flow chart of cultures and their forms. As such, it has its uses in aspects of Persistent Cultural Systems cultural description, but it gives no di- rect aid in the identification of any sort of process, whet-her of maintenance or A comparative study of identity systems that can of change. Nevertheless, the general idea of persistent systems must be adapt to contrasting environments. taken up, following Kroeber's lead, and developed as an essential part of the study of cultural processes. Edward H. Spicer There are a number of different kinds of persistent cultural systems be- sides systemic patterns; some of these others seem better to merit the label The idea that understanding cultural stitute combinations of cultural ele- "system," if we regard that as imply- change depends on the identification ments that have remained in existence ing working parts comprising a whole. of elements and patterns of culture during long periods of time. His expo- There are, for example, persistent sys- which are relatively unchanging has sition of the alphabet as an example of tems that emerge in clear definition been insisted on by anthropologists al- such entities has become classic (6, pp. when one studies the disintegration of most from the beginning of the disci- 509-537). He emphasized the number large-scale political entities such as pline (1). One method for such iden- of centuries during which the alphabet empires, dynastic states, and nation- tification is the systematic comparison has persisted as a recognizable cultural states. One variety of persistent system of cultures in depth-that is to say, as unit, as compared with pyramid bur- considered in the context of disinte- historical continuities. This has been ial, for example, which enjoyed a rel- grating, or newly integrating, states and advocated, as well as to some extent atively short period of existence. De- empires has been variously designated practiced, by anthropologists such as spite his emphasis on time span, as a "nation," "a people," or an "ethnic Franz Boas (2), Robert Redfield (3), Kroeber's exposition makes it perfectly group." One may review the disintegra- and Julian Steward (4). clear that each instance he chose ex- tion of empires in the Western world isted in a wide variety of cultural in recent times to become aware, at contexts. The striking example of the least in a vague and general way, of Systemic Patterns alphabet is probably an extreme in what is involved. We know from his- stability for this kind of arbitrary pat- tory of the disintegration of the Span- The anthropologist who probably tern. It existed in recognizably similar ish Empire into Mexico and a score devoted most effort to comparisons of form among Phoenicians, Hebrews, of other national entities, and we have this sort was A. L. Kroeber. To him Greeks, Arabs, Romans, and so on, seen the disintegration of that very we owe the formulation of a number into the late 20th century, when it has large political organization-the Brit- of useful concepts, as well as some become, in the same ancient, basic ish Empire-into the Republic of Ire- useless ones that, as a result of his form, tightly integrated into such land, India, Burma, Ghana, Tanzania, work, we can confidently discard. Con- knowledge storage and retrieval sys- Nigeria, and others. Each of these en- figiurationis of Cillttire Growth, his tems as indexes, encyclopedias, hand- tities had some kind of existence before most ambitious study, contained com- books, city directories, and telephone being incorporated- into the British parisons of aspects of the historical books, systems on which complex Empire, and there is some kind of con- development of many cultures in the modern societies depend for the main- tinuity between that former entity and framework of the concept of "civiliza- tenance of their total culture patterns. what has emerged most recently. There tion" (5). It is, however, in connection An artifact of the arrangement of is no question, for example, that Irish- with less ambitious formulations that sound symbols is thus identifiable in men of the Republic of Ireland feel some of Kroeber's most useful work hundreds of fundamentally divergent and express a continuity with the Irish- was done. An example is his concept cultural systems throughout the cen- men of more than 1000 years ago, of systemic patterns, a consideration turies. before their incorporation into Britain, of which serves as the take-off point Not long-term existence, but a stable and reject the idea of continuity with for this article-a report on a com- form in sharply contrasting cultural Englishmen. The kind of continuity parison of cultural histories, leading to environments would seem to be the that is involved in the instances men- the conceptualization of certain well- most significant characteristic of the tioned, as well as in a large number of known cultural phenomena in terms entity that Kroeber identified. He did others, can be investigated with the aid of persistent systems. not choose for illustration complexes of the concept of identity systems. The term "systemic pattern" does of