III-1

Chapter III: Tensors

This will be a brief summary of what we have already covered (as it applies to tensors), plus a little about
tensors in general.

For every
contravariant
Definition: index there is an
A transformation
a tensor is an array of covariant and contravariant components, and for every
T kRmnp ( functions of x i ) which transforms into a "similar" covariant index
there is a B
array of components T ' k'R'm'n'p' (functions of q i ) as follows: transformation.

T k R m n p ' A k.k' A R R' A m.m' Bn n' Bp p' T ' k' R' m'n'p'

The transformation, A (and its covariant counterpart, B), can be any linear transformation on the coordinates such
as the general coordinate transformations we considered in Chapter II. The most common coordinate transformation
in three dimensional Euclidian space is a rotation from one Cartesian system to another. In relativistic problems A is
generally a Lorentz transformation from one {x,y,z,t} system to another {x',y',z',t'}. For such transformations the indices
(written as greek letters) run from 1 to 4.

Recall that: Aij / Mx /Mq

i j
...... and the dependence of xi on qj defines the "transformation".

Note that a tensor is defined in terms of a transformation, A. Some quantities are tensors (i.e., transform as shown
above) only when A is a rotation. Some quantities are tensors under the generalized coordinate transformation. Other
quantities are tensors under Lorentz transformations. So when stating that a quantity is a "tensor" one should add "with
respect to .......(name) transformation".

Definition: the rank (contravariant or covariant) of a tensor is equal to the number of components:

TkRmnrp is a mixed tensor with contravariant rank = 4 and covariant rank = 2.

Examples
1. Strain tensor w.r.t. rotations between Cartesian systems:

Sjk = ½ [Mδr /Mx

j k
- M δrk/Mxj]

where δrj / (r2-r1)·x

^j and the ri are position vectors.
 III-2

2. Hooke's Law (a "tensor" equation w.r.t. rotations between Cartesian systems):

τjk = CjkRm SRm

/ stress "tensor"

jk
3. Inertia tensor, I , (w.r.t rotations between Cartesian systems):

jk
T = ½I ωj ωk; ω / angular velocity.

= kinetic energy of rotation.

+
jk
I / | - mmm ρ(r) xkxj dV if j … k
|
jRm
| = ½ |ε |mmmρ(r)[(xR)²+ (xm)²] dV if j = k
.

-1
The above are all tensors under orthogonal transformations in three dimensional space, A = AT, and are called
affine tensors. Affine ==> cartesian systems.

Theorem:
Any product of covariant and contravariant vectors which are not operators is tensor under the general linear
coordinate transformation:

Fi Gk HR Rm = TikRm .
The components of T then transform as shown in the box above.

SCALAR / tensor with rank = 0.

VECTOR / tensor with rank (covariant or contravariant) = 1.

Addition of tensors:
Two tensors of identical rank can be added:

Mij + Wij = Tij

11
Note that to each component of M is added the corresponding component of W: M +W11 = T11
 III-3

Theorem: the Kronecker Delta, δij, is a mixed tensor.

proof:

1. consider A k
i
BjR δkR = Aik Bjk
= Aik [A-1]Tjk
= [A A-1]ij
= δij
So δij transforms like a tensor under a general coordinate system.

j
Similarly, δi is a mixed tensor, with covariant rank = 1 and contravariant rank = 1.

Symmetric Tensor: Tij = Tji

Symmetric in i and j: Tijkm = Tjikm
Anti-symmetric in i and j: Tijkm = - Tjikm

Any tensor of rank 2 can be written as a sum of symmetric and anti-symmetric parts:

Tij =
ij ji
½ [ T + T ] +½ [ T - T ]
ij ji

= symmetric part + anti-symmetric part.

A second rank tensor has in general 9 independent elements.

Direct Products of Tensors: (generally ==> "all possible combination of component products")
Mi Wj = Tij (9 components of T)

Mij WkR = Tij kR (9 x 9 = 81 components of T)

dxidxj = Tij
EjM/Mx i
= Tji
In the last example, note the comparison with EL (an awkward notation for the direct product of two "vectors"). This
stands for 9 components and shouldn't be confused with something like E·L or ExL.
 III-4

Consider the last example above once more, in the Cartesian system:

E = Ej x^j in a Cartesian system.

