energies

Article
Multi-Objective Optimal Charging Method for
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Xiaogang Wu 1,2, *, Wenwen Shi 1,3 ID
and Jiuyu Du 3
1 College of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology,
Harbin 150080, China; sww4536@163.com
2 State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment & System Security and New Technology,
Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
dujiuyu@tsinghua.edu.cn
* Correspondence: xgwu@hrbust.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-451-8639-1699

Academic Editor: Izumi Taniguchi

Received: 1 August 2017; Accepted: 23 August 2017; Published: 26 August 2017

Abstract: In order to optimize the charging of lithium-ion batteries, a multi-stage charging method
that considers the charging time and energy loss as optimization targets has been proposed in
this paper. First, a dynamic model based on a first-order circuit has been established, and the
model parameters have been identified. Second, on the basis of the established model, we treat the
objective function of the optimization problem as a weighted sum of charging time and energy loss.
Finally, a dynamic programming algorithm (DP) has been used to calculate the charging current
of the objective function. Simulation and experimental results show that the proposed charging
method could effectively reduce the charging time and decrease the energy loss, compared with the
constant-current constant-voltage charging method, under the premise of exerting little influence on
the attenuation of battery capacity.

Keywords: lithium-ion battery; equivalent circuit model; charging optimization; dynamic programming
(DP); capacity attenuation

1. Introduction
As the key technology of battery management systems, the charging strategy influences the battery
life and safe operation [1–3]. Their long charging time is one of the main obstacles for the popularization
of lithium batteries [4,5]. Moreover, the battery loses energy in the form of heat dissipation during the
charging process, and the literature [6] indicates that within a certain temperature range, the higher
the battery temperature, the more serious the battery life decay. Therefore, effective reduction of the
charging time and battery energy losses during the charging period has become one of the important
directions for the research on lithium-ion battery charging strategies [7–9].
The constant-current constant-voltage (CCCV) charging method is one of the most widely used
charging methods; further, it is simple and easy to control. However, different charging rates and
cut-off voltages result in battery aging [10]. Accordingly, a multi-stage constant current charging
method for multi-objective optimization has been studied [11,12]. The target optimization mainly aims
to reduce the charging time, improve the charging efficiency, and prolong the battery life; however,
it is necessary to calibrate numerous experimental data and therefore, such a method is difficult to
use. Reference [13] proposed a fast charging method for a lithium battery close to complete discharge.
However, such a method can result in an overheated battery at the expense of battery life and requires
a better solid electrolyte interface or unique electrode structures to mitigate any potential lithium
plating [14–16]. References [17–20] involved the study of a pulse charging method, wherein the

Energies 2017, 10, 1271; doi:10.3390/en10091271 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1271 2 of 18

battery was stationary or discharged for a short period of time in order to slow down the polarization
phenomenon during the charging process. However, the proposed method has higher requirements
for the design of the charging power supply.
In order to improve the charging efficiency and prolong the battery life, a general charging voltage
protocol based on battery state-of-health was proposed in [21], which aims to study the optimization
of charging current. Moreover, the battery charging method has also been studied in optimization
problems related to charging time, battery energy loss, and temperature rise in some studies. The effect
of cut-off voltage, ambient temperature, and battery aging on the charging optimization results was
also discussed in [22], whereas the influence of charge current on the Ohmic resistance, polarization
resistor, and polarization capacitance of the battery has not been fully considered yet. Although battery
charging current has been optimized from the perspective of charging time and battery energy losses
in [23,24], the battery model that has been adopted is the voltage-resistor model, which ignores the
influence of polarization phenomena on charging.
In summary, previous battery charge management studies mainly concentrated on the
optimization of the charging current. In spite of the fact that some of them considered charging
time and energy loss as characteristics of the charging method, the effect of the change of battery
model parameters on the optimization of charging current was not considered during the optimization
process. Based on the dynamic model of the equivalent circuit, a lithium cobalt-acid battery has been
considered as the research objective in this study. Moreover, considering the influence of the model
parameters on the state of charge (SOC) and charging current and considering the charging time
and battery energy loss as the optimal targets, over-voltage is employed as a state variable, and a
dynamic programming algorithm is also adopted to obtain the optimized charging current. Further,
the influence of variable weighting factors on the optimization result is also discussed in this paper.

2. Lithium-Ion Battery Testing and Modeling

2.1. Charging Principle and Model Selection

In this study, a lithium cobalt acid battery is selected as the research object. Its details are listed in
Table 1.

Table 1. Nominal specifications of the battery.

Item Specification
Cathode material LiCoO2
Anode material Graphite
Rated capacity 2.6 Ah
Maximum charging current 1C
Maximum discharging current 2C
Charging cut-off voltage 4.2 V
Discharging cut-off voltage 3.75 V

A lithium-ion battery consists of three parts: the anode lithium compound, its intermediate
electrolyte membrane, and cathode carbon. When it is charged, lithium ions are generated at the anode
and embedded through the electrolyte membrane into the cathode material. As more lithium ions
are embedded into the cathode material, the SOC level of the battery becomes higher. The chemical
reaction during the lithium-ion battery charging process is given as follows:

3C + LiCoO2 ↔ 0.5LiC6 + Li0.5 CoO2 (1)

Moreover, during the battery charging process, since the lithium ion concentration fails to reach
a balance within a short period of time, a voltage difference, i.e., the over-voltage, arises. In order
to describe the charging process accurately, many battery models have been established in previous
studies in order to reflect the mechanism changes in the charging process. Common lithium battery
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 3 of 18

models include an equivalent circuit model and an electrochemical model; further, the equivalent
circuit model is simple and can accurately reflect the running state of the battery [25,26]. Therefore,
Energies 2017, 10, 271 3 of 18
this study refers to literature [27,28], and the first-order equivalent circuit model has been chosen as
the research
this study
Energies object,
refers
2017, as
10, 271to shown in[27,28],
literature Figureand
1. the first-order equivalent circuit model has been chosen
3 ofas18
the research object, as shown in Figure 1.
R1 (SOC, I)
this study refers to literature [27,28], and the first-order equivalent circuit model has been chosen as
R (SOC, I)
the research object, as shown in Figure 1. 0
I
CR 1 (SOC, I)
1 (SOC, I)

R 0 (SOC, I)
I
U OC (SOC, I) C1 (SOC, I)

U OC (SOC, I)

Figure 1. First-order circuit model of battery.

