of increase in revenue reached its maximum and started to decrease. Students could
interpret the meaning of a point of inflection in such contexts.

C3.2: Applications of the derivative

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Students should practise sketching the graphs of functions such as quadratics, cubics and
higher polynomials, and simple rational functions after identifying key values such as the 𝑥-
and 𝑦-intercepts, locating the stationary points and determining their nature.
Other key considerations include symmetry about the axes, behaviour for very large
1
positive and negative values of 𝑥, and the values of 𝑥 for which functions such as 𝑦 = 𝑥−1,

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 10 of 16
 1 1
𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 are not defined.
Students may find it useful to create their own acronyms to help remember key steps,
important values, processes and the information they need to explore in such problems.
 Problems on maxima and minima should include the identification of turning points for
curves, the finding of maximum and minimum values of given functions over different
intervals and over their domains, and the treatment of problems for which the appropriate
function to be analysed is to be constructed from data given in words or on a diagram.
 Examples of types of questions could include applications from finance and business. It
may be necessary to assume that a continuous function can be used to model discrete
variables. Adjustments to the solution may be necessary. For example: ‘A tourism
company constructs tours for groups of 20 to 50 people. For groups of 20, the price is $380
per person. The price per person is reduced by $12 for each additional person over 20.
What size group will produce the largest revenue for the company?’

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 By finding stationary points and their nature and intercepts on axes, sketch the curve 𝑦 =
𝑒 −𝑥 sin 2𝑥 over the domain 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
1
 Consider the curve 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3
(a) Find any stationary points and determine their nature.
(b) Find any points of inflection.
(c) Sketch the curve for −1.5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.5, indicating where the curve crosses the x-axis.
(d) For what values of 𝑥 is the curve concave down?
 A box without a lid is made by cutting out four equal squares from the corners of a sheet of
heavy card, then folding up the sides. If the card has dimensions 20 cm by
10 cm, what are the dimensions of the box with largest volume that can be constructed in
this way?
 A right circular cone is inscribed in a sphere of radius 𝑎,
centred at 𝑂. The distance from the base of the cone to
the top of the sphere is 𝑥 and the radius of the base is
𝑟, as shown in the diagram.
(a) Show that the volume, 𝑉, of the cone is given by
1
𝑉 = 3 𝜋(2𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ).

(b) Find the value of 𝑥 for which the volume of the

cone is a maximum. Give reasons why this value of
𝑥 gives the maximum volume.
 Investigate functions of the form 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0, and 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑡𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0
which may both be used to model the amount of a drug in the bloodstream after a dose of
the drug has been taken. Where are the maximum turning points in each case? Where are
any inflection points?

MA-C4 Integral Calculus

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to introduce the anti-derivative or indefinite integral and to
develop and apply methods for finding the area under a curve, including the Trapezoidal rule

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 11 of 16
and the definite integral, for a range of functions in a variety of contexts.

Students develop their understanding of how integral calculus relates to area under curves and
a further understanding of the interconnectedness of topics from across the syllabus.
Geometrical representation assists in understanding the development of this topic, but careful
sequencing of the ideas is required so that students can see that integration has many
applications, not only in mathematics but also in other fields such as the sciences and
engineering.

C4.1: The anti-derivative

Considerations and teaching strategies

 By ‘working backwards’, the fact that anti-derivatives for a given function may differ by a
constant can be established. A more formal approach may also be used:
Let 𝐹(𝑥) be an anti-derivative function (or primitive function – often simply referred to as
the primitive) of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑
Since 𝑑𝑥 (𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐) = 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), it follows that if 𝐹(𝑥) is an anti-derivative function of 𝑓
then 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐, for any constant 𝑐 , is also an anti-derivative of 𝑓. The functions 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐
represent a family of curves which all have the same derivative.
 The anti-derivatives (or primitive functions) can be found in most situations once the
function is known. Although the method of integration involving formal substitutions is not
required in this course, students will be expected to establish results such as
1
∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 by differentiating a suitable function.
𝑓′ (𝑥)
 The integration of 𝑓(𝑥)
by inspection, without a formal change of variable, is required.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

𝑑𝑦
 A function 𝑦(𝑥) has the derivative 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1, and 𝑦(1) = 6. Find the function.

