Theory & Construction of

Aircraft Reciprocating Engine

Created by :

AZIZ WIRADI N.G (40201114002)

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING 14-A
 Reciprocating Engine Theory

The aircraft engines always want more power, more

durability, and more efficiency.
They also want it in the smallest, lightest package possible.
And it should be easy to manufacture and not cost too
much.
More than 100 years the engineers trying
achieve this.

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 Energy Transformation

Reciprocating Engine Gas Turbine

-Energry is added in a - Energry is added in constant
constant Volume Cycle Pressure Cycle

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 The Constant Volume Cycle of Energy Releases

Piston engines can be categorized:

4 – Stroke, 5-Event Cycle

By Cycle
2 –stroke Cycle

Petrol engine – combustion inciated by ignition

By Fuel
Diesel engine – combustion iniciated by injection of fuel
(Or by iniciation
of combustion)

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 The Constant Volume Cycle of Energy Releases
Working cycle of 4-stroke engine:

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One Complete Actual Cycle

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 4-stroke cycle
PV diagram of the Otto-cycle
of energy releases

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 2-stroke cycle
Port B – Port C -
Cylinder Exhaust
Stroke 1
Inlet
Piston rising pulls
fuel/air mixture into
Piston
crankcase;
at TDC
Port A – compression
Crankcase causes combustion
Inlet

Stroke 2

Piston pushed
down forces
Piston at BDC fuel/air mixture
into cylinder

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 2-stroke cycle

-No piston stroke for suction and exhaust operations

-Suction is accomplished by air compressed in crankcase

or by a blower

-Induction of compressed air removes the products of

combustion through exhaust ports

-Transfer port is there to supply the fresh charge into

combustion chamber

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Comparisson of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Engine

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 Horsepower of a Reciprocating Engine
Late in the 18th century, James Watt, the inventor of the steam
engine, found that an English workhorse could work at the rate of 550
ft-lb per second, or 33,000 ft-lb per minute, for a reasonable length of
time.
Type of Engine Power
-IHP
-BHP
-FHP
550 lb-ft/s 745.7watts
=

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 Type Of Engine Power

– Indicated Power (Horsepower) Pi

• The power developed in the combustion chamber without
reference to the friction losses within the engine
– Brake Power (Horsepower) (BHP) Pe
• The power delivered from the engine to the propeller for useful work

– Friction Power (Horsepower) Pm

• Indicated horsepower minus brake horsepower
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 Engine Working Pressure
– Mean Effective Pressure
• Pressure used to create frictionless power
– Indicated Mean Effective Pressure pi
• is a fictitious constant pressure that would produce the
same work per cycle if it acted on the piston during the
power stroke. IMEP does not depend on engine speed,
just like torque.
– Friction Mean Effective Pressure
• The pressure used to overcome internal friction
– Brake Mean Effective Pressure pe
• The pressure used to produce useful work

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 Factors Affecting Engine Power
• Thermal Efficiency
• Volumetric Efficiency
• Mechanical Efficiency
• Piston Displacement
• Compression Ratio
• Ignition Timing

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 Thermal Efficiency

• The efficiency of an engine in converting the heat energy

contained in the liquid fuel into mechanical energy is
termed its thermal efficiency.
• The petrol engine is particularly inefficient and at its best
may reach 25% efficiency.
• The thermal efficiency of a diesel engine can reach 35%
due to its higher compression ratio.

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 Volumetric Efficiency
– Volumetric Efficiency
• A comparison of the volume of fuel/air charge inducted
into the cylinders to the total piston displacement of the
engine
• Engines are only capable of 80% to 90% volumetric
efficiency.
• Volumetric efficiency depends upon throttle opening and
engine speed as well as induction and exhaust system
layout, port size and valve timing and opening duration.
• High volumetric efficiency increases engine power.
• Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric
efficiency up to 50%.

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 Volumetric Efficiency

Many factors decrease volumetric efficiency, including:

• Part-throttle operation
• Long intake pipes of small diameter
• Sharp bends in the induction system
• Carburetor air temperature too high
• Cylinder-head temperature too high
• Incomplete scavenging
• Improper valve timing

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 Mechanical Efficiency
The ratio that shows how much of the power developed by the
expanding gases in the cylinder is actually delivered to the output shaft
can be expressed by the formula:
Mechanical efficiency = bhp
ihp
• Mechanical efficiency of an engine is highest when the engine is
running at the rpm at which maximum bhp is developed
• The factor that has the greatest effect on mechanical efficiency is the
friction within the engine itself.