cultural elements that are known ,not seem today to say what Kroeber to have existed for long periods in the wanted it to say (6, pp. 312-316). The same isolated and unchanging socie- Identity Systems entities to which he gave this label con- ties, such as those of the aboriginal Australians. The essential feature of any identity The author is professor of anthropology. Uni- Useful as it is, one of the limitations system is an individual's belief in his versity cf Arizona, Tucson 85721. He was a of the concept, like so many developed personal affiliation with certain sym- senior fellow, National Endowment for the Hu- bols, or, more accurately, with what manities, in 1970-71. in the period in which Kroeber worked, 795 19 NOVEMBER 1971 ccrtain symbols stand for. There arc perience of the people through gen- Persistent Identity Systems collective identity systems as well as erations. The belief that the experience individual ones; I am concerned -here is shared with and through ancestors General as it is, perhaps the term with collective systems. The general is basic in such systems. We may think "persistent identity system," is ade- phenomenon of collective identity is of the set of identity symbols as con- quate, at this stage of our understand- familiar enough-individuals hold in stituting a sort of storage mechanism ing, to describe the phenomena with common a belief that, for example, a for human experience, a means for which this article deals. However, there flag stands for something they conceive organizing the accumulating experience is need for an additional term for the of as a land area, a political structure, of people. The identity concept thus individuals who believe in such identity perhaps a person in a leadership role, takes into consideration the cumulative systems. They constitute the basic, and a series of past events involving character of culture and encourages empirical phenomena that students of triumphs and sufferings of other peo- the search for process. identity systems must observe, and they ple like themselves. The flag stands for Third, the identity concept brings are the ones whom students must inter- an entity which is felt by individuals individual motivation into the field of view when gathering their data. This to be of supreme value and worthy analysis, or at the least opens the way kind of collectivity, or something very of the highest kind of devotion. for such analysis. The cumulative similar, used to be referred to in West- What we are dealing with here are be- image that people build of themselves ern Europe as "a nation." Two hun- liefs and sentiments, learned like other in the meanings of the identity symbols dred years ago, Indian groups with cultural elements, that are associated is the souLrce of this motivation. The common cultures in the New World with particular symbols, such as arti- continuation and fulfillment of the were so spoken of when they were dis- facts, words, role behaviors, and ritual image of themselves as performing in covered by Europeans; groups with acts. A relationship between human in- the series of historical events that the common cultural characteristics in the dividuals and selected cultural ele- symbols emphasize becomes a vital multicultural environment of Europe ments-the symbols-is the essential concern. An identity system may em- were also so designated. The term "na- feature of a collective identity system; phasize triumphant achievement or bit- tioi," however, has increasingly been individuals believe in and feel the im- ter suffering. Whatever the specific applied to groups of persons who main- portance of what the symbols stand quality, it defines an historical destiny tain and control a state apparatus, or for. The display and manipulation of in which the people believe and which who aspire to do so. This term cannot the symbols calls forth sentiments and they are motivated to fulfill. be used because I wish to maintain stimulates the affirmation of beliefs on It should be clear that I am not precisely a distinction between political the part of the individuals who partici- concerned with any sort of biological systems and identity systems, so that pate in the collective identity system. phenomena; the people who believe in the relations between these kinds of Working with this kind of concept a given identity system at one time entities may be studied and determined. has definite advantages over working may have no genetic characteristics in Therefore, I shall make use of a phrase with one such as the systemic pattern. common with people who believe in that does not have political connota- These advantages are evident in the that same system at a later time. This tions and that is, in fact, somewhat following three ways. First, the con- has been the case with the Jews in the vague in English: "a people." This cept of an identity system is built on course of their history. Further, it phrase will mean a determinable set what has become a fundamental of should be clear that I am not speaking of human individuals who believe in a theory in cultural anthropology: that of objectively