 Given that the function 𝑓(𝑥)has derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3 and that 𝑓(2) = 9, find the
function.
 Determine the anti-derivatives of each function below:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 − 2)5
1
(b) 𝑓(𝑝) =
√𝑝
1
(c) 𝑓(𝑡) =
√𝑡+1
𝑟 5 −2𝑥 3
(d) 𝑔(𝑟) = 𝑟2

 The rate of change of the number of internet users in a large country is estimated as
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= −2.54𝑡 + 31.2, where 𝑦 is the number of millions of internet users and 𝑡 is the
number of years since 1995.
(a) If there were 57 million users of the internet in this country in 1997, find the number of
internet users in 2003.
(b) Discuss any limitations of this model, including the implications for large values of t.

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 12 of 16
C4.2: Areas and the definite integral

Considerations and teaching strategies

 As a simple introduction to the definite integral, problems such as finding the distance
travelled over a given time interval from a velocity–time graph could be explored.
 The calculation of the area bound by a curve and the 𝑥-axis could be as follows:
Let 𝐴 represent the area under the graph of a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) on the interval
𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. Take 2, 3, 4, … 𝑛 equal subdivisions of 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and form the corresponding
area sums of rectangles drawn so that their top right-hand vertices are on the graph of the
function. This should be done for a simple function such as 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, with the
sums to be written down and evaluated using a calculator, a spreadsheet or dynamic
geometry software.
Intuitively, as the number 𝑛 of subdivisions increases, the approximating sums approach
the value 𝐴. Supposing 𝑛 is large, a typical rectangle in such a sum has a base of small
length ∆𝑥 and a height which is close to 𝑓(𝑥) for any value of 𝑥 lying on its base. This is
the case because, if 𝑓 is continuous, all values of 𝑓(𝑥) are close together if the values of 𝑥
are close together.
Therefore the area of a typical rectangle is 𝑓(𝑥)∆𝑥 and the sum of these areas is
represented by ∑ 𝑓(𝑥)∆𝑥, with the limiting sum as 𝑛 increases (and ∆𝑥 decreases) denoted
𝑏
by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥. This is called the definite integral of the function 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and
𝑥 = 𝑏. The values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 are known as the limits of integration.
 If the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is approximated on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 by the straight line passing
through (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)), the area under the curve may be estimated by the area
under the line as shown in Figure 1.

𝑏
This approximates ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 by the area of a trapezium, which may be calculated using
𝑏−𝑎
2
(𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏)). By dividing the base into two equal sub-intervals (Figure 2), and using a
linear approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) on each sub-interval, the area is approximated by two
trapeziums.
𝑏−𝑎
The method extends to dividing the interval into 𝑛 equal sub-intervals of width ℎ = 𝑛
, and
using a ‘trapezoidal approximation’ on each sub-interval.
The general form of the trapezoidal rule when there are 𝑛 sub-intervals is:
𝑏 𝑏−𝑎
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≈ 2𝑛 [𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏) + 2{𝑓(𝑥1 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1 )}] where 𝑎 = 𝑥0 and 𝑏 = 𝑥𝑛 , and
the values of 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 are found by dividing the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 into 𝑛 equal sub-
intervals.

