Materials

& Design
Materials and Design 28 (2007) 765–772
www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Effect of rotational speed on the performance of unreinforced and

glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 spur gears
S. Senthilvelan, R. Gnanamoorthy *

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India

Received 13 June 2005; accepted 2 December 2005

Available online 31 January 2006

Abstract

Polymer gears used in power and motion transmission work under different loads and speeds. Mechanical properties of the polymers
are severely influenced by the loading rate compared with the metals. The gear rotational speed decides the loading frequency of the
polymer gear tooth, which influences the temperature generated and thereby the strength of the material. Performance of polymer base
gears at different gear rotational speeds is reported in this paper. Injection molded unreinforced Nylon 6 and 20% short glass fiber rein-
forced Nylon 6 spur gears were tested at various speeds and torque levels in a power absorption type gear test rig. Gear rotational speed
affects the performance of gears made of both the materials at high running speeds and high test torques and not in low speeds and tor-
que levels. On-line measurement of test gear surface temperature and failure analysis was done to understand the failure mechanisms. At
all the investigated gear speeds, glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gears shows superior performance over unreinforced Nylon 6 gears due its
superior mechanical strength and resistance to thermal deformation.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Polymer matrix composite; Gears; Speed; Thermal; Fatigue; Wear

1. Introduction designs are derived from metal gear design procedure,

Polymer and polymer composite gears find increasing
application because of the low material and manufacturing
costs, part weight and quiet performance compared with
the metal gears. However polymeric materials suffer from
poor mechanical strength and thermal resistance compared
with metals. Reinforced polymers offer high mechanical
strength and thermal resistance and are suitable for struc-
tural/load bearing applications. Short fiber reinforced
polymers permit fabrication of complex shaped products
economically using injection-molding process. Many
research works have been performed on the issues related
to the performance of polymer and polymer composite
gears [1–9]. In those articles influence of reinforcement on
the fatigue performance and wear resistance of polymer
gears is well discussed. Since many polymer based gear
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 44 2257 4691; fax: +91 44 2257 0509.
E-mail address: gmoorthy@iitm.ac.in (R. Gnanamoorthy).
polymer based gears demand special considerations for
the heat build-up and associated effects that occur in ser-
vice [10].
The temperature rise during service in gears was mea-
sured in various ways [11–13]. Faatz and Ehrenstein [11]
measured the tooth temperature of acetal gears using ther-
mal camera and correlated with Hachman and Strickle
model. Yousef et al. [12] developed a technique to study
the running temperature of thermoplastic gears and pre-
sented preliminary test results on acetal and polycarbonate
gears. Liu et al. [13] suggested analytical techniques to pre-
dict the flank temperature of thermoplastic spur gears and
measured the flank temperature using a infrared pyrome-
ter. Performance of polymer gears at elevated temperature
conditions was investigated by few researchers [14–16].
Tsukamoto et al. [14] conducted the performance test at
elevated temperature environment on machined Nylon
gear to estimate the service life. Tests on acetal spur gears
at various temperatures were conducted and the need for