Figure 1. First-order circuit model of battery.
As shown in Figure 1, the Figure
equivalent circuit model
1. First-order of the of
circuit model battery consists of the following parts:
battery.
As shown involtage
open-circuit Figurewhich
1, the is
equivalent circuit
a controlled voltage model of the
source UOCbattery
, Ohmicconsists of R
resistance the following parts:
0, polarization

resistance
open-circuit R ,
voltageand polarization
which is a capacitance
controlled C . According
voltage source
As shown in Figure 1, the equivalent circuit model of the OC
1 1 to [29],
U all
, the
Ohmic parameters in
resistance the
R
battery consists of the following0model are
, polarization
parts:
related to the
open-circuit
resistance SOC
R1 , andvoltage and charge-discharge
which iscapacitance
polarization ratio of
a controlledCvoltage the battery
source to
1 . According
under
UOC[29], the
, Ohmic condition of
resistance
all the fixed ambient
R0, polarization
parameters in the model
temperature.
resistance
are related to Rthe1, and
SOCpolarization capacitance C1. According
and charge-discharge to [29],
ratio of the all theunder
battery parameters
the in the modelofarefixed
condition
related
ambient to the SOC and charge-discharge ratio of the battery under the condition of fixed ambient
temperature.
2.2. Parameter Identification and Verification of Battery Model
temperature.
2.2. Parameter Identification
In order to identifyand
theVerification
parametersofofBattery Model
the model for different SOC and charging ratios, the
2.2. Parameter
battery Identification
have been and Verification
tested with several setsof of
Battery Model
specific charging ratios by adopting the flowchart
In order to identify the parameters of the model for different SOC and charging ratios, the battery
shownIninorder
Figure
to2.identify the parameters of the model for different SOC and charging ratios, the
have been tested with several sets of specific charging ratios by adopting the flowchart shown in
battery have been tested with several sets of specific charging ratios by adopting the flowchart
Figureshown
2. in Figure 2. Start

The charge test is

Start
divided into N steps
per change SOC
The charge test is
dividedp=1
into N steps
per change SOC
Still two hours
p=1

Still two
Constant current hours 10S
charging

Still 5min
Constant current charging 10S Still 2hours

Constant current charging

Still 5min
No Still 2hours
yes No
Constant current ischarging
The voltage No Charging
greater than the No
capacity greater p=p+1 P=N+1
charge cut-off than p×5%SOC No
yes
voltage
The voltage is No Charging yes
greater than the capacity greater p=p+1 P=N+1
charge cut-off than p×5%SOC
Yes
voltage
yes
Over
Yes

Over Figure 2. Test flow of battery model parameters.

As evident from the test Figure

flow in2.Figure
Test 2, in
flow each test, the parameters.
battery has been subjected to a charge
Figure 2. Test flow ofofbattery
battery model
model parameters.
process with a pulse of 10 s for every SOC of 5%. After the charging test is completed, the
relationship between
As evident fromthethebattery terminal
test flow voltage
in Figure and charging
2, in each currenthas
test, the battery corresponding to each
been subjected pulse
to a charge
As evident
charging from the
stage ais pulse
process with test
fitted of flow
by 10
using in Figure
theevery
s for 2,
least SOC in each
squares test,
of method
5%. After the battery
mentioned has been
in [30].
the charging subjected
testThe completed,a the
to
is corresponding charge
process with
parametera pulse of 10
identification
relationship s for
between theresults every
battery SOC
ofterminalof
the battery 5%. After
model
voltage the charging
arecharging
and test
shown incurrent is completed,
Figurecorresponding
3. the relationship
to each pulse
between the battery
charging stage isterminal
fitted by voltage
using theand
leastcharging current mentioned
squares method corresponding
in [30].toThe
each pulse charging
corresponding
parameter identification results of the battery model are shown in Figure 3.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 4 of 18

stage is fitted by using the least squares method mentioned in [30]. The corresponding parameter
identification results of the battery model are shown in Figure 3.
Energies 2017, 10, 271 4 of 18

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 3. Identification results of battery model parameters. (a) Open circuit voltage identification
Figure 3. Identification results of battery model parameters. (a) Open circuit voltage identification
results; (b) Ohmic resistance identification results; (c) Polarization resistance identification results;
results; (b) Ohmic resistance identification results; (c) Polarization resistance identification results;
(d) Polarization capacitance identification results.
(d) Polarization capacitance identification results.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 5 of 18
Energies 2017, 10, 271 5 of 18

In order
In order totoverify
verifythe
theaccuracy
accuracy of of
thethe model
model parameters,
parameters, thisthis study
study selects
selects charging
charging current
current with
with different specific ratios to simulate the intermittent charging of the battery
different specific ratios to simulate the intermittent charging of the battery based on the targeted based on the
targeted dynamic
dynamic model. model.
Firstly, Firstly, the equivalent
the equivalent circuitcircuit
modelmodelof aof battery
a batterywaswas established
established under
under
Matlab/Simulink, and the charging simulation was carried out by using
Matlab/Simulink, and the charging simulation was carried out by using some specific current. some specific current.
Secondly the
Secondly the battery
battery isis tested
tested with
with the
the same
same current
current asas the
the simulation. Finally we
simulation. Finally we compare
compare the the
battery terminal
battery terminalvoltage
voltagebetween
betweensimulation
simulation and test.
and Considering
test. Considering the the
simulation and and
simulation actual test with
actual test
charging ratio of 0.4C as an example, the current and voltage curves are shown
with charging ratio of 0.4C as an example, the current and voltage curves are shown in Figure 4. in Figure 4. Figure 5
illustrates
Figure a comparison
5 illustrates betweenbetween
a comparison the errors theoferrors
the calculated model value
of the calculated model and the and
value actual
thetest battery
actual test
result with various charging ratios. The error is calculated
battery result with various charging ratios. The error is calculated as: as:

 Ut,s
|UUt,rt,r− t,s |
τt =
t  ×100%
100% (2)
(2)
UU t,r
t,r

where
where U
Ut,r is the actual value of the battery terminal voltage at time t and Ut,s is
t,r is the actual value of the battery terminal voltage at time t and Ut,s
is the
the simulation
simulation value.
value.

