NSW Education Standards Authority

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12

Calculus Topic Guide

The Mathematics syllabuses are the documents used to inform the scope of content that will
be assessed in the HSC examinations.

Topic Guides provide support for the Mathematics Stage 6 courses. They contain information
organised under the following headings: Terminology; Use of technology; Background
information; General comments; Future study; Considerations and teaching strategies;
Suggested applications and exemplar questions.

Topic Guides illustrate ways to explore syllabus-related content and consequently do not
define the scope of problems or learning experiences that students may encounter through
their study of a topic. The terminology list contains terms that may be used in the teaching and
learning of the topic. The list is not exhaustive and is provided simply to aid discussion.

Please provide any feedback to the Mathematics and Numeracy Curriculum Inspector.

Effective from 2019 Year 11, and Term 4, 2019 Year 12

Date published December 2018

Revision date NA
Contents
Topic focus ............................................................................................................................3

Terminology ..........................................................................................................................3

Use of technology.................................................................................................................3

Background information ......................................................................................................3

General comments ...............................................................................................................4

Future study ..........................................................................................................................5

Subtopics ..............................................................................................................................5
ME-C2: Further Calculus Skills ............................................................................................................ 6

Subtopic focus ................................................................................................................................. 6

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 6

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 7

ME-C3: Applications of Calculus ......................................................................................................... 8

Subtopic focus ................................................................................................................................. 8

C3.1: Further area and volumes of solids of revolution ...................................................................... 8

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 8

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 8

C3.2: Differential equations .................................................................................................................. 9

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 9

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 9

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 2 of 10
Topic focus
The topic Calculus involves the study of how things change and provides a framework for
developing quantitative models of change and deducing their consequences. It explores the
development of analytic and numeric integration techniques and the use of these techniques in
solving problems.

The study of calculus is important in developing students’ knowledge, understanding and

capacity to operate with and model situations involving change, and to use algebraic and
graphical techniques to describe and solve problems and to predict future outcomes with
relevance to, for example science, engineering, finance, economics and the construction
industry.

Terminology
area between two curves integrand separation of variables
definite integral integration by substitution slope field
differential equation inverse function solution curve
direction field inverse trigonometric function trigonometric substitution
first-order linear differential equation volume of solid of revolution
identity logistic equation 
indefinite integral population

Use of technology
While ‘by-hand’ skills for solving equations are essential for students in this course, the use of
technology such as graphing calculators or computer algebra software are a suitable means of
exploring many of the concepts studied in this topic and their use is encouraged in teaching
and learning.

In particular, computer algebra software is useful for integrating functions and checking results,
although the resultant output using such software may not be the most appropriate
representation. Likewise, such software can be used to explore, investigate and solve
differential equations.

Graphing software and technologies are useful for sketching and solving differential equations,
particularly those which are difficult to graph by hand.

Interactive and dynamic demonstrations of graphical and geometrical representations and

applications of integration applications such as volumes of solids of revolutions are available
online.

Background information
The development of calculus has increasingly contributed to our understanding of the world in
which we live and was initially centred on the solutions of two types of problems: (i) finding the
gradient at a point on a curve and (ii) finding the area enclosed by curved boundaries. This
topic demonstrates the importance of calculus to model real-world systems.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 3 of 10
Prior to the work of Isaac Newton (1642–1727), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) and
their contemporaries, the work of the Greeks and Archimedes was central to much study within
the area of calculus. During the 17th century, exploration of practical applications of
mathematics was becoming increasingly prevalent and led to many key discoveries. Johannes
Kepler (1571–1630) developed a way for two-dimensional figures to be used to measure three-
dimensional volumes. In 1615, Kepler published Nova Stereometria Doliorium Vinorum, which
systematically outlined his use of infinitesimal techniques to determine areas, volumes and
volumes of solids of revolution.

Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598–1647) determined a method, often referred to as Cavalieri’s

principle, for finding areas and volumes using indivisibles. He viewed planar regions being
constructed by infinite slices and compared the area or volumes of different regions by
comparing their slices. Cavalieri’s principle is still used to this day in an array of applications,
with one of the most common areas being in the medical sciences.

Another common application of calculus today is the use of differential equations. While the
exact history of the development of differential equations is unclear, Newton, Leibniz and the
Bernoulli brothers, Jacob Bernoulli (1654–1705) and Johann Bernoulli (1667–1748), were
instrumental in its evolution. Differential equations are used in an array of areas, including
mechanics, thermodynamics, economics and exponential growth and decay. Exploration of the
evolution of modern-day calculus and its applications may be of interest to students.

General comments
The material in this topic builds on the related content from the Mathematics Advanced and
Mathematics Extension 1 syllabuses, including the Year 11 topics of Functions, Calculus,
Trigonometric Functions, and Exponentials and Logarithms and the Mathematics Advanced
Year 12 topic of Calculus.
This topic extends students’ knowledge of calculus; in particular, further differentiation and
integration techniques, and applications of calculus in practical contexts which is important in
more advanced aspects of mathematics.
Students are required to develop a strong conceptual understanding of calculus techniques,
differential equations and volumes of solids of revolution.
In this topic, required substitutions for integration by substitution problems will be given.
This topic demonstrates the power of calculus to model real-world systems. First-order
differential equations are introduced and related to examples previously studied.