0261-3069/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2005.12.002
766 S. Senthilvelan, R. Gnanamoorthy / Materials and Design 28 (2007) 765–772
temperature correction factor in the design is discussed
[15]. Hooke et al. [16] measured the surface temperature
of acetal gears during testing and correlated with gear
wear. A methodology was proposed to predict the gear
temperature.
Machine elements like gears experience both gear tooth
fatigue and contact loading during service. Gear tooth fati-
gue loading causes hysteresis heating of the tooth. The heat
generation in conventional fatigue loading is studied by
many investigators [17–22]. Rittel [17] investigated the heat
generation during cyclic compressive loading on polycar-
bonate and polymethylmethacrylate specimens. Both the
materials are heated up during cyclic loading and the
amount of heat generation depends upon the frequency
and amplitude of loading. The failure mode of both the
material is influenced by the temperature rise and distribu-
tion. An increase in temperature during fatigue testing was
observed in glass fiber reinforced polyester resin tensile fati-
gue specimens loaded at different frequencies [19]. Temper-
ature, frequency and loading type were found to affect the
fatigue performance of different polymers [20]. Chen et al.
[23] identified pitch line velocity as one of the factors,
which affect the fatigue strength of Nylon gears. No work
has been performed to understand the influence of gear
rotational speed on surface temperature of gear and gear
performance.
This paper discusses the effect of gear rotational speed
on the performance of injection molded Nylon 6 and glass
fiber reinforced Nylon 6 spur gears. Test gears were run at
different rotational speeds and the performance is dis-
cussed. Failure mechanisms at different rotational speeds
are investigated using optical microscope.
2. Gear materials and processing
Commercially available Nylon 6 and 20% glass fiber
reinforced Nylon 6 granules were used for injection mold-
ing the test gears used in the current investigations. The
mechanical and thermal properties of the test materials
are shown in Table 1 [24]. The strength, modulus and ther-
mal conductivity of glass fiber reinforced material are supe-
rior compared to that of unreinforced material. The
granules were preheated at 353 K for 4 h prior to injection
molding to remove the moisture content. Test gears were
made using an injection molding machine (Macfield) at
the molding pressure of 125 MPa and melt temperature
of 513 K. Gear profile in the molding die was cut using a
Table 1
Properties of Nylon 6 and 20% glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 material [24]
Unreinforced Nylon 6
Flexural strength (MPa) 110
Flexural modulus (MPa) 2965
Elongation at yield (%) 18.5
Deflection temperature at 1.82 MPa (°C) 71
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.3
precision wire cut electric discharge machine considering
the shrinkage. The gear data and location of the injec-
tion-molding gate in gear are shown in Fig. 1. Detail com-
puter aided simulation studies of gear molding were
conducted for finding out the best gate location and are
described elsewhere [25]. Molded gears were dried at
313 K for 30 min to remove the moisture content. Test
polymer base spur gears were mated against the hobbed
standard stainless steel spur gear (AISI SS316).
3. Gear test rig and testing procedure
3.1. Test rig details
Fig. 2 shows the schematic of the in-house developed
gear test rig used for conducting performance tests. In this
test rig, the test gear is driven using a DC motor and can be
run at any speed up to 1500 rpm. Test gear mates with an
identical standard gear, which is connected to the DC gen-
erator. The required test torque is introduced by loading
the rheostat connected to the generator. Various features
of developed test rig are discussed elsewhere [26]. Severe
wear of the gear tooth is one of the gear failure modes,
which leads to a gradual increase in sound and vibration
of the unit. In the gear test rig, the vibration level of the
bearing block, gear tooth surface temperature and sound
level of the system are monitored. When any one of mon-
itoring sensor indicated an abnormal value, the tests were
terminated and the gears were inspected. Speed sensors
and digital counter are suitably placed to monitor the speed
and number of cycles run, respectively. Detail methodology
followed for test gears condition monitoring is discussed
elsewhere [27].
3.2. Gear test procedure
Gear tests were conducted at different torque levels, 0.8,
1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 Nm. The corresponding gear tooth bend-
ing stresses computed using Lewis equation [28] are 8, 15,
20, 25 and 30 MPa, respectively. Tests were conducted at
four gear rotational speeds, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 rpm
under unlubricated dry conditions. Rotational speed of
the test gear is gradually increased to the test speed and
maintained constant throughout the test. Tests were con-
tinuously run until the gear failure is observed or until 5
millions of cycles run whichever is earlier. At least three
specimens were tested at each torque level. All the gear
20% Glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 ASTM Standard
193 D790
6206 D790
6.57 D638
243 D648
0.42 C177
 S. Senthilvelan, R. Gnanamoorthy / Materials and Design 28 (2007) 765–772 767

Fig. 1. Test gear details and gate locations.

Fig. 2. Schematic of the power absorption gear test rig.