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 Piston Displacement

• The greater the maximum horsepower an engine is capable of

developing.
• Total Volume Swept by the pistons in all cylinder during one
revolution of the crankshaft
• Piston displacement = Piston Area x Stroke x Number of cylinder

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 Compression Ratio

Volume above piston at BDC

Compression Ratio 
Volume above piston at TDC

• Increasing the compression ration increases the thermal efficiency, compression

is limited by the knock limit.
• Compression ratio is a controlling factor in the maximum horsepower developed
by an engine, but it is limited by present day fuel grades and the high engine
speeds and manifold pressures required for takeoff.
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 Ignition Timing
• FAA- Required two have dual ignitions system which includes two
spark plug in each cylinder
• Igniting the fuel-air-mixture at two locations provides more efficient
combustion of the air in the cylinder
• Aircraft engine have fixed ignition timing ( spark occurs at optimum
for take off and cruise power)

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 Specific Fuel Consumption
The amount of fuel an engine consumes can be measured
by: volume (cm3 or liter) per (sec. or mint, or hr)
or mass (kg) per (sec, or mint, or hr).
• Specific fuel consumption represents the mass or
volume of fuel an engine consumes per hour while it
produces 1 kW of power.
• Typical gasoline engines will have an SFC of about 0.3
kg/(kW.h).
• SFC is an indication of the engine’s thermal or heat
efficiency. .
A high thermal
SFC  m efficiency also means low specific fuel consumption and,
Pb therefore,
power
less fuel for a flight of a given distance at a given
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Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Requirements
• Durability and Reliability

 Durability is the amount of engine life obtained while

maintaining the desired reliability.
 Reliability and durability are built into the engine by the
manufacture.
 Continued reliability is determined by the maintenance,
overhaul, and operating personnel

• Power and Weight: If the specific weight of an engine is

decreased, the performance of the aircraft will
increase.

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Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Requirements
• Streamlineability

 Before airplanes became efficient transportation machines with speed as

their important feature, streamlining was not considered essential. Air-
cooled engine cylinders were not covered, and protruded into the air
stream. Radial engines were especially difficult to streamline because of
their large frontal area and the odd shape of the valve mechanism on the
cylinder heads.

 One of the first successful approaches to reducing the drag of a radial

engine was the Townend ring, which was a narrow-chord cowl around the
outside of the engine. Townend rings have an airfoil shape that smoothes
the airflow over the engine. The next major step was the long-chord, full
NACA cowling, that has been used almost exclusively over radial engines
since the late 1930s. This cowling, developed by the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the forerunner of NASA, assures a
good flow of cooling air over the engine cylinders and actually produces a
forward aerodynamic force.

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Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Requirements
• Operating Flexibility

 The ability of an engine to run smoothly and give

desired performance at all speeds from idling to full-
power.

 The engine must also function efficiently through all

variations in atmospheric conditions.

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Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Requirements
• Compactness

 To effect proper streamlining and balancing of an

aircraft, the shape and size of the engine must be
compact.

 In a single engine aircraft, the shape and size of the

engine will affect the view of the pilot.

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 Cylinder Arrangement
Radial Engine : Widely used during WW II, V-Type Engine : Provide more
row of cylinder are arranged in a circular horsepower than inline engine & still
pattern around the crankcase retain a small frontal area

1 3

2 4
In-Line Engines : Comparatively small frontal Opposed-type engines : The most popular
area, but their power-to-weight ratios are reciprocating engines used on small airplanes.
relatively low. Due to engine receive very Have high power-to-weight Ratios because
little cooling air, so these engine limited to they have a comparatively small, lightweight crankcase.
four or six cylinder
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 Cylinder Numbering

 Always assume the view is from the rear or accessory end.

 Inline and V-type engine cylinders are usually numbered from the rear.
 In V-engines, the cylinder banks are known as the right bank and the left bank, as viewed
from the accessory end.
 The cylinder numbering of the opposed engine shown begins with the right rear as No. 1
and the left rear as No. 2.

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 Firing Order
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each cylinder in a
multi-cylinder reciprocating engine.
Achieved by sparking of the spark plugs in a gasoline engine in the
correct order. Or by the sequence of fuel injection in a diesel engine.
When designing an engine, choosing an appropriate firing order is
critical to minimizing vibration and achieving smooth running, for long
engine fatigue life and user comfort, and heavily influences crankshaft
design.