organized historical given set of identity symbols. Even elements of culture have not only form, facts. I am focusing on history as peo- though it sounds somewhat awkward but meaning-they are significant to ple believe it to have taken place, not in English usage, I shall also employ human individuals. The concept of as an objective outsider sees it. It is the plural, "peoples." identity places in the foreground the history with a special meaning for the In almost any relating of human relationships between human beings particLilar people who believe it. A fur- history it is apparent that collectivities and their cultural products. People ex- ther caution seems necessary in this of some sort, as well as individuals, press belief and feeling in their actions initial delimitation of the concept. appear and disappear. The accounts of and interactions in a process that Lin- Working with a very similar idea nearly historians take note of people whose ton described so clearly as "participa- 200 years ago, Herder (8) seemed to names recur through many centuries tion in culture" (7). It is this social hold that the "national groups" in and whose names must be used if the dimension of artifacts, roles, and other which he was interested possessed some events and the connections between cultural elements that a concept like kind of capacity for eternal existence. events are to be adequately presented. systemic pattern leaves aside. There is no such implication in the On the other hand, it is equally ap- Second, the identity concept brings idea that I am developing. Identity parent that there are named groups in what may best be called the histori- systems are subject to total disintegra- whose activities cease and whose names cal dimension. We are concerned with tion, just as they are subject to being are never mentioned again after a the kind of identity system that is per- built up through processes of integra- period of prominence. I am concerned sistent, or that has historical depth. tion. However, it is true that we are with the first phenomenon-that is, There are evanescent identity systems focusing attention only on those iden- the long-term existence of peoples in that disintegrate almost as soon as they tity systems that demonstrate a capacity contrasting cultural environments. The are formed, as in various kinds of for existence in different kinds of cul- investigation has grown out of such crowds, but we are not analyzing these. tural environments-systems, in this questions as the following: Is continu- In persistent identity systems, the sense at least, that are persistent, in ity of peoples during long spans of meanings of the symbols consist of be- contrast with systems that are nonper- human history, such as is generally liefs about historical events in the ex- sistent. recognized in the case of the Jews, 796 SCIENCE. VOL. 174 purely an illusion resulting from the Each has experienced pressures for The Oppositional Process misapplication of a single term to econtmlic. political, or ewclesiastical many widely divergent social and cul- assimilation into larger organizations. To summarize the similarities in tural phenomena? If there is something Each has resisted this incorporation in terms of process, there is apparent in more than illusion involved, what is some degree and manner. Each has all of these instances a continued con- its nature? Are phenomena of this developed well-defined symbols of flict between these peoples and the kind subject to any sort of systematic identity differentiating it from other controllers of the surrounding state inquiry? If the Jews' long-term con- peoples, especially from the peoples apparatus. The conflict has occurred tinuity be accepted as a cultural reality, controlling the state programs that they over issues of incorporation and as- is it wholly unique? opposed. Their local communities have similation into the larger whole. Some- Answers to these questions have not been incorporated into the politi- times it has taken the form of warfare, been attempted not on the basis of cal systems under which t-hey have but by no means always. More coin- a consideration of the whole range of lived on the same basis as neighboring monly, and during most of their his- relevant data, but rather through the communities; there have always been tory, the peoples have been relatively tentative formulation of concepts that differences, either imposed by the incor- weak politically and have been unable seem to permit a beginning in the porating state or insisted on and main- to organize for warfare. But whatever ordering of the very abundant histori- tained by the people concerned. None the specific form of the conflict, the cal information on persistent identity as a group has controlled a political or- fact of continued opposition is clear systems. With these concepts as ex- ganization that included peoples other in each history. I have not delineated ploratory tools, it should be possible than themselves for more than a few in detail the nature and cultural prod- to move further in comparative analy- decades at a time; most have not con- ucts