tests were conducted at the laboratory conditions (room 1

temperature: 302 ± 5 K and humidity: 64 ± 5%). Tested
gears were observed using an optical microscope to under-
stand the failure mechanisms.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Gear tooth rate of loading
The mechanical properties of polymer and polymer
composites are sensitive to strain rate and temperature
[10,17–22]. When the rotational speed of test gear is
increased, the rate of loading on each gear tooth during
service also increases [29]. Rotational speed of the gear
can be correlated with the loading rate of single tooth con-
sidering the load sharing. The rate of loading or the strain
rate of a gear tooth is expressed as [29,30].
Rate of loading or strain rate
Torque acting on the tooth 1 creases the frequency of loading of a single gear tooth. This
¼ 
Contact period Contact ratio
where
Contact period of a tooth ¼
Number of teeth  Speed in rps
ð2Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r2a1  r2b1 þ r2a2  r2b2  ða  sin aÞ
Contact ratio ¼
Pb
ð3Þ
where ra1 and rb1 are radius of addendum and base circle of
driver, ra2 and rb2 are radius of addendum and base circle
of driven, a is the center distance of gear pair, a is the pres-
sure angle and Pb is the base pitch. The computed theoret-
ical contact ratio for the gear pair under investigation is
1.514. When the gears transmit 0.8 Nm torque at different
rotational speeds 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 rpm, the rate of
loading of a single tooth is 89.8, 117.8, 149.7, and
179.7 Nm/s, respectively. Similarly for the entire test condi-
tions loading rate of single gear tooth is computed and
plotted in Fig. 3. Increase in the gear rotational speed in-
ð1Þ significant rise in the rate of loading on a single tooth will
lead to hysteresis heating of the gear tooth and is discussed
in the following section.
768 S. Senthilvelan, R. Gnanamoorthy / Materials and Design 28 (2007) 765–772
800
700 600 rpm 800 rpm
Tooth Loading Rate (Nm/s)
600 1000 rpm 1200 rpm
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Applied Torque (Nm)
Fig. 3. Effect of applied torque and gear rotational speed on the tooth
loading rate.
4.2. Hysteresis heating
In the case of metallic gears tooth deflections are negli-
gible and hence the effect of material hysteresis due to the
frequency variation is negligible [28]. The polymer gear
tooth deforms severely because of the low gear tooth stiff-
ness (about 100 times less than that of metal). Repeated
gear tooth loading and subsequent deformation of gear
tooth contributes to hysteresis heating [31–33]. The heat
generated in gears is due to friction between the mating
gear teeth and hysteresis effects. The equilibrium of gener-
ated and dissipated heat in the gear drive determines the
net temperature of the test gear [32]. The surface tempera-
ture of test gear, which is the net equilibrium between heat
generation and heat dissipation, is measured in the current
investigations. This on-line measurement of gear tooth sur-
face temperature during testing shows an initial increase in
temperature, which stabilizes after a certain period (Figs. 4
and 5). The heat generated due to friction as well as hyster-
esis loss increases with increase in gear rotational speed.
The gear tooth surface temperatures measured during test-
ing of unreinforced Nylon 6 gears at 0.8 Nm torque shows
a rise in temperature with the increase in gear rotational
speed (Fig. 4). The behavior of glass fiber reinforced Nylon
Fig. 4. Gear tooth surface temperature of unreinforced Nylon 6 gears
tested at different speeds at 8 MPa gear tooth bending stress.
2 2.5 3 3.5
Fig. 5. Gear tooth surface temperature of glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6
gears tested at different speeds at 8 MPa gear tooth bending stress.
gears also shows similar trend but the rise in surface tem-
perature due to the increase in gear rotational speed is com-
paratively less than that at unreinforced gears (Fig. 5).
Addition of glass fiber increases the gear tooth stiffness
[24] and hence less gear tooth deflection occurs for the same
loading condition. Hence the heat generation due to mate-
rial hysteresis losses is less. In addition due to superior
thermal conductivity of the glass fiber reinforced material
[24] better heat dissipation occurs. Both the unreinforced
and reinforced gears show only a marginal rise in surface
temperature due to the increase in gear rotational speed.
No sudden rise in temperature due to the increase in gear
rotational speed is observed, which indicates that no
change in the failure mode can be expected due to the
change in speed.
Figs. 6 and 7 show the measured surface temperature of
unreinforced and glass fiber reinforced Nylon gears tested
at various stress levels at 1200 rpm. At a particular stress
level, glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gears shows less surface
temperature than unreinforced Nylon 6 gears. For both the
test gears the net surface temperature of gears increases
Fig. 6. Variation of the gear tooth surface temperature of unreinforced
Nylon 6 gear tested at 1200 rpm at different stress levels.
 S. Senthilvelan, R. Gnanamoorthy / Materials and Design 28 (2007) 765–772
Fig. 7. Variation of the gear tooth surface temperature of glass fiber
reinforced Nylon 6 gear tested at 1200 rpm at different stress levels.
with increase in stress levels. At 25 and 30 MPa tooth bend-
ing stress tests, there was a continuous rise in the tempera-
ture until gear failure was noticed. Whereas at 8, 15 and
20 MPa test bending stress levels, after 0.1 million of life
cycles, no rise in surface temperature observed. The
increase in gear tooth bending stress level considerably
Fig. 8. (a–f) Failure morphology of unreinforced Nylon 6 gears tested.
769
increases the surface temperature of gear. On-line measure-
ment shows also a sudden rise in temperature after some
time at certain loading condition, which clearly indicates
that magnitude of stress severely influence the mode of fail-
ure. Correlation of surface temperature of gear on failure
mode and gear performance is discussed in the following
section.
4.3. Gear performance and damage mechanisms
Gear rotational speed influences the net surface temper-
ature of both the unreinforced and glass fiber reinforced
Nylon gears. But no significant difference in the failure
mode was observed due to the variation of speed at a par-
ticular stress level in the tests conducted. However, the fail-
ure mode is severely influenced by the magnitude of stress
experienced by the gear tooth. The optical photographs of
the failed unreinforced Nylon gears tested at different gear
speeds and stress levels are shown in Fig. 8 (a–f). Gear
tooth root cracking and tooth wear were observed in gears
tested at all rotational speeds and at low gear tooth
bending stress, 8 MPa (Fig. 8a and b). However beyond
the applied bending stress of 8 MPa, a significant plastic
770 S. Senthilvelan, R. Gnanamoorthy / Materials and Design 28 (2007) 765–772