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 13 of 16
 𝑏
 Students should be shown reasons for the result ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎), where 𝐹(𝑥) is
the anti-derivative function of 𝑓(𝑥). This is part of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
 An intuitive approach involves defining the area function, 𝐴(𝑥), as the area under the graph
of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡) from 𝑡 = 𝑎 to 𝑡 = 𝑥, in the case where 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
˗ Consider a small increase in 𝑡 from 𝑥 to 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 and the corresponding increase in 𝐴,
labelled ∆𝐴 and approximated by a rectangle of height 𝑓(𝑥) and width ∆𝑥. Then ∆𝐴 ≈
∆𝐴
𝑓(𝑥)∆𝑥, and therefore ∆𝑥 ≈ 𝑓(𝑥). This indicates that 𝐴(𝑥) may be a primitive function
of 𝑓(𝑥), and if this is the case then 𝐴(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶, where 𝐹′(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝐶 is a
constant.
Using the fact that 𝐴(𝑎) = 0, establishes that 𝐶 = −𝐹(𝑎) and therefore that
𝑏
𝐴(𝑏) = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎). Since 𝐴(𝑏) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, the result
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) has been established in this restricted case.
 Alternatively, an approach using rates of change of quantities could be used:
˗ Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹′(𝑥) be the rate of change of a quantity 𝐹(𝑥). In order to calculate the total
change in 𝐹 over an interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, divide the interval into 𝑛 sub-intervals, each of
length ∆𝑥.
Over each sub-interval, the change in 𝐹, written ∆𝐹, can be estimated by the rate of
change of 𝐹 at some value of 𝑥 in the sub-interval, multiplied by ∆𝑥.
If 𝑓 is continuous and ∆𝑥 is small, the estimate is reasonable. This means that
∆𝐹 ≈ 𝐹 ′ (𝑥)∆𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)∆𝑥.
Summing over all the sub-intervals we have:
the total change in 𝐹 ≈ ∑ 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) ∆𝑥 = ∑ 𝑓(𝑥) ∆𝑥.
As 𝑛 → ∞ and ∆𝑥 → 0, and hence the total change in 𝐹 can be expressed as:
𝑏
𝐹 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥)∆𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
∆𝑥→0

However, considering the total change in 𝐹 is simply 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎), it follows that
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎), where 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
This can be stated in words as: the definite integral of a rate of change gives the total
change.
 Signed areas could be explored using digital technology to model areas formed between
the 𝑥-axis, the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 and the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in the cases
where:
˗ 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all values of 𝑥 in the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, and describing this case in terms
𝑏
of ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
˗ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for all values of 𝑥 in the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, and describing this case in terms
𝑏
of |∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 |

 Students could further explore and evaluate areas of regions bound by:
˗ 𝑥-axis, the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 and the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥)
changes sign in the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
˗ the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 and the graphs of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), when
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) through the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
 When calculating the area of a region that is bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, when 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) throughout the interval
𝑏
𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, the result is always given by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , whether or not either or both

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 14 of 16
 graphs cross the 𝑥-axis or lie below the 𝑥-axis. This is because both graphs can be
translated vertically by the same amount, until the required region between them lies
completely above the 𝑥-axis.
The translated region has area:
𝑏 𝑏
∫ [(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘) − (𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑘)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .
𝑎 𝑎

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Graphs A and B shown below represent the functions 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) respectively.
Graph A Graph B
y y
10 3

8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 x O 3 x

10
(a) Use Graph A to evaluate the integral ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
3
(b) Use the formula for the area of a circle to find ∫0 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
 The following table shows the velocity (in metres per second) of a moving object evaluated
at 10-second intervals. Use the trapezoidal rule to obtain an estimate of the distance
travelled by the object over the time interval 30 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 70.

Time 30 40 50 60 70

Velocity 0 4.6 5.7 8.0 9.9

Discuss other methods for obtaining the estimate.

𝑑𝑥
 An object is moving on the 𝑥-axis. The graph shows the velocity, 𝑑𝑡
, of the object as a
function of time 𝑡.
The coordinates of the points shown on the graph are 𝐴(2,1), 𝐵(4,5), 𝐶(5,0) and 𝐷(6, −5).
The velocity is constant for 𝑡 ≥ 6.

(a) Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate the distance travelled between 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 4
(noting that distance is given on a velocity-time graph by the area under the graph).
(b) The object is initially at the origin. When is the displacement of the object decreasing?
(c) Estimate the time at which the object returns to the origin. Justify your answer.

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 15 of 16
 (d) Sketch the displacement 𝑥 as a function of time.
 Find the area bounded by the graph of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 6, the 𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥 = −2 and
𝑥 = 2.
2
(a) Show that ∫−2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 0.
(b) Explain why this is not representative of the area bounded by the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ,
the 𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 2.
 Find the area bounded by the line 𝑦 = 5 and the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4.
 Given 𝑄(𝑥) = ∫ 8𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥, and 𝑄(0) = 5, determine 𝑄(𝑥).
 Sketch the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the lines 𝑦 = 4, 𝑦 = 9. Evaluate the
area of this region.

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 16 of 16