The mathematical idea of a function as a solution to a differential equation is fundamental to

this course. Direction fields should be used to help to establish this idea, as they involve
sketching the graphical representation of the solutions without solving the differential equation
analytically.
A balance of abstract ideas and applications to real-world modelling is sought. Models from the
physical and biological sciences, engineering, population studies and finance should be used
to demonstrate the wide applicability of modelling with functions and derivatives.
The summation of infinite series by a definite integral, or of integrals by summation of series,
are not included in this topic.
The geometrical application of integration to find an area was introduced in the Mathematics

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 4 of 10
Advanced course, and is extended here in two ways: first, to find an area in the Cartesian
plane between a curve and the vertical axis; and second, to find the volume of a solid formed
by rotating an area around an axis.

Future study
Students need to ensure that they can efficiently differentiate and integrate a variety of
functions and apply this knowledge in a range of practical situations including those involving
differential equations and volumes of solids of revolution. The use of calculus is an integral
component in many areas of mathematical and scientific study.

Subtopics
 ME-C2: Further Calculus Skills
 ME-C3: Applications of Calculus

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 5 of 10
ME-C2: Further Calculus Skills

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to further develop students’ knowledge, skills and
understanding relating to differentiation and integration techniques.

Students develop an awareness and understanding of the interconnectedness of topics across

the syllabus, and the fluency that can be obtained in the use of calculus techniques. Later
studies in mathematics place prime importance on familiarity and confidence in a variety of
calculus techniques as these are used in many different fields.

Considerations and teaching strategies

 This topic requires students to have familiarity with both differentiation and integration
techniques. ME-C2 could be taught after or concurrently with the Mathematics Advanced
topic MA-C4.
 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ Inverse functions – This relates to content covered in ME-F1
˗ Trigonometric: functions, identities and inverses – This relates to content covered in
the Mathematics Advanced topic MA-T2 and in ME-T1 and ME-T2
˗ Calculus – This relates to content covered in the Mathematics Advanced topics
MA-C1, MA-C2 and MA-C4.
 Required substitutions will be given.
 Some integrals can, through using simple algebra, be changed into a form that can be
𝑥+1 2 𝑥2
integrated, for example: ∫ ( 𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥.
 Care is needed in order to change the limits of integration appropriately for definite
integrals when using a substitution.
 Consider 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), a differentiable function over some interval which has an inverse
differentiable function 𝑔(𝑦). Then 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)).
Differentiating both sides using the chain rule gives 1 = 𝑔′ (𝑦) × 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
With alternative notation, 𝑔′ (𝑦) = 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥, therefore 1 = 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥, which can be
𝑑𝑦 1
rearranged to give = 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

 Students do not need to be able to reproduce the derivations of the derivatives of

sin−1 𝑥 , cos−1 𝑥 , tan−1 𝑥, but could be given steps in the derivations and asked to comment
on how they are obtained, ie on how one step follows from the previous one. The
emphasis is to be on the mathematical understanding of these processes.
 The symmetry properties of the inverse trigonometric functions could be derived
graphically using symmetry properties of the relevant graphs, or by using the derivatives
after they have been established.
For example: Show that cos−1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cos−1 𝑥.

Firstly show that the derivative of cos−1(−𝑥) + cos −1 𝑥 is zero for all 𝑥 in the domain of
cos −1 𝑥. This means that cos−1(−𝑥) + cos−1 𝑥 is equal to a constant.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 6 of 10
 The value of this constant can be obtained by evaluating cos −1 (−𝑥) + cos −1 𝑥 for any
convenient value of 𝑥. Noting that cos−1(−0) + cos−1 0 = 𝜋, the required result is obtained.

 Students should be shown how to establish the standard integrals identified in this topic by
𝑥 𝑥
differentiating sin−1 (𝑎) and tan−1 (𝑎).Students should be aware of the relationship
between the derivatives of sin−1 𝑥 and cos−1 𝑥.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Examples of integrals to be determined using given substitutions include:
(a) use the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 1 to determine ∫ 𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑡
(b) use the substitution 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑡 to evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝑡
√1+𝑡
𝑥
(c) use the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 to determine∫ 9+𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥.
 Practice is needed in the use of the product rule, quotient rule, and chain rule in relation to
the inverse trigonometric functions.
 Students will need practice on questions involving the inverse trigonometric functions and
integration by substitution.
 Examples of integrals to be determined involving squares of the trigonometric functions
sine and cosine, and those that can be found by a simple substitution, include:
𝜋
(a) ∫04 sin2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
(b) ∫04 (sin2 𝑥 cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
(c) ∫04 (sin2 𝑥 cos3 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝜋
 Evaluate 4 ∫𝜋4 (sin2 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
12