deformation was observed (Fig. 8c–f). Significant tempera- 35

ture rise at high stress levels and poor thermal conductivity 30
600 rpm 800 rpm

Tooth bending stress (MPa)

of the unreinforced material leads to severe temperature 1000 rpm 1200 rpm

induced plastic deformation. 25

In the case of glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gears, the 20

increased resistance to thermal deformation causes gear
15
tooth deformation only above bending stress of 20 MPa
(Fig. 9(a–f)). Gear tooth wear and root cracking similar 10
to unreinforced gear was observed in gears tested at 5 Unreinforced Nylon 6 gear
8 MPa and 15 MPa stress levels at all rotational speeds
0
(Fig. 9a–d). At high stress levels (above 15 MPa tooth 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07
bending stress) visible plastic deformation of the tooth Number of cycles (N)
was observed (Fig. 9e and f).
Fig. 10. Influence of gear rotational speed on the fatigue behavior of
Figs. 10 and 11 show the gear tooth-bending stress plot-
unreinforced Nylon 6 gear.
ted against the number cycles run for the unreinforced and
glass fiber reinforced gears, respectively. Test results indi-
cate a significant performance difference at different speeds, and glass fiber reinforced Nylon gear performance only
which is normally not observed in metallic gears. In both at high loads.
the unreinforced and glass fiber reinforced gears, only at Fig. 10 shows the performance of unreinforced Nylon
higher stress conditions, influence of speed on gear perfor- gears at different speeds, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 rpm. At
mance is observed. This behaviour is well coincident with low stress levels (8 MPa), no influence of gear rotational
the trend indicated by the loading rate at various speeds speed on gear performance is observed. No thermal or
(Fig. 3). Loading rate significantly influences unreinforced thermal associated failures were observed and only tooth

Fig. 9. (a–f) Failure morphology of glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gears tested.
 S. Senthilvelan, R. Gnanamoorthy / Materials and Design 28 (2007) 765–772
35
600 rpm
30
Tooth bending stress (MPa)
1000 rpm
25
20
15
10
5 Glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gear
0 [2] Kurokawa M, Uchiyama Y, Nagai S. Performance of plastic gear
1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06
Number of cycles (N)
Fig. 11. Influence of gear rotational speed on the fatigue behavior of glass
fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gear.
wear and non propagating tooth cracks were observed at
all the investigated gear speeds under low stress conditions
(Fig. 8a and b). At high stress conditions (above 8 MPa),
thermal associated failures such as tooth deformation
and tooth folding were observed (Fig. 8c–f). At high test
stress conditions (beyond 8 MPa) high loading rate and
heat generation reduces gear tooth strength and hence with
increase in gear rotational speed, the gear life reduces.
Fig. 11 shows the gear tooth bending stress vs number of
cycles run for glass fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gears. Glass
reinforced gear doesn’t show a significant performance var-
iation due to the gear rotational speed both at 8 and
15 MPa stress levels. Due to the improved mechanical
property and resistance to thermal deformation of glass-
reinforced gears, no thermal damages were observed even
at 15 MPa stress level. Beyond 15 MPa stress levels rein-
forced gear also shows thermal failures (Fig. 9e–f). Due
to the superior mechanical strength than unreinforced
material, only beyond 15 MPa stress level, glass fiber rein-
forced Nylon 6 gear shows significant influence of loading
rate on gear performance. At a particular stress level and
gear rotational speed, the glass reinforced Nylon 6 gear
shows improved fatigue life than unreinforced Nylon 6
gears.
5. Conclusions
The performance of injection molded Nylon 6 and glass
fiber reinforced Nylon 6 gears was investigated at various
gear rotational speeds and applied stress levels. Gear rota-
tional speed influences the performance of both unrein-
forced and glass reinforced Nylon 6 at high stress levels.
At low stress levels, gear tooth root cracking and gear wear
were the dominant failure modes and no influence of speed
on gear life is observed. At high stress levels, the local tem-
perature rise leads to weakening of gear material and
reduces the performance. Increasing the rotational speed
considerably increases the loading frequency, and increases
the surface temperature of gears, which leads to the reduc-
tion of gear life. The applied stress level influences the fail-
ure mechanism of the polymer composite gears.
771
Acknowledgments
800 rpm
1200 rpm Authors acknowledge the financial support provided by
the Robotics and Manufacturing Division, Department of
Science and Technology, India.
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