of the oppositional process, but sis and establish the framework within trolled any state organization during the there is no question that it can be which systematic inquiry can be car- greater part of their existence. identified in almost identical terms in ried on. I have selected ten instances It should be clear that the basis of each case. The persistent identity sys- of persistent cultural systems for pre- selection is similar behavior in similar tem is a product of this process. Its liminary investigation: those of the kinds of environments. My position is formation and maintenance are inti- Jews, the Basques, the Irish, the Welsh, that, for example, the Yaquis have de- mately bound up with the conditions the Catalans, the Mayas, the Yaquis, veloped the same kind of identity sys- of opposition. Tentatively, on the basis the Senecas, the Cherokees, and the tem as the Jews, even though their of our limited data, it appears that the Navajos (9). known period of existence is little more oppositional process is the essential The selection has not been made than 400 years, as compared with per- factor in the formation and develop- with reference to "culture traits" in haps 4000 years for the Jews. The ment of the persistent identity system. the usual sense. Although a few of the Jews, during their period of existence, The oppositional process is, of Old World peoples have exhibited sev- have been incorporated into, and have course, a mutual experience. Those eral cultural complexes in common resisted, a great many different types who are politically dominant are af- throughout their history, there are no of states (the precise number depends fected by the process along with peo- cultural traits that have characterized on -how one classifies the varieties of ples of the kind I have selected for all ten peoples. T-he selection is ob- political structure during the past sev- study. I believe, however, that the viously on some basis other than par- eral millennia in the Middle East, combination of state power with par- ticular cultural elements. In addition, Europe, and elsewhere). The Yaquis ticipation in the oppositional process the selection is clearly not based on have thus far been incorporated into does not ordinarily result in persistent time span. The reliable historical rec- only three, possibly four, distinct kinds systems. There are, nevertheless, in- ord for the Jews goes back more than of states-the Spanish Empire, feudal stances in which it may bring about 3000 years, while for Navajos, Chero- Mexico of the 19th century, and the something very similar. This may be, kees, and Yaquis it is less than 500 modern welfare states of Mexico and for example, the proper interpretation years. The known periods of existence the UJnited States. Both cases may be of the history of the Castilians, who of the others fall somewhere between. included in the category of persistent have controlled state power over most Not only is time span obviously not identity system on the basis of their of the Iberian peninsula for six cen- the basis, but any interpretation of the demonstrated capacity to survive in turies. Perhaps we should regard them historical records shows great differ- contrasting sociocultural environments. as having the same sort of identity ences in the particular kinds of events I include the Navajos not because of system as do the Catalans, Basques, and experienced. their demonstrated capacity for survival Galicians, whose systems have been in distinct kinds of political environ- formed in the oppositional process since ments-they were never incorporated the 1300's. More often, however, the Cultural Environments into either the Spanish Empire or possession of state power dissipates the feudal Mexico-but rather because kind of identity system under discus- It is only when we look at the his- their identity system, especially in their sion. The relations between state power torical events in each case as indica- present phase of resistance to cultural and persistent identity systems consti- tions of the nature of the social and assimilation into the United States, has tute an important field of investigation. cultural environments that similarities characteristics unmistakably like those Apparently, the condition of holding become apparent. Each, with the ex- of the others. In addition, I include state power may result in either the ception of the Navajos, has outlived as them because so much detailed and breakdown of an identity system or the an identifiable entity two, three, or current data is available regarding the reinforcement of it, but the latter re- more kinds of state organizations into processes by which their identity sys- sult would seem to be a' product of which they had been incorporated. tem is being formed. certain rather special conditions. 