1.2
charge current

1.0

0.8
Current（A）

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time（×104s）
(a)
4.3

4.2 Experimental data

4.1
Simulation data

4.0
Voltage（V）

3.9

3.8
3.80
3.7
3.75
3.6
3.70

3.5
3.65

3.4 5.6 5.8 6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8

×104
3.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time（×104s）
(b)

Figure 4. Simulation
Figure 4. Simulationand
andtest
test results
results withwith charging
charging ratioratio
of 0. of
4C.0.(a)
4C. (a) Charging
Charging currentcurrent curve;
curve; (b) (b)
Voltage
Voltage curves for simulation and
curves for simulation and testing. testing.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 6 of 18

Energies 2017, 10, 271 6 of 18

9 9
Maximum error
8 Average error 8

Average error（×10-2%）
7 7

Maximum error（%） 6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0.1C 0.2C 0.3C 0.4C 0.5C 0.6C 0.7C 0.8C 0.9C 1.0C
Charge ratio
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Comparison
Comparison between
between the
the errors
errors of
of the
the calculated
calculated value
value and
and the
the test
test result
result of
of the
the equivalent
equivalent
circuit model.
circuit model.

It is evident from Figure 4 that the battery terminal voltage of the targeted model is quite close
It is evident from Figure 4 that the battery terminal voltage of the targeted model is quite close to
to the actual battery test results when the charging ratio is 0.4C. It can be observed from Figure 5 that
the actual battery test results when the charging ratio is 0.4C. It can be observed from Figure 5 that the
the average error of the battery terminal voltage calculated using the targeted model relative to the
average error of the battery terminal voltage calculated using the targeted model relative to the actual
actual voltage is less than 0.1%, and the maximum error is less than or equal to 6.12% with different
voltage is less than 0.1%, and the maximum error is less than or equal to 6.12% with different charging
charging ratios. Therefore, it can be demonstrated that the targeted battery dynamic model can
ratios. Therefore, it can be demonstrated that the targeted battery dynamic model can accurately
accurately represent the parameter change of the battery charging process.
represent the parameter change of the battery charging process.
3. Multi-Objective Optimal Charging Method
3. Multi-Objective Optimal Charging Method
During the battery charging, the charging time and battery energy loss are important indexes to
During the battery charging, the charging time and battery energy loss are important indexes to
evaluate the charging method. When analyzing the charging process using the first-order
evaluate the charging method. When analyzing the charging process using the first-order equivalent
equivalent circuit battery model, the battery’s energy loss originates from the Ohmic resistance and
circuit battery model, the battery’s energy loss originates from the Ohmic resistance and polarized
polarized internal resistance. However, the charging time is usually inversely proportional to the
internal resistance. However, the charging time is usually inversely proportional to the charging
charging ratio [31]. The key problem of the charging method is to balance the charging time and
ratio [31]. The key problem of the charging method is to balance the charging time and battery
battery energy loss.
energy loss.

3.1. Determination
3.1. Determination of
of the
the Boundary
Boundary Condition
Condition of
of Charging
Charging Current
Current
Zhang et
Zhang et al.
al. [32]
[32] observed
observed that
that the
the maximum
maximum charge
charge current
current ofof aa lithium-ion
lithium-ion battery
battery is
is usually
usually
related to
related to the
the current
current SOC.SOC. Accordingly, this study
Accordingly, this study performs
performs many
many charging
charging tests,
tests, and
and subsequently,
subsequently,
the test results are fitted; finally, the maximum charge current corresponding to the SOC is
the test results are fitted; finally, the maximum charge current corresponding to the SOC is obtained.
obtained.
By using the test flow shown in Figure 6, the maximum charge capacity corresponding
By using the test flow shown in Figure 6, the maximum charge capacity corresponding to the to the charge
charge
current ratio
current ratio in
in the
the range
range ofof 0.1C–1C
0.1C–1C cancan be
be obtained.
obtained. The
The ratio
ratio of
of maximum
maximum charge
charge capacity
capacity to to the
the
rated capacity, i.e.,  , or in other words, the percentage of maximum charge capacity,
rated capacity, i.e., ξ, or in other words, the percentage of maximum charge capacity, serves as an serves as an
independent variable, and the charging current acts as a dependent variable to obtain a fitting. Thus,
the fitted
fitted curve
curve shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 77 is
is obtained,
obtained, and
and the
the results
resultsare
aregiven
givenas
asfollows:
follows:
( 1   74.65%
Imax ()  1 ξ ≤ 74.65% (3)
Imax (ξ) = -0.093+9.5 >74.65% (3)
−0.093ξ + 9.5 ξ > 74.65%
According to [33,34], when the charging current is greater than the security threshold
Accordingtotothe[33,34],
corresponding currentwhen thebattery
SOC, the charging current
aging is greater
accelerates or heat than
mightthe security
arise threshold
out of the control.
corresponding
In order to avoid damage to the battery, the maximum charge current corresponding of
to the current SOC, the battery aging accelerates or heat might arise out to the
the
aforementioned charge capacity  is considered as the boundary condition of the charging current
selection for different SOCs, i.e.
 Energies 2017, 10, 1271 7 of 18

control. In order to avoid damage to the battery, the maximum charge current corresponding to
the aforementioned charge capacity ξ is considered as the boundary condition of the charging current
Energies 2017,for
selection 10, 271
different SOCs, i.e., 7 of 18
Energies 2017, 10, 271 7 of 18
(
Imax (SOC) = 1
1 SOC  74.65% SOC ≤ 74.65% (4)
Imax (SOC)  −10.093SOC  74.65%
× SOC + 9.5 SOC > 74.65% (4)
Imax (SOC) -0.093
  SOC+9.5 SOC>74.65% (4)
-0.093  SOC+9.5 SOC>74.65%