𝑑2 𝑦 𝜋 𝑑𝑦
 If 𝑑𝑥 2 = 2cos2 𝑥 and when 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, then find 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.
𝜋
 Differentiate sin−1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑥, and hence show that sin−1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑥 = 2 .
𝑑𝑦
 If 𝑦 = cos−1 𝑥 + cos−1 (−𝑥), find 𝑑𝑥 and show that 𝑦 = 𝜋 for all 𝑥 in the domain.
 Evaluate the following:
1 𝑑𝑥
(a) ∫0
√4−𝑥 2
1 𝑑𝑥
(b) ∫0
√3−𝑥 2
1
𝑑𝑥
(c) ∫02 1+4𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑥
 (a) Prove that 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥sin−1 𝑥) = sin−1 𝑥 + .
√1−𝑥 2
1
𝜋 √3
(b) Hence use the substitution 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥 2 to show that ∫02(sin−1 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 12 + 2
− 1.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 7 of 10
ME-C3: Applications of Calculus

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to develop an understanding of applications of calculus in
a practical context, including the more accessible kinds of differential equations and volumes of
solids of revolution, to solve problems.

Students develop an awareness and understanding of the use of differential equations which
arise when the rate of change in one quantity with respect to another can be expressed in
mathematical form. The study of differential equations has important applications in science,
engineering, finance, economics and broader applications in mathematics.

C3.1: Further area and volumes of solids of revolution

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Typical questions would involve solids of revolution whose cross-sections are discs or
cylinders.
 In some cases, an area or volume may be found by addition or subtraction of the areas or
volumes of other shapes, such as where the cross-section takes the shape of an annulus.
 Students should be encouraged to draw sketches of the area to be rotated or the volume
to be found.
 Use graphing technology to aid in visualisation of the areas and volumes involved.
 Students will need practice on questions involving the inverse trigonometric functions and
(i) area under a curve and (ii) volumes of solids of revolution.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Sketch the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the lines 𝑦 = 4 and 𝑦 = 9. Evaluate
the area of this region.
 The graphs of the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 12 − 2𝑥 2 are shown in the diagram.

(a) Find the points of intersection of the two curves.

(b) The shaded region between the curves and the 𝑦-axis is rotated about the 𝑦-axis. By
splitting the shaded region into two parts, or otherwise, find the volume of the solid
formed.
 The region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1 )(3 − 𝑥) and the 𝑥-axis is rotated about the
line 𝑥 = 3 to form a solid. When the region is rotated, the horizontal line segment at height

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 8 of 10
 𝑦 sweeps out an annulus.
(a) Find the area of the annulus as a function of y.
(b) Find the volume of the solid.
 The region enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 4√𝑥 and the 𝑥-axis between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 4 is
rotated about the 𝑥-axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution.
 A curved funnel has a shape formed by rotating part of the parabola 𝑦 = 2√𝑥 about the
𝑦-axis, where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are given in cm. The funnel is 4 cm deep. Find the volume of liquid
which the funnel will hold if it is sealed at the bottom.
 Sketch the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 and the coordinate axes in the
3𝜋
first quadrant, taking the upper limit of 𝑥 as . Show the intercepts on the axes, and
4
calculate the area of the region. Find the volume of the solid formed if the region is rotated
about the 𝑥-axis to form a solid of revolution.

C3.2: Differential equations

Considerations and teaching strategies

 First-order linear differential equations are differential equations that can be written in the
𝑑𝑦
form + 𝑝(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑞(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥

 The role of ‘reversing the chain rule’ to solve separable equations should be understood.
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
For example, to solve 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦, consider the equivalent statement 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 in which the
variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 have been separated, so that the right-hand side does not contain the
variable 𝑦.
1 𝑑𝑦
Integrate both sides with respect to 𝑥 to obtain ∫ (𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, and then it follows that
1
ln 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐.
 Students form direction fields for a variety of equations manually, and check their solutions
using graphing technology.
𝑑𝑦
For example, for the differential equation = 2𝑥, or 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦.
𝑑𝑥

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 If a product which has just been launched is judged by the market to be of poor quality,
sales will decline as people try the product but do not continue to buy it. For a certain
400 200
product, the rate of weekly sales is modelled by 𝑆 ′ (𝑡) = (𝑡+1)3 − (𝑡+1)2 , where 𝑆 is the
number of sales in millions and 𝑡 is the number of weeks since the launch of the product.
(a) Find the function that describes the weekly sales.
(b) Find the number of sales for the first week and for the tenth week.
(c) Comment on your results in the context of the given information.
 The spread of an infectious disease may be assumed to be proportional to the number of
people infected and to the number of people not yet infected. If one infected person joins a
closed population of given size, model the number of infected people as a function of time
by using a differential equation. (Begin by defining variables and stating assumptions.)
 Chemical reaction rates and the process of diffusion across membranes are suitable topics
to investigate.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 9 of 10
 Examples of a ‘mixing problem’: Air containing a given percentage of carbon dioxide in a
room of a certain volume is freshened by the intake of air with a lower concentration of
carbon dioxide. Assuming that the ‘flow in’ is the same as the ‘flow out’, investigate the
situation and describe what will happen in the longer term.
𝑑𝑦
 Which of the following direction fields best represents the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑦?
(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 12 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 10 of 10