19 NOVEMBER 1971 797 Having identified a variety of per- lost "their" language several times and lans and Castilians. It is true also that sistent cultural systems as the products have sometimes developed new lan- there is a notable tendency on the part of oppositional processes engendered guages to replace the lost ones. The of Yaquis to consider institutions, such by the incorporative growth of politi- Irish, at the very time that indepen- as their historic town organizations and cal organizations, I turn to a consid- dence sentiments reached their highest certain sodalities, as more important in eration of the internal characteristics intensity in the late 19th century, had their set of symbols than the human and maintenance processes of such just reached the point at which one individuals who figured in their history. systems. As a result of comparative could say that English had finally re- One cannot expect that any universal study thus far, I describe them in the placed Gaelic. Thus, the loss of the roster of ever-present symbols, in terms following terms: (i) the set of identity language coincided precisely with a of aspects and traits of culture, will be symbols and their configuration of high point in intensity of sentiment discovered. What is most characteristic meanings, (ii) spheres of participation about Irish identity. The less and less of these symbol systems is that there in the common understandings and frequently used Gaelic language be- is great flexibility with regard to the sentiments associated with these sym- came in itself a symbol of primary kind of cultural element which can be bols, and (iii) the institutionalized so- importance in the identity system, as included. One of the bases of the cial relations through which participa- indicated by the Gaelic League and adaptability of this kind of identity tion in the system of meanings is many other efforts to keep the lan- system would seem to be that a wide maintained. guage in existence. Further, just as the variety of elements may come to have names of selected places, after the ter- symbolic significance. What becomes ritory is lost, may become very sacred meaningful is probably a function of Identity Symbols symbols, so selected words and phrases the oppositional process. Where the in a lost language may become of ut- pressures are focused in the cultural It may be that a distinctive feature most importance in the religious and repertoire of the people, there the of this kind of identity system, as com- ritual life of a people. symbols and their meanings are pared with other kinds, is that the set In addition to land and language brought into the identity system, and of symbols is necessarily characterized symbols, common constituents of iden- these pressures change as the interests by some combination of land and lan- tity systems are music, dances, and of dominant peoples change. An iden- guage elements. Once such a tentative heroes. Perhaps music and dance are tity system thus develops independently statement is made, it is necessary im- as nearly universal in this kind of of those processes by which a total mediately to guard against interpreting identity as land and language. It is culture pattern, a set of particular cus- it as supporting the widespread view notable, however, that their role toms and beliefs constituting a way of that persistence of a particular lan- changes profoundly from one historical life, is maintained. The continuity of a guage, or residence in a particular ter- phase to another. An interesting exam- people is a phenomenon distinct from ritory, is a necessary condition for the ple is that of the Sardana dance among the persistence of a particular set of survival of the kind of people I am the Catalans. During the 19th centurv, culture traits. discussing here. Without going beyond when the Catalans were undergoing a What makes a system out of the the range of the few selected cases, it cultural renaissance after centuries of identity symbols is not any logical, in is apparent that a territory once oc- assimilative pressures, the Sardana the sense of rational, relationship cupied by a given people may be lost steadily grew from a "country" dance among them. The meanings that they without the breakdown of the identity of a limited area to a "national" dance have fit into a complex that is signif- system. Thus, the Jews several times with intense symbolic meanings for icant to the people concerned. The became separated from the territories most Catalans. Feelings reached such meanings amount to a self-definition they occupied; the Yaquis, the Nava- intensity that the central Spanish gov- and an image of themselves as they jos, and the Cherokees were displaced ernment took measures to suppress it. have performed in the course of their from all or part of their territories; The deer dance of the Yaquis has also history. The selection of cultural breakdown of identity did not follow. intensified in significance in recent elements for symbolic references goes The facts suggest that this kind of dis- years, but instead of being suppressed on in terms of the character of this placement most often has the effect of by the Mexicans, who continue to image; the frequent shifts in emphasis reinforcing identity, provided that cer- carry on an assimilative policy, it has in are part of the process of maintenance tain structural conditions can be main- some measure become