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 Firing Order
In case of 4 cylinder engine:
The four crankpins are in one plane, 180◦ opposed. Since two pistons
each are at the extreme position, the inline design permits following
firing orders: 1-3-2-4 or 1-3-4-2

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 Firing Order
In case of 6 cylinder engine:
The crankpins are in one plane, 120o apart. The inline design permits
following firing orders: 1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-4-2-6-3-5

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 Cooling Systems

A cooling system in an internal combustion engine that is used to maintain

the various engine components at temperatures conductive to long life and
proper functioning.

There are mainly two types of cooling systems :

-Air Cooled system, and
-Liquid Cooled system

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 Air cooled System
Heat is carried away by the air flowing over and
around the cylinder. In this system fins or
extended surfaces are provided on the cylinder
walls, cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to
combustion in the engine cylinder will be
conducted to the fins and when the air flows
over the fins, heat will be dissipated to air.
The amount of heat dissipated to air depends
upon :

(a)Amount of air flowing through the fins.

(b)Fin surface area.
(c)Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins.

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 Air cooled System
Advantages of Air Cooled System Following are the advantages of
air cooled system :
 Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light.
 In case of water cooling system there are leakages, but in this case there are
no leakages.
 Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not required.
 This system can be used in cold climates, where if water is used it may freeze.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled System
 Comparatively it is less efficient.
 It is used in aero planes and motorcycle engines where the engines are
exposed to air directly.

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 Liquid Cooling System

The cylinder walls and heads are provided with jacket through which the
cooling liquid can circulate. In this method, liquid cooling jackets are provided
around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve seats etc. The liquid when circulated
through the jackets, it absorbs heat of combustion. This hot liquid will then be
cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by the flow developed by
the forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled liquid is again recirculated
through the liquid jackets.

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 Liquid Cooling System
Advantages of liquid cooling system
o Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder head and valves.
o Specific fuel consumption of engine improves by using liquid cooling system.
o If we employ liquid cooling system, then engine need not be provided at the
front end of moving vehicle.
o Engine is less noisy as compared with air cooled engines, as it has water for
damping noise.
Disadvantages of liquid Cooling System
o It depends upon the supply of liquid.
o The liquid pump which circulates liquid absorbs considerable power.
o If the liquid cooling system fails then it will result in severe damage of engine.
o The liquid cooling system is costlier as it has more number of parts. Also it
requires more maintenance and care for its parts.
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 Lubrication System
Principles of Engine Lubrication

• Primary purpose is to reduce friction between moving

parts.

• Liquid lubricants (oil) are used universally in aircraft.

• No metal to metal contact occurs.

• Friction and wear held to a minimum.

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 Lubrication System
Aircraft reciprocating engine pressure lubrication systems can be divided into
two basic classifications:

1.wet sump and

2.dry sump.

The main difference is that the wet sump system stores oil in a reservoir inside
the engine. After the oil is circulated through the engine, it is returned to this
crankcase-based reservoir. A dry sump engine pumps the oil from the engine’s
crankcase to an external tank that stores the oil.

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 Wet-Sump
• System consist of a sump or pan, in which the oil supply
is contained.

• The sump or pan is attached to the bottom of the

engine case.

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 Wet-Sump
Disadvantages
• Oil supply limited by sump.
• Cooling is difficult.
• Higher operating temperatures.
• Not adaptable to inverted flying
Advantages
• Requires no external parts and fittings to complicate
installation.
• No second (scavenge pump) required.
• Can be operated in much cooler temperatures.

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 Dry-Sump

• Oil supply is carried in a separate tank.

• Scavenger pumps used to return the oil to the tank.
• Used in radial engines and engines capable of sustained inverted flight.

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 Engine Identification

Every Engine contains a descriptive configuration code. Each alphanumeric

character in the engine configuration code depicts specific meaning and follows a
standard naming convention

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 Horizontally Opposed Engine
Cylinders

The portion of the engine in which the power is developed is called the
cylinder
Chrome-molybdenum or nickel molybdenum steel
Used to guide and seal piston
Barrels threads into head to form cylinder assembly

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 Cylinders
• Inside surface of cylinder barrel is honed to
controlled amount of roughness
• Rough enough to hold oil film but smooth
enough to minimize friction and wear
• Plain steel cylinder walls are not treated to
prevent wear or corrosion
• Nitrided cylinder walls are hardened to
reduce wear but still rust as easily as plain
steel walls. Nitriding is exposing the cylinder
wall to ammonia at high temperatures and
it hardens the wall to a thickness of
approximately .005”

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 Cylinders Terms
The geometry of cylinders is described by specific terms:

Stroke (s) – The total length of

piston movement from the top
dead center (TDC) position to
bottom dead center (BDC) position.