Start
Start

0.3C rate discharge to

0.3C rate voltage
cut-off discharge to
cut-off voltage

Still 2hours
Still 2hours

To charge at a specific
To charge
constant at a specific
current
No constant current
No

The voltage
reaches voltage
Thethe cut-off
reaches the cut-off
voltage
voltage
Yes
Yes
Record the charge
Record the charge
capacity
capacity

Over
Over
Figure 6.6.
Figure Test
Testflow
flowfor
forthe
themaximum
maximumcharge
chargecapacity
capacitywith
withdifferent
differentcharging
chargingcurrents.
currents.
Figure 6. Test flow for the maximum charge capacity with different charging currents.
3.0 Test data
3.0
2.8 Test data
Fitting curve
The maximum charging current（A）

2.8 Fitting curve

The maximum charging current（A）

2.6
2.6
2.4
2.4
2.2
2.2
2.0
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.20 20 40 60 80 100
0 The percentage
20 of 40
maximum60 80
charge capacity(%) 100
The percentage of maximum charge capacity(%)
Figure 7. Relationship between the maximum charge capacity and its corresponding maximum
Figurecurrent.
Figure
charge 7. Relationship
7. Relationship between
between the
the maximum
maximum charge
charge capacity and its
capacity and its corresponding
corresponding maximum
maximum
charge current.
charge current.
3.2. Establishment of Optimization Objective Function
3.2. Establishment of Optimization Objective Function
This study considers the battery energy loss and charging time as the optimization objective
ThisDuring
function. study the
considers
processthe battery energy
of formulating this loss and charging
function, timeprocess
the charging as the is
optimization
first dividedobjective
into N
function.current
constant Duringcharging
the process of formulating
stages, this function,
and the parameters the model
of the charging
areprocess is first
constant divided
in each into N
charging
constant current charging stages, and the parameters of the model are constant
stage. During the entire charging process, the battery’s energy loss can be expressed as: in each charging
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 8 of 18

3.2. Establishment of Optimization Objective Function

This study considers the battery energy loss and charging time as the optimization objective
function. During the process of formulating this function, the charging process is first divided into N
constant current charging stages, and the parameters of the model are constant in each charging stage.
During the entire charging process, the battery’s energy loss can be expressed as:

N
W= ∑ [I2j R0,j (Ij )∆j + W1,j ] (5)
j=1

where Ij represents the charge current in the jth charging phase, and R0,j (Ij ) represents the corresponding
Ohmic resistance of the jth phase, which is affected by the current SOC and charging current.
Furthermore, W1,j is the energy loss of the polarization resistance in the jth phase, which is related
to the charging current Ij , polarization capacitance C1,j (Ij ), and polarization resistance R1,j (Ij ) of the
current stage; further, ∆j indicates the time duration of the jth charging phase.
The SOC changes in each charging phase are expressed as follows:

R∆j
ηIj (t)dt
0
∆SOC = (6)
3600Cap

where Cap represents the battery rated capacity with the unit of ampere hour and η is the Coulomb
efficiency. In this paper, 1 has been taken [30], and when the charging process is divided by 1% of
∆SOC, the charging time of each charging phase is:

36Cap
∆j = (7)
Ij

When the sampling time of the charging system is ∆t, the number of samples in each charging
phase is:
∆j 36Cap
Mj = = (8)
∆t Ij ∆t
The energy loss of the polarization resistance at each charging stage separated by the sampling
time ∆t is given as:
Mj
W1j = ∑ I21,j,k R1,j (Ij )∆t (9)
k=1

where I1,j,k is the current of the polarization resistance R1,j (Ij ) at the K-sampling moment in the jth
charging phase. According to the full response equation of the first-order circuit, the following can
be obtained:
k∆t
− U1,j − R (Ik∆t
I1,j,k = Ij (1 − e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) ) + e 1,j j )C1,j (Ij ) (10)
R1,j (Ij )
where U1,j represents the polarization voltage at the starting point of the jth charging phase.
By substituting (10) into (9), the following can be obtained:

Mj
!2
k∆t
−R U1,j − R (Ik∆t
W1,j = ∑ Ij ( 1 − e 1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) )+
R1,j (Ij )
e 1,j j )C1,j (Ij ) R1,j (Ij )∆t (11)
k=1
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 9 of 18

Substituting (11) into (5), the total energy consumption of the battery during multi-stage constant
current charging can be obtained as:

Mj  k∆t k∆t 2
N −R U1,j −
W= ∑ [∑ Ij ( 1 − e 1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) )+ R1,j (Ij )
e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) R1,j (Ij )∆t
j=1 k=1 (12)
+ Ij 2 Rj (Ij )∆j ]

During the entire charging process, the charging time of the battery is:

N
36Cap
T= ∑ Ij
(13)
j=1

By setting the sampling time of the system as ∆t = 1s, the objective function of the optimized
charging method presented in this paper can be expressed as:
  
2

36C
 I  k k  
N j − −
  

36C U1,j 
α ∑ Ij Rj (Ij ) I + ∑ Ij (1 − e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) ) +
2 e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) R1,j (Ij ) 

   
R1,j (Ij )
 
j

 j=1 
k=1

f = min (14)

 

N

 

36C
 +(1 − α)M ∑

 

Ij
 

j=1

The following can be obtained after further simplification:

   
 36C 2 
 I  k k  
 j − −  

36C U1,j 
 N αIj Rj (Ij ) I + ∑ Ij (1 − e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) ) + e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij )
 2
R1,j (Ij ) 

   
R1,j (Ij )

f = min ∑
j
k=1 (15)
j = 1

 


 

+(1 − α)M 36C

 