a symbol in the in response to alterations in the en- tained within the group. Sentiments re- Mexican identity system. Certainly vironment. Continuity, either in the garding the land become intensified, as heroes-human or legendary figures consistency of the parts of the image in the cases of the Jewish Zion and the believed to have played important parts or in the peoples' belief in their Yaqui "Eight Towns," and become of in various events-are always present symbols, may be broken in a variety even greater importance in the config- in identity systems, but their roles vary of ways. The conditions under which uration. tremendously. While the Jewish sys- formation of persistent systems takes What happens in the case of lan- tem is replete with named persons place and under which disintegration guage loss is more complicated, but of vital in the configuration, as is the sets in constitute another important the same general character. The out- Irish, it is -hardly possible to claim that problem area. The essential basis for standing examples in our cases are the the Catalan system emphasizes heroes its study is the full and clear deter- Jews and the Irish, but a portion of as much as it does certain social and mination of the cultural "logic," or con- the Welsh, the Cherokees, and the political institutions that have become sistency, of a particular identity system other North American peoples should symbolic of the particular kind of op- at a given time; in short, sound ethno- probably be included. The Jews have position which has characterized Cata- graphic research. 798 SCIENCE, VOL. 174 Spheres of Participadon identity system is to go too far. Equal- Judging from this survey, it seems ly necessary is participation in the clear that there is no one type of Another kind of flexibility of the moral sphere, by which I mean a either kinship or local group structure persistent identity system is apparent people's set of values regarding ideal that is common to all of the oases. in connection with what we shall call behavior. Each persistent people, like There is no one type of household spheres of participation. In the course all other peoples, maintains a concep- composition, of descent or. inheritance of the existence of a given identity tion of a moral world; but there is a rule, or of marriage system to be found system, there are always notable fluc- part of the general moral world that in all the instances, nor is there any tuations in the intensity of sentiments becomes specialized for guiding them one kind of relationship between a kin associated with the symbols. These in the realities of opposition. The unit and a land unit. It is not so clear seem best interpreted in terms of vary- meanings of symbols include ideal be- that there -are no common features of ing participation in certain of the areas haviors relative to opposing peoples local grouping and government; there of common understanding necessary and stereotypes regarding the behavior are indeed interesting variations of for the maintenance of any cultural of those peoples. The moral world as what may be characterized as a high system. Three such areas seem to be a whole may be much influenced and positive valuation of the local com- important in the maintenance of an differentiated by class and other fac- munity in some form. identity system: (i) communication tors within the persistent society, but through language, (ii) the sharing of that part of the moral world involving moral values, and (iii) political orga- interethnic relations remains quite sep- Summary nization for achieving the objectives of arate from such influences. Participa- group policy. There can be no identity tion in the moral sphere is hardly imag- I have indicated here some features system without common participation inable apart from some language par- of a kind of entity which I have called in all of these spheres, but fluctuation ticipation; every important moral value a cultural identity system, and I have in participation is characteristic. may be expected to have a correspond- focused on a variety of this general The language sphere refers to what- ing name, which is associated with cer- type-the persistent system. In gen- ever language is used by a people at tain sentiments of greater or lesser in- eral termns it is best described as a a given time, not to a particular lan- tensity. Thus the langauge and the moral system of beliefs and sentiments con- guage that is maintained continuously spheres are very closely interrelated. cerning historical events. I suggest through time. The language a people The third sphere, which I call polit- using the term "a people" for the uses in maintaining its identity system ical participation, requires actual or- human beings who, at any given time, may be one that is replacing a language ganization. A people may, during long hold beliefs of this kind. These are used until that time, as in the case of phases of its existence, exhibit little or phenomena with which we 'have been 19th-century Ireland. It appears to be no common political participation, for long familiar, but they have