EL = [x^E1 + y^E2 + z^E3][x^L1 + y^L2 + z^L3]

= x x^ E1L1 + ^
^ y x^ E2L1 + z^x^ E3L1 +
x^y^ E L2 + y^^
1
y E2L2 + ^z y^ E3L2 +
x^z^ E L3 + y^z^ E L3 + z^^
1 2
z E3L3

This is a complicated expression and can be much more simply written as EjLi. In this form one can carry all the
information and (for example) show that this "composite" is a tensor:

EjLi = [Ajm E'm][Bik L'k]

= Ajm Bik E'mL'k
or,
Tji = Ajm Bik T'mk .

Just as any product of covariant and/or contravariant vectors not involving operators are tensors, any product of tensors
(which are not operators) are also tensors. LiE would not transform like a tensor since the first factor is an operator.
j

When an operator is involved care must be taken.

Scalar Products of Tensors: (products of tensors with summed over indices)

M ii / trace of M = 3iMii

MiWi (like a dot product or inner product)

MijWij

dxidxi

[1//g] L'i /g gij L' f

j = L·L f
[1//g] L'i /g F'i = L·F
Note that in Chapter II it was shown that the last two expressions have the same form in all coordinate systems. This
means it is not necessary to "transform" the expression (such as must be done for a tensor in the box on page III-1).

Contraction of a tensor is the operation by which one sets one covariant index (say i) equal to a contravariant
index (say j) and sums over i. The resultant tensor is said to be a contracted tensor. Note that one cannot arbitrarily
set two indices equal and sum; one must have a physical reason for doing so.
 III-5

Quotient Rule Theorem

If (a) Kijk Dim = Cj k m in all coordinate systems;
(b) Dim and Cjkm are tensors.

then: Kijk is a tensor (transforms like a tensor).

proof:

1. Cjkm = BjR Akp Bms C'Rps since C is a tensor.

2. Thus,
Kijk Dim = BjR Akp Bms [K tR
p
Dts]' by hypotheses (a) and (b).

Kijk Dim = BjR Akp Bms K' tR

p
D'ts

= BjR Akp Bms K' [A-1]ti [B-1]sn

tR
p
Din (D is tensor)

= BjR Akp [A-1]ti Bms[B-1]sn Din K'tRp

= BjR Akp [A-1]ti δmn Din K'tRp

= BjR Akp [A-1]ti Dim K'tRp

Kijk Dim = BjR Akp [BT]ti K'tRp Dim

Kijk Dim = Bit BjR Akp K'tRp Dim

3. [Kijk - Bi
t
BjR Akp K'tRp] Dim = 0 for all A

Dim is arbitrary in the sense that the primed system can be any coordinate frame. Thus we
could have started this derivation in any (primed) frame and transformed to any (double primed)
frame. In this case we could find a frame in which D'im … 0. Thus [...] = 0 and

Kijk = Bit BjR Akp K'tRp and K transforms like a tensor.

 III-6

Scalars (zero rank tensors) have the same value in all systems.
Example: the trace D / tr D / Dii is independent of the coordinate system.
proof:

j
1. We assume Di is a mixed tensor: DRm = BRi Amj D'ij
2. trD = DRR
= BRi ARj D'ij
= [A-1]TRi ARj D'ij
= [A-1A]ij D'ij
= δij D'ij = D'ii
......

Numerical tensor / a tensor with the same (numerical) components in all systems. δij is an example.

Application of the Quotient Rule

gij, the "metric tensor",

proof:

1. ds² = [gx]ijdxidxj = gRm dqRdqm by definition of g

i
2. This holds in all systems related to the Cartesian system by dx = Aijdqj. Furthermore, ds² is a zero rank tensor
j
( = dr·dr = dxidxi and has the same value in all systems) and dq is a first rank contravariant tensor. Thus the
hypotheses of the quotient rule theorem are satisfied and gij transforms like a second rank covariant tensor.

3. From gij = [AA

T
]ij = 3n (Mxn/Mqi)(Mxn/Mqj) we also see that gij has the same functional form in all
systems. Thus g satisfies all the properties of a tensor.
......
 III-7

Some comments and relationships

ipq
1. ε εjpq = 2δij
ijk
2. ε εijk = 6
3. If Cij = Dij in one coordinate system and if both C and D are tensors then Cij = Dij in all coordinate systems.

ij R
Theorem: If a tensor, T k , has all zero components
in one coordinate system, the tensor has all zero
components in all coordinate systems.

proof:

1. Transform to the xi system from the (primed) system in which all components are zero.

Tpqrs = Api Aqj Brk AsR T' ij R

k = 0 since all T'ijkR = 0.