I
 
j

where α is the obtained weighting factor, which could be adjusted between 0 and 1 to achieve the
optimization of different focus on charging time and energy loss. M serves as the compensating
coefficient, which allows the charging time and energy loss to share the same order of magnitude.
The control variable is Ij , i.e., the charging current in the charging stage, and the state variable is the
voltage U1,j at the ends of the polarization resistance R1,j (Ij ) at the beginning of each charging stage.
Owing to the parallel connection of polarization resistance and polarization capacitor in the
equivalent circuit model, the voltage drop in the polarization resistance cannot be changed suddenly,
and hence, the initial over-voltage of each charging stage is equal to the termination over-voltage of
the corresponding previous charging stage. Accordingly, the initial over-voltage U1,j of each charging
stage is chosen as the state variable, and the state transfer equation is:
36C/Ij 36C/Ij
−R U1,j −
[Ij (1 − e 1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) )+ e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) ]R1,j (Ij ) = U1 ( j + 1 )
R1,j (Ij ) (16)
j = 1, 2 . . . . . N − 1

The boundary conditions of the charge currents indicate that, when the SOC is large, the charging
current is small, which leads to the slow charging of the last few stages. At the end of the charge,
it is believed that the current in the polarization resistance reaches the steady state value IN . Thus,
according to (16), the initial over-voltage during the final charging phase can be obtained, i.e., the state
variables U1,N = R1,N (IN ) × IN At the initial stage of charging, the state variable of such a phase is
U1,1 = 0, because the voltage of polarization resistance is zero.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 10 of 18

3.3. Solution of Charging Current using a Dynamic Programming Algorithm

Dynamic programming theory, proposed by the U.S. mathematician R. Bellman, is an overall
optimization method aiming to transform complex decision problems into a series of sub-stage
decision problems, and it has been widely used in offline global optimization of nonlinear systems.
In this study, the charging method is based on the battery equivalent dynamic model, and the
parameters of the model are nonlinear with the changes of SOC and charging current. Therefore, the
dynamic programming algorithm is suitable for solving the current of the proposed charging method.
The dynamic programming model for obtaining the charging current is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Mathematical model of dynamic programming algorithm.

Phase The charge stage is divided according to ∆SOC; each charging stage is denoted by
variables j = 1, 2, ..., N.
State variables U1,j is the over-voltage at the initial moment of the jth charging phase.
Decision variable Ij is the charging current during the jth charging phase.
Enable decision
Dj (Ij ) = {0 ≤ Ij ≤ Imax (∆SOC) × j}
collection
 36C/Ij 36C/Ij
− U −
U1,j+1 = φ Uj , Ij = [Ij (1 − e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) ) + R 1,j e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) ]R1,j (Ij )



( I )


 1,j j
State

j = 1, 2 . . . . . N − 1
transfer equation 
 U1,N = R1,N (IN )IN




U1,1 = 0
 36C 2 
I  k k

j − −
U
Vj (Ij , Uj ) = αIj 2 Rj (Ij ) 36CI + ∑ Ij (1 − e
R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij )
) + R 1,j e R1,j (Ij )C1,j (Ij ) R1,j (Ij )
 
j (I )
1,j j
Reward function k=1

+ (1 − α)M 36C
I j

Objective value fj (U1,j ) = min [vj (Ij , U1j ) + fj+1 (Uj+1 )]

function Ij ∈Dj (Ij )

The inverse solution method is used to solve the problem. The N + 1 charging stage is added
as the boundary condition and the objective value function at this stage is zero, i.e., fN+1 = 0. First,
the extreme value of fN is obtained; further, the expression of optimal charging current in the N
stage is obtained, which is IN,opt = MN (U1,N ). Second, if U1,N and IN,opt are used for obtaining fN ,
the fN expression about U1,N is obtained, which is PN (U1,N ), According to the state transfer equation,
PN (U1,N ) can be further expressed as PN (φ(U1,N-1 ,IN-1 )). After storing IN,opt and fN , the same method
is used to calculate fN-1 , and the expressions of IN-1,opt and fN-1 are represented as MN-1 (U1,N-1,opt ) and
PN-1 (φ(U1,N-2 ,IN-2 )), respectively. After storing IN-1,opt and fN-1 , fN-2 is calculated. Thus, this process is
performed step by step, obtaining each stage of the charging current Ij,opt in the expression for U1,j , i.e.,
Mj(U1,j). According to the initial condition U1,1 = 0 and the state transition equation U1,j = φ(U1,j-1 ,Ij-1 ),
the optimal charging current Ij at each stage is calculated. The solution flow is shown in Figure 8.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 11 of 18
Energies 2017, 10, 271 11 of 18
Energies 2017, 10, 271 11 of 18

Start
Start
jN
jf N1 N
0
f N 1  0 U1,1  0
U1,1  0
f j  min[v j (I j , U1, j )  f j1 ]
f j  min[v j (I j , U1, j )  f j1 ]
 min[v j (I j , U1, j )  Pj1  (I j , U1, j ) ]
 min[v j (I j , U1, j )  Pj1  (I j , U1, j ) ]
I j,opt  M j (U1, j )
I j,opt  M j (U1, j )
I j,opt  M j (U1, j )
I j,opt  M j (U1, j )
 
U1, j1    I j,opt , U1, j 

f j  Pj (U1, j )  Pj  (I j1 , U1, j1 )    
U1, j1   I j,opt , U1, j 

f j  Pj (U1, j )  Pj  (I j1 , U1, j1 )    

Store I j,opt j  j 1
Store I j,opt j  j 1
No
j  j 1 jN No
j  j 1 jN
Yes
No Yes Yes
No j 1 Yes Over
j 1 Over

Figure 8. Flowchart of dynamic programming algorithm adopted to obtain current.

Figure 8.
Figure Flowchart of
8. Flowchart of dynamic
dynamic programming
programming algorithm
algorithm adopted
adopted to
to obtain
obtain current.
current.

4. Analysis of Simulation and Experimental Results

4. Analysis
4. Analysis of
of Simulation
Simulation and
and Experimental
Experimental Results
Results
4.1. Optimization
4.1. Optimization Results
Results for
for Different
Different Weighting
Weighting Factors
4.1. Optimization Results for Different Weighting Factors
Factors
When the
When the weighting
weighting factor
factor changes from0 to00 1to
toin1the
in optimization
the optimization target, the optimization
When
result of theproposed
the weighting factorchanges
charging changes
method
fromfrom
is shown 1 in
in Figure 9. The
target,
the optimization
charging
the optimization
target, the of
range
result
optimization
the battery
of the
result proposed charging
of the proposed method is
charging methodshown in Figure 9. The charging range of the battery corresponding
corresponding
to each to each
weighting weighting
factor is in the range is 0is
factorof intoshown
the
95% range
of
in of
Figure
SOC.
9. The
0 to 95% charging range of the battery
of SOC.
corresponding to each weighting factor is in the range of 0 to 95% of SOC.