not been essential that there be a common mode example, after military defeats or dur- systematically studied by any but a of reference to themselves and to the ing extremely repressive developments few investigators. other peoples involved in the interac- on the part of an opposing people. I have emphasized that a persistent tions of that particular phase-in other During such phases of quiescence, system is a cumulative cultural phe- words, a terminology of opposition. however, there may be a more or less nomenon, an open-ended system that The names for themselves and for intense maintenance of identity defines a course of action for the peo- other peoples are important vehicles through moral and language partici- ple believing in it. Such peoples are able for stimulating and communicating pation. The growth of political partici- to maintain continuity in their expe- sentiments. The Yaquis, during a phase pation to realize objectives in relation rience and their conception of them- when opposition reached a high inten- to opposing peoples often comes as a selves in a wide variety of sociocultural sity, imposed on the Mexicans whom surprise to the latter, who have misin- environments. I -hold that certain kinds they were resisting both their own terpreted this situation to mean that of identifiable conditions give rise to term for themselves-Yoemem-and the identity system of the persistent this type of cultural system. These their terms for Mexicans-Yorim. peoples has disintegrated. It is in the may best be summarized as an opposi- Thus, Mexicans for two generations or sphere of political participation that tional process involving the interactions more participated in a small way in one finds the greatest fluctuation dur- of individuals in the environment of a the sphere of the Yaqui language. Or- ing the course of a people's history. state or a similar large-scale organiza- dinarily, however, the vocabulary of Frequently, studies of "nationalistic tion. The oppositional process frequent- identity is the exclusive preserve of movements" pay attention only to this ly produces intense collective con- the persistent peoples. Language be- sphere, whereas studies of the process- sciousness and a high degree of inter- comes a means for maintaining not es by which linkage among the spheres nal solidarity. This is accompanied by only internal solidarity, but boundaries and breakdowns in participation occur a motivation for individuals to con- between themselves and others as well; could yield a better understanding of tinue the kind of experience that is the specialized vocabulary is a vital persistent systems. "'stored" in the identity system in part of the mechanism of social separa- symbolic form. tion, and it seems doubtful that the The persistent identity system is identity system could exist without Internal Organization more stable as a cultural structure such language exclusivism. than are large-scale political organiza- To say, however, that participation The institutional means by which tions. When large-scale states disinte- in language is the single necessary identity systems of this type are main- grate, they often appear to decompose condition for the maintenance of the tained require more comparative study. into cultural systems of the persistent 19 NOVEMBER 1971 799 References and Notes 9. While space is lacking for presentation of full type. Large-scale organizations also bibliographies, handy summaries exist for each give rise to the kind of environment 1. E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (Holt, New of the peoples mentioned and may be inter- York, 1889), vol. 1, pp. 71-72. Tylor described esting to readers as introductions to these peo- that can result in the formation of new a "survival" as a relatively persistent culture ples' cultural histories. For example: L. persistent systems. It is possible that, trait. Schwarz, Ed., Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People (Random House, New York, 2. F. Boas, "The limitation of the comparative while being formed, states depend for method of anthropology," Science 4, 904 (1896). 1956); J. Caro Baroja, Los Vascos (Ediciones their impetus on the accumulated 3. R. Redfield, "Societies and Cultures as Nat- Minotauro, Madrid, 1958); E. Curtis, A History ural Systems," J. Roy. Anthropol. Inst. Gt. of Ireland (Methuen, London, 1950); W. Davies, energy of persistent peoples. A prop- Brit. Ireland 85, 30 (1955). Wales (Holt, New York, 1925); J. Vicens Vives, osition for consideration is that states 4. J. Steward, Theory of Culture Change (Univ. Notkica de Catalunia (Ediciones Destino, Barce- cf Illinois Press, Urbana, 1955), pp. 18-19. lona, 1954); N. Reed, The Caste War of Yuca- tend to dissipate the energy of peoples 5. A. L. Kroeber, Configutrations of Culture tan (Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, Calif., after transforming that energy into Growth (Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1964); E. Spicer, in Perspectives in American 1944). Indian Cultural Change, E. Spicer, Ed. (Univ. state-level integrations, and then regu- 6. , Anthropology (Harcourt, Brace, New of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1961), pp. 7-93; A. larly break down in the absence of York, 1948). 7. R. Linton, The Study of Man (Appleton- Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca mechanisms for maintaining human Century, New York, 1936), pp. 271-287. (Knopf, New York, 1970); M. Starkey, The 8. J. G. v. Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Cherokee Nation (Knopf, New York, 1946); R. motivations in the large-scale organiza- Geschichte der Menschheit (Hempel, Berlin, Underhill, The Navajos (Univ. of Oklahoma tions that they generate. 1879), vols. 13 and 14. Press, Norman, 1967).
