Noah Crisler

WRTG 3030
June 16, 2019

Literature Review: Hybrid and Fully Electric Aircraft

Introduction:
After 20 years of failed prototypes and designs, fully electric and hybrid propulsion systems are
finally proliferating through the automotive industry. Now the aerospace industry appears ready
to starts its own propulsion revolution in the adaptation of hybrid and electric technology for
aircraft. From small startups like Zunum Aero to industry pillars like Boeing and Airbus, almost
every sector of aviation is currently designing and developing hybrid or fully electric aircraft.
The need for hybrid aircraft stems from current environmental concerns and projections of
considerable future growth across both commercial and private sectors. An article published in
the Aerospace Research Central journal cites studies which estimated anywhere from a 5-10%
growth in commercial aviation over the next two years, something that industry executives are
looking to capitalize on. Beyond this, the obvious exhaustibility of fossil fuels is predicating the
necessity for a switch [Friedrich, 2015]. Researchers will face large obstacles before any wide-
spread success can be seen. These issues range from battery energy density, total power
available, and performance competition with gas turbine aircraft. This literature review collects
and presents the most relevant research on hybrid and fully electric aircraft propulsion (both past
and current), creating a source of condensed but vital information for future research to begin.
Hybrid and fully electric flight have the ability to both reduce flight cost and greatly reduce the
economic footprint of a fast-growing industry, making the research and advancements to the
technology an important issue in the lives of many.

Current Research of Hybrid Aircraft:

The first aircraft to use electricity to aid propulsion was constructed in 1973 by an Austrian
aircraft manufacturer, who flew 300 meters in a fully electric, modified glider. Fifty years later,
the industry is more resolute to follow in his footsteps. With so many companies racing to be the
first with a working prototype, the research and development of hybrid aircraft has exploded in
scope from large commercial class aircraft, small general aviation aircraft, to vertical takeoff and
landing air taxis. In all aviation, the principle design factor is weight; to even take off, the aircraft
must possess a favorable power-to-weight ratio. Due to the current weight density of batteries, it
is not likely that anyone will be boarding a hybrid or fully electric plane on thier next trip across
the seas. However, research has shown that there does appear to be a large advantage for hybrid
aircraft in smaller regional flights. Quantifying the exact benefits of hybrid or electric flight is
not easy as every company has their own unique design and modifications. Yet, an article
published by engineers from the Delft University of Technology, analyzed numerous results to
find that hybrid flight for single aisle, regional (meaning less than 2000km), turboprop aircraft
would offer companies at least a 30% reduction in emissions and anywhere from a 35-50%
reduction in fuel used [Voskuijl, 2017].
Another key draw in developing hybrid and electric aircraft is the extremely high efficiency of
electric motors. In a study done by the Commercial Aircraft Propulsion and Energy Systems
Research association the current gas-powered turbines and jet engines only convert about 40%
percent of the fuel to usable energy, while most battery powered engines have an efficiency
rating of greater than 95% [CAES,2016]. This significant increase in efficiency could
revolutionize commercial aviation to the point where every aspect of the aircraft is weight
optimized to reduce fuel consumption.

For smaller general aviation aircraft in which cargo (humans included) is not a large weight
factor, the advantages of current battery technology can be exploited. Due to their lighter frames,
the current power-to-density ratio of lithium ion batteries is enough to allow for fully electric
flight (with limited range) for small single and double propeller engine aircraft. A fully electric,
general aviation plane would provide the sector with a large reduction in noise, which happens to
be the largest complaint from the public, and decreased fuel prices and emissions [Gartenberg,
2017].

A third emerging and promising development for electric aircraft is VTOL (vertical takeoff and
landing) autonomous air taxis. With the current range and weight limitations of fully electric
flight, researchers and engineers are considering development of single or double passenger
VTOL air taxis. With overpopulation and crowded streets beginning to plague all the world’s
major cities, taking to the air for public/private transportation can help to limit growing
congestion. VTOL taxis would provide the public with a fast, cost efficient way to travel around
urban areas. When a feasibility study was done by engineers at the Carnegie Mellon university, it
was found that the relatively low cost of electric energy, when compared to jet fuel would make
electric-run taxis an economically viable option for the public [Fredericks, 2018]. Many modern
Asian cities have plans and infrastructure in the works to be the first to exploit this technology.
Due to relatively looser laws and regulations on flight and air travel in the cities like Dubai,
Singapore, and Shang-Hai will be trial runs for the rest of the world.

