NSW Education Standards Authority

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11

Combinatorics Topic Guide

The Mathematics syllabuses are the documents used to inform the scope of content that will
be assessed in the HSC examinations.

Topic Guides provide support for the Mathematics Stage 6 courses. They contain information
organised under the following headings: Prior learning; Terminology; Use of technology;
Background information; General comments; Future study; Considerations and teaching
strategies; Suggested applications and exemplar questions.

Topic Guides illustrate ways to explore syllabus-related content and consequently do not
define the scope of problems or learning experiences that students may encounter through
their study of a topic. The terminology list contains terms that may be used in the teaching and
learning of the topic. The list is not exhaustive and is provided simply to aid discussion.

Please provide any feedback to the Mathematics and Numeracy Curriculum Inspector.

Effective from 2019 Year 11, and Term 4, 2019 Year 12

Date published December 2018

Revision date NA
Contents
Topic focus ........................................................................................................................... 3

Prior learning ........................................................................................................................ 3

Terminology .......................................................................................................................... 3

Use of technology ................................................................................................................ 3

Background information ...................................................................................................... 3

General comments ............................................................................................................... 4

Future study.......................................................................................................................... 4

Subtopics .............................................................................................................................. 4
ME-A1: Working with Combinatorics................................................................................................... 5

Subtopic focus ................................................................................................................................ 5

A1.1 Permutations and Combinations ................................................................................................ 5

Considerations and teaching strategies ........................................................................................ 5

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 6

A1.2 The binomial expansion and Pascal’s triangle ........................................................................... 8

Considerations and teaching strategies ........................................................................................ 8

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 8

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Combinatorics, updated December 2018 Page 2 of 8
Topic focus
The topic Combinatorics involves counting and ordering as well as exploring arrangements,
patterns, symmetry and other methods to generalise and predict outcomes. The consideration
of the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a positive integer, draws together aspects of number
theory and probability theory.

A knowledge of combinatorics is useful when considering situations and solving problems

involving counting, sorting and arranging. Efficient counting methods have many applications
and are used in the study of probability.

The study of combinatorics is important in developing students’ ability to generalise situations,

to explore patterns and use reasoning to consider all possible outcomes in situations such as
the arrangement of people or objects, setting-up surveys, selection of a jury or committee and
design.

Prior learning
The material in this topic builds on content from the Number and Algebra, and Statistics and
Probability strands of the Mathematics K–10 syllabus, including the 5.2 substrand of
Probability and the 5.3 substrand of Algebraic Techniques.

Terminology
arrangements factorial notation Permutations 
binomial expansion  fundamental counting pigeonhole principle
binomial coefficients principle relation
combinations  identities repeated objects
combinatorial proofs ordered selections replacement
distinct objects Pascal’s triangle triangular form
factorial Pascal’s triangle relations unordered selections

Use of technology
A spreadsheet facility allows students to investigate real-world situations and list different
permutations and combinations. It could also be used to generate and explore Pascal’s
triangle and different patterns contained within it.

Background information
There are many mathematicians who have contributed to the area of Probability, including
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), Pierre de Fermat (1607–1665) and Abraham de Moivre (1667–
1754). In 1654, Pascal was the first to use and write about one of the most famous integer
patterns in Mathematics, Pascal’s Triangle, connecting it to probability in his treatise, Traité du
triangle arithmétique. The number pattern is, however, far older than Pascal. There is
evidence that in China the mathematicians Jia Xian and Yang Hui in the 11th and 13th

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Combinatorics, updated December 2018 Page 3 of 8
centuries respectively, worked with the pattern, as did the Persian poet Omar Khayyam in the
11th century.

There are many patterns that can be found in Pascal’s Triangle, such as the coefficients that
arise in a binomial expansion or special geometric patterns in the diagonals of the triangle.
Students may be interested in exploring this area further.

The pigeonhole principle was first formalised in 1834 by Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune
Dirichlet (1805–1859) although he referred to it as Schubfachprinzip which translates to
‘drawer principle’ or ‘shelf principle’. The use of the pigeonhole principle ranges from
probability applications, to problems involving infinite sets that cannot be represented as one-
to-one correspondences, to computer data compression. Students may be interested in
exploring such applications.

General comments
This topic prepares students for the study of the probability and statistical analysis, which have
many practical applications and are essential in many more advanced aspects of
mathematics.

Students are required to develop a strong conceptual understanding of the use and application
of permutations, combinations, binomial expansions and counting techniques in both restricted
and unrestricted situations.

Permutations and combinations and the study of the binomial expansion and Pascal’s triangle
go hand in hand, and while they have been considered as two separate sections for the
purposes of setting out in the syllabus, teachers may choose to treat these sections more
fluidly.

Future study
Students need to ensure that they understand and can apply their knowledge of permutations,
combinations, probability and binomial expansions to describe, interpret and solve problems to
facilitate work in later topics.

The material studied in this topic provides the basis for more advanced work, where the
binomial expansion is extended to cases for rational powers of the binomial and obtain infinite
series.