NEWS AND COMMENT from the National Academy of Sci-
ences. The Ethyl Corporation, a major producer of lead additives for gasoline (the principal source of -lead in the ambient air) took the report's conclu- Lead in the Air: Industry Weight sions as vindication of its contention that antiknock additives in no way on Academy Panel Challenged "endanger the public health or wel- fare," and are therefore not subject to control on those grounds. EPA officials, who had hoped that A major report on the health effects NRC under contract to the EPA. Com- the report would furnish the scientific of airborne lead, released by the Na- piled -over an 8-month period from underpinnings for a national air quality tional Academy of Sciences in Septem- July 1970 to February 1971, the report standard to control lead (which would ber, has become the focus of a con- has been widely commended for its require evidence of a danger to health troversy over the academy's use of thoroughness in reviewing the litera- or welfare) showed considerably less industry employees on its advisory ture on lead. The point of contro- exuberance. panels to the Environmental Protection versy is the panel's interpretation of the The EPA still plans to announce in Agency (EPA). Critics in the environ- collected mass of information. mid-December the first federal controls mental sciences community, including Early in its planning, the panel on leaded gasoline since the antiknock two prominent researchers who con- decided that, in order to place air- additives were introduced in 1923. At tributed to the report on lead, question borne lead in a proper perspective, it the least, EPA officials say, they expect the neutrality of the panel that wrote would have to expand the scope of its to require that oil companies begin it and accuse the academy of giving discussion and consider the effects of selling one grade of unleaded gasoline scientists in the lead industry an ex- lead at far higher levels than those by 1974, with the expectation that the cessively free hand in shaping the re- found in urban air. This was necessary, market for leaded gas would disappear port, which was meant to serve as the panel said in its preface, "because of its own accord 8 to 10 years there- background for the EPA's regulatory lead attributable to emission and dis- after. * Backed with sufficient evidence policy on lead. persion into general ambient air has no of its hazard to health, EPA officials The academy, in turn, insists that in- known harmful effects." From this say they could also impose a national dustry is often the best source of es- premise, the panel worked its way air quality standard for lead-a more sential expertise, and that when indus- through some 600 references to con- severe measure that would speed the try scientists serve on its advisory clude that lead concentrations currently demise of leaded gasoline by 3 to 4 panels they are simply expected to rise found in the nation's air pose no known years. But they indicate, somewhat above their allegiances to employers hazard to the general population. Al- grudgingly, that the academy report and to put aside their biases. though the panel noted that some has made such a standard harder than The report in question was written groups of workers and children in ever to justify. "It is a conservative doc- by an ad hoc Panel on Lead of the inner-city neighborhoods might poten- ument . . . we would like to have seen Committee on Biologic Effects of At- tially be at risk, it found that the a little more enthusiasm for getting mospheric Pollutants (BEAP), a part amount of lead in the air of most major the lead out," one source in the Air of the National Research Council. The cities "has not changed greatly" in the * Amendments to the federal Clean Air Act lead panel's report is the first of a past 15 years. in 1970 permit the EPA to control fuel additives To judge from press releases issued if these are shown to impair the operation of series of similar surveys and evalua- pcllution control devices. Beginning in 1974, tions of the literature on selected pollu- in the wake of the NRC report, the new cars are expected to use catalytic mufflers to reduce smog-generating emissions. Particles of tants-which may eventually number lead industry was delighted with what lead in the exhaust degrade catalysts intended as many as 20-being conducted by the it perceived as a clean bill of health for use in the mufflers. 800 SCIENCE, VOL. 174