Difficulties Facing the Hybrid Revolution:

By far the largest challenge facing the aerospace industry in relation to hybrid and electric
aircraft is the immense weight of batteries. For electric cars, the weight of batteries does not limit
the vehicle from leaving the driveway, while an overly heavy aircraft could not leave the ground.
Something that conventional aircraft benefit from is the fact that as the flight continues, the plane
is constantly becoming more and more efficient. As fuel is used and expended, the aircraft is
becoming lighter throughout the duration of the flight. With battery usage, where there is a
negligible reduction in weight as the battery drains its electrons, meaning a plane with a fully
charged battery is just as fuel efficient as a plane landing with a near empty battery. Typical jet
fuel allows for about 65 times (13,000 Who/kg to 200 Wh/kg) the energy-to-weight density of
leading batteries [Voskuijl, 2017], making it difficult for any real success to materialize from
current designs.

Another problem limiting the usefulness of a hybrid or fully electric aircraft for commercial
aviation is the tremendous power required for takeoff and landing. When in the climb phase of
flight, an aircraft must provide enough thrust to not only offset its weight but also to beat gravity.
In contrast, aircraft in the descent phase are essentially in a controlled fall from the sky, and this
requires a large amount of controlled thrust. The current energy provided by modern batteries is
simply not sufficient to support the thrust requirements of commercial aviation. Estimates
provided by engineers at the Carnegie Mellon university stated that batteries would need to
increase their energy density to greater than 10,000 Wh/kg before they would be viable for the
climb and descent phase of flight [Fredericks, 2018].

While hybrid aircraft would likely use their battery strictly in the cruise phase, fully electric
aircraft face an additional hurdle of increasing their range. The main argument for air
transportation is that it provides fast transport for many commuters over long distances. With
current designs only outlining a single aisle, relatively short-range aircraft, the fully electric
aircraft seems unlikely to win out over conventional jet fuel aircraft. The current larger scale
aircraft like Boeing's 787 or Airbus’s A380 have ranges of greater than 15,000 km. In contrast an
article published by a team of multi-discipline engineers from Cambridge found current
estimates for fully electric aircraft is just over 1000km [Schofer, 2019].

Future of the Hybrid Industry:

The future of hybrid and fully electric aircraft is not one that directly relies on advancements in
the aerospace industry; instead it hinges on advancements in battery technology. Current leading
batteries only possess energy-density ratios of 200-500 Wh/kg, but scientists and engineers are
working on the development of lithium air batteries with theorized energy density ratios as high
as 11,500 Wh/kg [Imanishi, 2014]. An energy density of that quality is only 13% behind jet fuel
in leading gas turbine engines. Considering this theorized energy density, both the weight and
power problems mentioned above are immediately solved. Furthermore, (assuming a similar
relation to the max range of the new energy density of the batteries) hybrid and fully electric
planes would reach a point of economic viability with current industry leaders.

If instead the innovation is placed on aerospace companies, new advancements in composite

materials used in building all aspects of the aircraft allow for a reduction of aircraft weight. Until
recently, aircraft fuselages were almost entirely made up of strengthened aluminum, titanium and
other metals. Because of ongoing research into complex microstructure materials, aircraft like
the Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 X are now made of more than 50% composite materials like
carbon fiber polymers. According to John Hale, chief material engineer at Boeing, the composite
materials gave the 787 a 20% reduction in weight [Hale, 2016]. This weight reduction could then
be forfeited for added battery weight, which in turn allows for a greater reduction in operating
cost.

Conclusion:
The hybrid and fully electric revolution which is quickly gaining traction in the aviation industry
seems to starkly mimic that of the automotive industry. With major companies like Boeing and
Airbus providing the economic means for continual, large-scale research, the field seems likely
to continue its progression. It is unknown which sector of aviation will be the first to succeed
with hybrid/fully electric flight, whether it will be general, commercial, or new industries like air
taxis that hybrid and electric propulsion will reach first. The current obstacles holding innovation
back are large-scale leaps in energy density of batteries, range, and power requirements during
the non-cruise phase. Current research indicates that these issues are solely dependent on the
power potential of forthcoming battery advancements.
 Bibliography:

Friedrich, Christian. Hybrid-Electric Propulsion Systems for Aircraft. University of Cambridge, 2015

Fredericks, William L., et al. “Performance Metrics Required of Next-Generation Batteries to Electrify
Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) Aircraft.” ACS Energy Letters, vol. 3, no. 12, 2018, pp.
2989–2994., doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.8b02195.5.

Hale, John. Boeing 787 from the Ground Up. QT4 06. AeroMagizine. 2006

LITHIUM AIR BATTERY: Fundamentals. SPRINGER, 2016.

Schäfer, Andreas W., et al. “Technological, Economic and Environmental Prospects of All-Electric
Aircraft.” Nature Energy, vol. 4, no. 2, 2018, pp. 160–166., doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0294-x.

Voskuijl, Mark, et al. “Analysis and Design of Hybrid Electric Regional Turboprop Aircraft.” CEAS
Aeronautical Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, 2017, pp. 15–25., doi:10.1007/s13272-017-0272-1.

Commercial Aircraft Propulsion and Energy Systems Research: Reducing Global Carbon Emissions.
National Academies Press, 2016.