(a)
(a)

Figure 9. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 12 of 18
Energies 2017, 10, 271 12 of 18

30
α＝0
25

Energy loss（×102J）
20

15

10
α＝1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
3
Charging time（×10 s）
(b)

Figure
Figure 9. Comparison
9. Comparison between
between charging
charging current
current curves
curves for different
for different weights
weights and charging
and charging timetime
and
and energy loss for different weights. (a) Charging current curve; (b) Charging time and energy
energy loss for different weights. (a) Charging current curve; (b) Charging time and energy loss. loss.

Figure 9a illustrates an optimized charge current curve for different weighting factors, and
Figure 9a illustrates an optimized charge current curve for different weighting factors, and
Figure 9b illustrates the time and energy loss for different weighting factors corresponding to the
Figure 9b illustrates the time and energy loss for different weighting factors corresponding to the
proposed charging method. It can be observed from the graph that, when the charging time
proposed charging method. It can be observed from the graph that, when the charging time decreases,
decreases, the battery energy loss increases, which indicates that the two problems are contradictory
the battery energy loss increases, which indicates that the two problems are contradictory with respect
with respect to the optimization of battery charging.
to the optimization of battery charging.
4.2. Analysis of the Weighting Factors
4.2. Analysis of the Weighting Factors
In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed charging method and to provide reference
In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed charging method and to provide reference for
for selecting the optimum weighting factor, this study has compared the proposed method and the
selecting the optimum weighting factor, this study has compared the proposed method and the CCCV
CCCV charging method. The weighting factor of the proposed method is in the range of 0.1–0.9,
charging method. The weighting factor of the proposed method is in the range of 0.1–0.9, whereas the
whereas the charging current ratio of the CCCV charging method is 0.5C. The charging range is in
charging current ratio of the CCCV charging method is 0.5C. The charging range is in the SOC range
the SOC range of 0 to 95%. The charging time and battery energy loss of both these methods are
of 0 to 95%. The charging time and battery energy loss of both these methods are demonstrated in
demonstrated in Table 3.
Table 3.
Table
Table 3.
3. Time
Time and
and energy loss of
energy loss of the
the proposed
proposed charging
charging method
method and
and CCCV
CCCV charging
charging method.
method.

Charging Method Time (s) Energy Loss (J)

Charging Method 0.1 4111Time (s) Energy
2760 Loss (J)
0.2 0.1 4119 4111 2715 2760
0.3 0.2 4433 4119 2527 2715
Proposed Weigh- 0.4 0.3 5143 4433 2216 2527
charging ting 0.4 5143 1752 2216
Proposed charging Weigh-ting0.5 6534
0.5 6534 1752
method factor factor 0.6 8670 1239
0.6 8670 1239
0.7 9330 1146
0.7 9330 1146
0.8 0.8 12,51012,510 871 871
0.9 0.9 18,18018,180 615 615
CCCV 7076 1853
CCCV 7076 1853

The comparison between the two charging methods assumes the following approach:
The comparison between the two charging methods assumes the following approach:
t cccv  t 
 ，t  100% (17)
tcccvt − tα
γα,t = cccv × 100% (17)
tcccv
Energies 2017, 10, 271 13 of 18
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 13 of 18
Ecccv  E 
 ,E  100% (18)
E cccv
Ecccv − Eα
γα,E = × 100% (18)
Ecccv
The aforementioned equations present the percentage time and energy consumption,
The aforementioned
respectively, of the optimal equations
charging present
method thewhen
percentagecomparedtime and
to theenergy
CCCV consumption,
charging method; respectively,
tα and
of the optimal charging method when compared to the CCCV charging
Eα, respectively, represent the time and energy loss of the proposed charging method corresponding method; t α and E α , respectively,
represent the time factor
to the weighting and energy
α; tCCCV lossand
of the proposed
ECCCV charging
, respectively, method the
represent corresponding
time and energy to the loss
weighting
of the
factor α; t CCCV and E CCCV , respectively, represent the time
CCCV charging method of 0.5C. The comparison results are shown in Figure 10. When ‘Energyand energy loss of the CCCV charging
save’
method
or ‘Timeofreduce’
0.5C. The comparison
is positive, results
it means arethe
that shown in Figure
proposed 10. When
charging method ‘Energy save’ orto‘Time
is superior reduce’
the constant
is positive,
current it means
constant that the
voltage proposed
charging methodcharging
in reducingmethod theis energy
superior lossto orthereducing
constantthe current constant
charging time,
voltage charging method in reducing the energy loss or reducing the
and the greater the absolute value of ‘Energy save’ or ‘Time reduce’, the better the optimization charging time, and the greater
the absolute
effect and vice value of ‘Energy save’ or ‘Time reduce’, the better the optimization effect and vice versa.
versa.
As evident
As evident from from
FigureFigure 10, compared
10, compared with the withCCCV the charging
CCCV chargingmethod of method
0.5C, when of 0.5C, when the
the weighting
weighting factor is 0.1–0.4, the charging method can reduce the charging
factor is 0.1–0.4, the charging method can reduce the charging time, but the energy loss is increased. time, but the energy loss
is increased.
However, when However, when the
the weighting weighting
factor is 0.6–0.9, factor is 0.6–0.9,method
the charging the charging
can reduce method can reduce
the energy loss, the
but
energy
the charging time increases. It is only at the weighting factor of 0.5 that the energy loss decreasesloss
loss, but the charging time increases. It is only at the weighting factor of 0.5 that the energy by
decreases
5.45% andbythe 5.45% and the
charging time charging timeby
decreases decreases
7.66%. This by 7.66%.
resultsThis
in aresults
trade-off in a in
trade-off
optimizingin optimizing
charging
charging
time andtime energy andloss
energy loss to
in order in change
order tothechange
charging the charging current according
current according to the changes
to the changes of the
of the internal
internal parameters of the battery along with the changes of the SOC
parameters of the battery along with the changes of the SOC When the internal resistance of the SOC When the internal resistance of
the SOC is relatively large, the charging current of the optimized calculation
is relatively large, the charging current of the optimized calculation can be relatively reduced in can be relatively reduced
in order
order toto reducethe
reduce theenergy
energyconsumption
consumptionofofthe thebattery.
battery.When Whenthe the resistance
resistance value value corresponding
corresponding to to
the
the SOC is small, the optimized calculation of the charging current can be appropriately improved
SOC is small, the optimized calculation of the charging current can be appropriately improved in in
order to reduce the charging
order to reduce the charging time. time.