Subtopics
 ME-A1: Working with Combinatorics

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Combinatorics, updated December 2018 Page 4 of 8
ME-A1: Working with Combinatorics

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to develop students’ understanding and proficiency with
permutations and combinations and their relevance to the binomial coefficients.

Students develop proficiency in ordering and counting techniques in both restricted and
unrestricted situations. The binomial expansion is introduced, Pascal’s triangle is constructed
and related identities are proved. The material studied provides the basis for more advanced
work, where the binomial expansion is extended to cases for rational values of 𝑛, and
applications in calculus are explored.

A1.1 Permutations and Combinations

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ the language of probability
˗ listing and determining the outcomes/results of simple chance experiments/events,
with and without replacement, assigning probabilities to outcomes, and determining
probabilities of events
˗ calculating relative frequencies from given or collected data to estimate probabilities
of events involving 'and' or 'or'
˗ the language of conditional probability such as 'if ... then', 'given', 'of', 'knowing that' to
investigate conditional statements.
 It is natural to introduce this topic in the context of enumerating the outcomes of random
experiments.
 Examples and problems involving the pigeonhole principle should be explored.
 Factorial notation could be introduced through consideration of arrangements of 𝑛 distinct
objects. Note that an arrangement is a selection where order is important.
Consider arrangements of 𝑛 distinct objects in 𝑛 places:
˗ Start by creating arrangements of a relatively small number of objects and then extend
this to 𝑛 distinct objects. For example, students could determine how many possible
arrangements could be made using the first three letters of the alphabet: A, B, C.
˗ There are many ways students can represent arrangements, many may start by listing
all possible results. In the case of three letters, the list of outcomes is not too large
however, with increased lists of objects this strategy very quickly becomes tedious
and problematic. The use of ‘box’ representations for determining numbers of
arrangements may assist students. Such representations also lend themselves to
connection to the fundamental counting principle or multiplication principle.
˗ Expansion from specific arrangement scenarios to the number of ways 𝑛 distinct
objects can be arranged in 𝑛 places, leads into introduction of factorial notation, i.e.
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 3 × 2 × 1. By convention 0! = 1.
 Permutations could be introduced by extending on arrangements and the use of factorial
notation. A permutation is an arrangement where order is important.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Combinatorics, updated December 2018 Page 5 of 8
 Consider arrangements of 𝑛 distinct objects in 𝑟 places:
˗ Start with 𝑛 different objects and choose 𝑟 of them one after another . This is an
ordered sample without replacement. Since the first object can be chosen in 𝑛 ways,
then the next object can be chosen in (𝑛 – 1) ways, and the next in (𝑛 – 2) ways, and
so on. The total number of ways in which this can be done is then
𝑛. (𝑛 – 1). (𝑛 – 2) . . . (𝑛 – 𝑟 + 1). The number of ways of arranging 𝑛 objects 𝑟 at a time
can be written as: 𝑛 𝑃𝑟 .
˗ In the special case where 𝑟 = 𝑛, we are dealing with the total number of arrangements
or permutations of n distinct objects. This number is
𝑛! = 𝑛 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛 × (𝑛 – 1) × (𝑛 – 2) × … × 2 × 1.
˗ Connecting factorial notation to arrangements of 𝑛 distinct objects in 𝑟 places students
𝑛!
can determine the rule: 𝑛 𝑃𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑛 𝑛
˗ Special cases of 𝑃𝑟 should be explored, ie 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛! and 𝑛 𝑃0 = 1.
 Examples should be given of the difference between arrangements in lines and
arrangements in circles.
 Examples and problems involving arrangements with restrictions and like objects or
repetitions should be explored. These should exclude arrangements in circles.
˗ Arrangements containing repetitions are not permutations and outcomes can be found
using counting methods similar to permutations.
˗ When restrictions are placed on an arrangement, the restrictions must always be
satisfied before arranging the unrestricted items.
 Combinations and the notation 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 could be introduced by considering situations where
order is not important and relating this to permutations, arrangements and the use of
factorials. Combinations are selections where order is not important.
Consider choosing 𝑟 objects from 𝑛 distinct objects ignoring order, to determine the
number of ways that this could occur.
˗ One way to do this is to note that choosing an ordered sample is equivalent to
choosing an unordered sample then ordering it.
𝑛
˗ An ordered sample can be chosen in 𝑃𝑟 ways, the second procedure can be carried
𝑛𝑃 𝑛!
𝑛
out in 𝐶𝑟 × 𝑟! ways. Therefore 𝑛 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑛
𝐶𝑟 × 𝑟!, and hence 𝑛
𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟!
𝑟
= (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!.