2. Now transform to any system (denoted by double primes) from the xi system:

T''p'q'r's' = A-1p'i' A-1q'j' B-1r'k' A-1s'R' T i'j' R'

k' =0

since all components in the xi system, Ti'j'k'R' = 0.

Theorem: A tensor equation in one coordinate system:

MijWjRCRmn - Dimn = 0 where M, W, C and D are
tensors holds in all coordinates systems:
M'ijW'jRC'Rmn - D'imn = 0.

proof:

j R
1. MijW RC mn - Dimn is a tensor since M, W, C and D are tensors.

j R
2. MijW RC mn - Dimn = Timn = 0 in one coordinate system (given).
j R
3. Thus T'imn = 0 in all systems and M'ijW' RC' mn - D'imn = T'imn = 0 holds in all systems.
 III-8

Pseudo Tensors (Relative Tensors)

Some quantities (such as F x G) don't appear to transform quite like a tensor. That is, the "obvious" form for
ijk
FxG in the Cartesian system, ε x^iFjGk, doesn't appear to transform into a similar form in the general qi system. We
ijk Rmn
fixed up a general expression for FxG by noting that ε //gx transformed into ε //g in the general coordinate
system. However, consider just the simple transformation of the components of FxG:.

Rmn
x i·(FxG) =
^ εijkF G j k
i
= [/g]-1 A Rε F'mG'n
= (FxG) i
= [/g] AiR u ·(FxG)
-1 R

-1 i
= |A| A R (FxG)' R

i
It is said that (FxG) transform like a pseudo tensor (almost like a tensor!) with weight, W = -1. The inverse
transformation is:

-1 R i
= (FxG)'R = [/g]+1 [A ]ix
^ ·(FxG)
-1 R
= |A| [A ] i (FxG)
i

A pseudo tensor (relative tensor) with weight W transforms as

follows:
Ti j = |A|W AiRBjm T' R
m and

Example:

The differential volume element, dV is a pseudo tensor ( a pseudo scalar) with weight = +1:

dV = (dq1 x dq2)·dq3, where dqi = [ui · dr]ui (no sum on i)

1
= /g εRmn dqRdqm un · dqkuk δR δm2 δk3
= /g ε123 dq1dq2dq3

Note the use of the volume of a parallelopiped written as a vector product. In the above expression the /g appears
(rather than [/g]-1) since use is made of the contravariant components of dr in the qi system.

Example:

εijk (note: no division by /g ) is a 3rd rank contravariant pseudo tensor

x (see pages II-31, II-35):

εijk = |A|-1 AiRAjmAkn ε'Rmn

 III-9

ijk
We circumvented the above awkward treatment of the transformation properties of ε by defining a new quantity,
Rmn
ε' //g, which does indeed transform like a 3rd rank contravariant tensor:

εijk//g x = AiRAjmAkn ε'Rmn//g

Further, we note that while εijk appears to transform like a 3rd rank covariant pseudo tensor with weight = +1, (page
II-35)

εijk = |B|-1 BiRBjmBkn ε'Rmn = |A| BiRBjmBkn ε'Rmn,

the quantity /gε'Rmn transforms like a "true" 3rd rank covariant tensor:

/gx εijk = BiRBjmBkn /g ε'Rmn.

Often if a quantity transforms like a pseudo tensor, one can define a new quantity (depending on /g) which transforms
like a true tensor.

Metric Tensors and Transformations Between General Systems

1. Consider two "general" coordinate systems, qi and q'j.

dxi = AiR dq R
= A'in dq'
n

2. To obtain the transformation between the general systems directly, multiply the last two terms by [A-1] j
i and
sum over i:

[A-1]jiAiR dq = [A-1]jiA'in dq'

R n

[A-1A]jRdq = [A-1A']jn dq'

R n

δjR dq = R
[A-1A']jn dq' n

dq j
= [A-1A']jn dq' n

dq j
= Mjn dq' n

where, Mjn / [A-1A']jn, A' = AM and i

dxi= [AM] n dq'n.

3. The metric tensor for the q'j system is:

g'' = A'TA' = [AM]T[AM] = MT [ATA] M

= MT g M
so we see that the metric tensor for the q'j (double primed) system is related to g in the q R
(primed) by a simple
transformation, depending on M the transformation matrix relating the two general systems.