Time reduce
（%）
Energy save 0.
70 1
9
0. 35
0
-35
0.8

0.2

-70
-105
-140
0.3
0.7

0. 4
6 0.
0.5

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Comparison
Comparisonbetween charging
between method
charging and and
method CCCV charging
CCCV method
charging for different
method weight
for different
factors.factors.
weight

This study uses the surface temperature of the battery to reflect the energy loss in the charging
This study uses the surface temperature of the battery to reflect the energy loss in the charging
process indirectly. Figure 11 illustrates the comparison between the proposed charging method with
process indirectly. Figure 11 illustrates the comparison between the proposed charging method with
weight factor of 0.5 and CCCV charging method of 0.5C in the charging. The charging range is the
weight factor of 0.5 and CCCV charging method of 0.5C in the charging. The charging range is the
SOC of 0 to 95%.
SOC of 0 to 95%.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 14 of 18
Energies 2017, 10, 271 14 of 18

1.6
0.5C CCCV method
1.4 Proposed charging method

Temperature rise (℃)

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (×103s)

Figure11.
Figure 11.Surface
Surfacetemperature
temperature rise
rise of
of the
the battery
batteryduring
duringthe
thecharging
chargingprocess.
process.

As evident from Figure 11, the maximum temperature rise, average temperature rise, and
As evident
charging timefrom Figure
of the 11, thecharging
proposed maximum temperature
method for therise, averagefactor
weighting temperature rise,reduced,
of 0.5 are and charging
as
time of the proposed
compared to the CCCVcharging methodmethod
charging for the of
weighting
0.5°C. The factor of 0.5 are reduced,
effectiveness as compared
of the charging methodto the
CCCV charging method ◦ C. The effectiveness of the charging method proposed in this paper and
proposed in this paper ofand0.5the rationality behind choosing the charging method with the weighting
thefactor
rationality
of 0.5 to behind choosing
optimize the charging
the charging time and method
energywith the explained.
loss are weighting factor of 0.5 to optimize the
charging time and energy loss are explained.
4.3. Attenuation Comparison of Battery Capacity
4.3. Attenuation Comparison of Battery Capacity
In order to evaluate the charging method objectively, this study performs a comparative
In order
analysis to evaluate
between the charging
the charging method method
and CCCVobjectively,
charging this study from
method performs a comparative
the perspective analysis
of battery
between
capacity the charging method
attenuation. and CCCV
The empirical formula charging
describingmethod fromofthe
the decay perspective
battery of obtained
life can be battery capacity
from
attenuation.
literature [35]: The empirical formula describing the decay of battery life can be obtained from
literature [35]:
Caploss  k  x  (19)
Caploss = k × xδ (19)
where Caploss is the percentage of battery capacity attenuation, and K and δ represent the parameters
where Capto
related is the percentage
lossbattery of battery
charge-discharge ratiocapacity attenuation, and
and charge-discharge K andvoltage
cut-off δ represent the parameters
and temperature;
related
further, x represents the battery charge-discharge cycles or the throughput capacity of thetemperature;
to battery charge-discharge ratio and charge-discharge cut-off voltage and battery. In
further, x represents
literature [35], thethe battery charge-discharge
relationship cycles or the
between the parameters throughput
and capacity of the
the charge-discharge battery.
ratio was In
literature [35], the relationship between the parameters and the charge-discharge
calibrated at 25 °C with the lithium-ion battery which considers the cathode material as LiCoO2 and ratio was calibrated
25 ◦anode
at the C withmaterial
the lithium-ion battery
as graphite. which considers
Specifically, x represents thecharge-discharge
cathode materialcycles
as LiCoO 2 and
and the the anode
calibration
material
results asaregraphite.
shown inSpecifically,
Table 4. x represents charge-discharge cycles and the calibration results are
shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Calibration results for parameters k and  .
Table 4. Calibration results for parameters k and δ.
Charge-Discharge Rate 0.5C 0.8C 1C
k 0.0121 0.0116 0.0141
Charge-Discharge Rate 0.5C 0.8C 1C
 1.152 1.183 1.17
k 0.0121 0.0116 0.0141
In order to apply theδmodel of battery decay1.152 and calibration
1.183 parameters1.17
of [35] to the research
in this study, the aging model has been further deduced, and (19) can be changed to:
In order to apply the model of battery decay and calibration  parameters of [35] to the research in
 Ah 
this study, the aging model has been further loss 
Capdeduced, k   and (19) can be changed to: (20)
 2Cap 
 δ
where Ah represents the throughput Cap
capacity= ofkthe Ah Further,
battery. (20) can be modified to:
loss × (20)
2Cap

where Ah represents the throughput capacity of the battery. Further, (20) can be modified to:
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 15 of 18

 1
Caploss δ
Ah = 2Cap × (21)
k

By Energies
using2017,
(20)10,to271achieve the derivation of Ah, we obtain: 15 of 18