Bore (b) - Diameter of the piston

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 Cylinders Terms
The geometry of cylinders is described by specific terms:
Clearance distance (sc) - The piston
cannot travel the entire length of
the cylinder. There has to be room
at the top for the compressed
mixture. This is called the clearance
volume or combustion space. The
clearance distance is the length
from the top of the cylinder to the
piston top dead center (TDC)
position. 46
 Cylinders Heads
The purpose of the cylinder head is to provide a place for
combustion of the fuel/air mixture and to give the cylinder
more heat conductivity for adequate cooling
-Cylinder heads Constructed of cast aluminum
-Provides combustion chamber, and mounting
areas for spark plugs and valve parts
-The cylinder head is designed to transfer heat
by conduction to the fins and then from the
fins to the air by convection
-The exhaust side of the head has the most fins
as it runs the hottest
-The head also may incorporate a drain line
fitting to allow excess oil to return to the
crankcase (inter cylinder drain lines on radials)
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 Valve Assemblies
The fuel/air mixture enters the cylinders through the
intake valve ports, and burned gases are expelled
through the exhaust valve ports.

Valves used in aircraft reciprocating engine :

-Sleeve valves
-poppet valves (Most Popular)

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 Valve Assemblies
Valve Guides
-Made of bronze
-Secured in the head by an interference (shrink) fit

Valve Seats
-Made of chrome steel, stellite, or brass
-Secured by interference fit Valve Seats

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 Crankshaft

A piston engine has a crankshaft, which works the same

way as the bicycle pedals and crank. The force on the
bicycle pedal from leg muscles is equivalent to the force
supplied by burning fuel and air

The piston movement now causes the crankshaft to

rotate, so we can use the crankshaft rotation to drive a
propeller, or the wheels of a car. The rotating crankshaft
also provides a means of returning the piston to its
starting point
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 Push Rod Mechanism
The valve opening motion comes from a
rotating cam shaft. A cam has a raised
portion that lifts the cam follower or push
rod, which either operates a rocking lever or
the cam bears directly on the top end of the
valve stem, to open the valve.

When the valve is forced open, the return

spring is compressed, so when the cam rotates
to a none raised section, the spring pushes the
valve closed. Push rod mechanism

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 Crankcase
The crankcase holds all of the engine parts in
alignment and supports the cylinders and crankshaft

-It provides a place to mount the engine to the aircraft

-Constructed of aluminum alloy
Divided into sections (radial)
 Nose section - Houses prop shaft and bearings
 Power section - mount for cylinders
 Fuel induction section - intake tubes, blower, manifolds
(supercharger)
 Accessory section - mounts for magnetos, pumps,
generators (magnesium)
Opposed crankcase:
 Sections are not as distinct as in the radial and the crankcase
splits from front to rear instead of in radial sections

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 Pistons Head

Pistons Head Constructed of aluminum alloy

Parts include top, ring grooves, ring lands, skirt, and piston pin boss
Cooling fins on the bottom help the oil carry heat away from the
piston top

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 Cam ground pistons

 Diameter of the piston is greater

perpendicular to the piston pin boss
 This compensates for uneven expansion
during operation (becomes round at
operating temperature)

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Piston Heads Designs

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 Piston rings
Compression rings are located at the top of the piston and seal the
combustion chamber.Types include rectangular, tapered, wedge
Compression rings.

 Provide seal between cylinder wall and piston

 Rings ride on a thin film of oil

 Conduct heat from the piston out to the cylinder and the
fins

 Material is cast iron or chrome steel

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Oil Control rings

 On bottom of piston below compression

rings
 Regulates oil film thickness on cylinder wall
 Holes in ring and piston allow excess oil to
drain back to crankcase
 Too much oil film and the engine will use
excessive oil and too little oil causes heat
and insufficient lubrication Oil control rings

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 Oil scraper rings

Directs the oil away from or towards the oil control rings depending upon the
requirements of the engine.

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 Piston Pins (wrist pins)

o Connects the piston to the end of the

connecting rod

o Constructed of hardened steel The pin is

retained in the piston with clips or plugs to
prevent cylinder wall scoring

o Typical Lycoming and Continental pins are

free-floating, meaning the pin is not secured
to the piston or the rod.

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Piston Ring End Gap

 The gap at the end of the rings allows for

expansion and contraction and unevenness
in the cylinder wall

 Always stagger the end gaps during ring

installation to prevent losing compression.

 Butt, step and angle types

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 Connecting Rod Assembly

-The link between the crankshaft and the piston

Normally steel but some low powered engines
use aluminum to save weight

-Cross section is an “H” or “I”

-Types include :
Plain Rod
Fork and blade
rod Master and articulated

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