 Examples and problems involving permutations and combinations and simple probability
situations should be explored.
 When playing games of chance, any entry fee into a game is considered a financial loss,
which is regarded as negative.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 How many numbers greater than 5000 can be formed with the digits 2, 3, 5, 7, 9 if no digit
is repeated?
 In how many ways can the letters of EERIE be arranged in a line?
 In how many ways can the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 be arranged around a circle? How
many of these arrangements have at least two even numbers together?
 How many arrangements of the letters of the word OLYMPIC are possible if the C and the
L are to be together in any order?
 At the front of a building there are five garage doors. Two of the doors are to be painted

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Combinatorics, updated December 2018 Page 6 of 8
 red, one is to be painted green, one blue and one orange.
(a) How many possible arrangements are there for the colours on the doors?
(b) How many possible arrangements are there for the colours on the doors if the two red
doors are next to each other?
 In horse racing, betting on the trifecta pays on the first three horses in correct order, while
the quinella pays on the first two horses in either order.
(a) In a 12-horse race, determine the number of possible quinellas.
(b) The Melbourne cup is a 17-horse race. Determine the number of possible trifectas.
 Mr and Mrs Roberts and their four children go to the theatre. They are randomly allocated
six adjacent seats in a single row. What is the probability that the four children are
allocated seats next to each other?
 A four-person team is to be chosen at random from nine women and seven men.
(a) In how many ways can this team be chosen?
(b) What is the probability that the team will consist of four women?
 Two players 𝐴 and 𝐵 play a series of games against each other to get a prize. In any
game, either of the players is equally likely to win. To begin with, the first player who wins
a total of five games gets the prize.
(a) Explain why the probability of player 𝐴 getting the prize in exactly seven games
1 7
is: (64) (2) .

(b) Write an expression for the probability of player 𝐴 getting the prize in at most seven
games.
(c) Suppose now that the prize is given to the first player to win a total of (𝑛 + 1) games,
where 𝑛 is a positive integer. By considering the probability that 𝐴 gets the prize,
prove that: (𝑛𝑛)2𝑛 + (𝑛+1
𝑛
)2𝑛−1 + (𝑛+2
𝑛
)2𝑛−2 + ⋯ + (𝑛𝑛) = 22𝑛 .
 Two players 𝐴 and 𝐵 play a game that consists of taking turns until a winner is determined.
Each turn consists of spinning the arrow on a spinner once. The spinner has three sectors
𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅. The probabilities that the arrow stops in sectors 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 are 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟
respectively.

The rules of the game are as follows:

˗ If the arrow stops in sector 𝑃, then the player having the turn wins.
˗ If the arrow stops in sector 𝑄, then the player having the turn loses and the other
player wins.
˗ If the arrow stops in sector 𝑅, then the other player takes a turn.
Player 𝐴 takes the first turn.
(a) Show that the probability of player 𝐴 winning on the first or the second turn of the game
is (1 − 𝑟)(𝑝 + 𝑟).

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Combinatorics, updated December 2018 Page 7 of 8
 𝑝+𝑟
(b) Show that the probability that player 𝐴 eventually wins the game is 1+𝑟 .

A1.2 The binomial expansion and Pascal’s triangle

Considerations and teaching strategies

 The binomial expansion could be introduced by example, using 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and Pascal
triangle constructed and both then extended to more general case, 𝑛. For example:
˗ Students find the binomial expansions for 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and construct of Pascal’s
triangle. Students connect the ‘coefficients’ in the expansions and the values in
Pascal’s triangle.
˗ Students may observe that for any integral 𝑛, no matter how large, (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 is a
polynomial of degree 𝑛 in the variable 𝑥.
˗ The (so far unknown) coefficients in the polynomial must be labelled by some symbol,
such as ‘𝐶’ for ‘coefficient’ and write the power of 𝑥 as a right subscript 𝑟, the power 𝑛
as a left superscript, ie 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 is by definition the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 in (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 . Therefore:
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶0 𝑥 0 + 𝑛 𝐶1 𝑥1 + 𝑛 𝐶2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 .
𝑦
˗ This identity can be extended into an expression of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 by substituting for 𝑥 in
𝑥
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 and multiplying the equation by 𝑥 𝑛 to obtain:
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛 𝐶1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑛 𝐶2 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 .
˗ At this stage it is advisable to make the connection with work on combinations and
Pascals triangle.
 Combinatorial proofs of the Pascal triangle relations:
𝑛
𝐶0 = 1, 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 𝐶𝑘 = 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑘−1 + 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑘 for 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛 − 1 and 𝑛
𝐶𝑘 = 𝑛
𝐶𝑛−𝑘
should be established.
 Students should be aware that the size of the coefficients in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 first
increases and then decreases. However, problems that require the greatest coefficient to
be found are not part of this course.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

2 5
 Find the coefficient of 𝑥 4 in the expansion of (𝑥 2 − ) .
𝑥

 If (1 − 2√3)6 = 𝑥 + 𝑦√3, evaluate 𝑥 and 𝑦 by using a binomial expansion.

 What is the probability of choosing three letters from the word PROBING and only just one
letter being a vowel? Assume the probability of each letter choice is equal.
1 12
 Find the term independent of 𝑥 in the expansion of (2𝑥 − ) .
𝑥2

 Using the fact that (1 + 𝑥)4 (1 + 𝑥)9 = (1 + 𝑥)13 show that

4
𝐶0 9 𝐶4 + 4 𝐶1 9 𝐶3 + 4 𝐶2 9 𝐶2 + 4 𝐶3 9 𝐶1 + 4 𝐶4 9 𝐶0 = 13 𝐶4.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Combinatorics, updated December 2018 Page 8 of 8