• Ah 1 δ−1
 
δk
Caploss =  Caploss   (22)
Ah  2Cap
2Cap  2Cap  (21)
 k 
Substituting (21)
By using (20)into (22) inthe
to achieve order to achieve
derivation of Ah,difference,
we obtain: we obtain:
1
 k  Ah  ! δ−1
Caploss δ(Ip )k(Ip )  Caploss,p δ (22)
Caploss,p+1 = Caploss,p + 2Cap  2Cap  ∆Ahp (23)
2Cap k ( Ip )
Substituting (21) into (22) in order to achieve difference, we obtain:
where Caploss,p+1 and Caploss,p , respectively, represent the cumulative 1 loss of the battery at p and
(Ip ) k(Ip )  Caploss,p  
p + 1 moments, and ∆Ahp represents Caploss,p 1 the 
throughput
Caploss,p 
capacity  ofthe
Ah p battery during the (23)
p to p + 1
2Cap  k(Ip ) 
interval, i.e., Z t  
1 the p+1
∆Ahp =
where Caploss,p+1 and Caploss,p, respectively, represent cumulative
Ip dt loss of the battery at p and p+1 (24)
moments, and ΔAhp represents the throughput capacity 3600 tp of the battery during the p to p+1 interval,
i.e.,
According to (20), we obtain:
1 t p1
3600 t p ∆Ah1 δ(I1 )
Ah p   Ip dt  (24)
Caploss,1 = k(I1 ) × (25)
According to (20), we obtain: 2Cap
 (I1 )
In the battery attenuation model adopted  Ah1 the charge-discharge current of the battery
Caploss,1 in this
 k(I study,
1)    (25)
has a significant influence on the battery attenuation.  2Cap
In order to evaluate the advantages of the
charging method
In the proposed in this paper,
battery attenuation model the 0.5C in
adopted current ratiothe
this study, willcharge-discharge
be unified used whenofdischarging
current the
during the battery
battery has a charge and
significant discharge
influence testing
on the batteryprocess. After
attenuation. multiple
In order chargetheand
to evaluate discharge
advantages of cycles,
comparedthe with
charging method proposed
the optimized in this
charging paper, corresponding
method the 0.5C currentto ratio
thewill be unified
weighting usedofwhen
factor 0.5 and the
discharging during the battery charge and discharge testing process. After multiple charge and
CCCV charging method, the decay of battery capacity attenuation is shown in Figure 12. Further,
discharge cycles, compared with the optimized charging method corresponding to the weighting
the relative capacity decay rate µ is calculated as:
factor of 0.5 and the CCCV charging method, the decay of battery capacity attenuation is shown in
Figure 12. Further, the relative capacity decay rate μ is calculated as:
Caploss,opt − Caploss,cccv
µ= Caploss,opt  Caploss,cccv × 100% (26)
 Caploss,cccv  100% (26)
Caploss,cccv
where Cap loss,opt
where
and Caploss,cccv
Caploss,opt and Cap
represent the percentage of the battery capacity attenuation of the
loss,cccv represent the percentage of the battery capacity attenuation of the
proposed charging
proposed method
charging andand
method CCCV CCCVvoltage
voltagecharging method
charging method ofof 0.5C,
0.5C, respectively,
respectively,

16 Relative capacity attenuation rate 16

The attenuation of battery capacity （%）

Relative capacity attenuation rate（×10-1%）

0.5C CCCV method

14 Proposed charging method 14

12 12

10 10

8 8
7.0
6 6
6.8
4 6.6 4

2 6.4 2
240 245 250 255 260
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Charge and discharge cycles

Figure 12. Effect of the two charging methods on the attenuation of battery capacity.
Figure 12. Effect of the two charging methods on the attenuation of battery capacity.
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 16 of 18

It can be observed in Figure 12 that, compared with the traditional CCCV charging method,
a similarity can be observed in the effect of the optimized charging method on the declining battery
life. Reference [36] indicates that lithium cobalt acid batteries are mainly applied in portable mobile
electronics. If the electronic products are only used for one year and the daily charge is indispensable,
compared to the CCCV charging method, the proposed method reduces the charging time and energy
consumption by 7.66% and 5.45%, respectively, by adopting the charging method proposed in this
paper, whereas the capacity attenuation increases by merely 1.25%.
Therefore, considering the influence of charging time, battery energy consumption, and capacity
attenuation, the charging method proposed in this paper can effectively reduce the charging time and
battery energy loss without accelerating the attenuation of the battery capacity.

5. Conclusions
By establishing a first-order dynamic equivalent circuit model of the battery and realizing
parameter identification, a charging method that considers the battery charging time and battery
energy loss as the optimized objectives has been proposed in this paper, and the optimal current value
has been obtained by using dynamic programming. According to the simulation and experimental
results, during charging, reducing the time and reducing the energy loss are contradictory problems;
therefore, the charging curve can be obtained with different emphasis on charging time and energy loss
by changing the weighting factor. The results of discussion on the weighting factors in this paper are as
follows. Compared with the CCCV charging method, when the weighting factor is 0.5, the energy loss
and time are reduced by 5.45% and 7.66%, respectively, whereas the effect of the two charging methods
on the attenuation of the battery capacity is almost the same. Therefore, the multi-objective optimal
charging method can effectively solve the comprehensive optimization problem of the charging time
and energy loss.

Acknowledgments: This work is sponsored by the National Key Technologies R&D Program of MOST
(2016YFB0101801); Scholarship of State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment & System Security and
New Technology (Chongqing University) (2007DA10512716416); Science Funds for the Young Innovative Talents
of HUST, No. 201503.
Author Contributions: Xiaogang Wu and Wenwen Shi conceived and designed the Testing and simulations;
Xiaogang Wu analyzed the data; Wenwen Shi wrote the paper; Jiuyu Du checked the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
List of symbols.

Symbol Significance Symbol Significance

R0 Ohmic resistance Imax Maximum charging current
R1 polarization resistance ξ percentage of maximum charge capacity
C1 polarization capacitance W energy loss
UOC open-circuit voltage I Charging current
τt voltage error W1 energy loss of the polarization resistance
Ut,r actual value of the battery terminal voltage Cap battery rated capacity
Ut,s simulation value of the battery terminal voltage η Coulomb efficiency
SOC State of charge ∆j charging time of each charging phase
∆t sampling time γα,t Time reduce
T charging time γα,E Energy save
f objective function x throughput capacity
α weighting factor Caploss percentage of battery capacity attenuation
M compensating coefficient µ relative capacity decay rate
j charging stage
Energies 2017, 10, 1271 17 of 18

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