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Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521

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Natural ventilation of a room with vents at multiple levels

Shaun D. Fitzgerald∗ , Andrew W. Woods
BP Institute for Multiphase Flow, Madingley Rise, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 OEZ, UK

Received 13 September 2003; received in revised form 6 November 2003; accepted 11 November 2003

Abstract

The natural ventilation of a room with a source of heating at the base and with vents at multiple heights is investigated both theoretically
and experimentally. The key to the analysis is determination of the position of neutral buoyancy, where the pressure in the room equals
that in the exterior. Air 3ows in through vents below the position of neutral buoyancy and exits from vents above it. When a room is
heated by a distributed source the room heats up to a uniform state and the position of neutral buoyancy depends solely on the ratio of
the upper and lower vent areas. When a room is heated by a point source or series of point sources, a vertically strati4ed environment
develops and the neutral buoyancy surface is higher. Depending on the nature of the heat source, the mixing of air 3owing in through an
intermediate opening leads to di5erent types of strati4cation in the interior. For a distributed heat source, the interior remains well mixed
whereas for a point source, a two-layer strati4cation develops. The 3ow produced by both distributed and point sources of heating are
compared; the point source leads to a lower ventilation 3ow, although in both cases the ventilation 3ow can be raised by increasing the
heat 3ux, the separation of the upper and lower vents, the total vent area or the distance of the intermediate level vents from the height
of neutral buoyancy.
? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Natural ventilation; Multiple vents; Buoyancy forces

1. Introduction
The control of heating and ventilation 3ows in build-
ings is a major concern for the energy industry. For exam-
ple, over 40% of US energy consumption is related to the
provision of adequate heating, cooling and ventilation for
buildings. Many commercial buildings incorporate air con-
ditioning systems which are energy intensive. The desire to
reduce the energy consumption of new buildings, and if pos-
sible from existing buildings following appropriate modi4-
cations, has led to signi4cant interest in design techniques
based upon natural ventilation schemes.
A number of key studies have investigated the fundamen-
tal controls on such naturally ventilated buildings using a
range of simple analytical models and small-scale laboratory
experiments to provide insight into 3uid 3ows [1–6]. These
studies have typically concentrated on investigating the ef-
fect of upper and lower openings in a room. When a room is
heated at a constant rate by a distributed source at the base
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-1223-765714.
E-mail address: shaun@bpi.cam.ac.uk (S.D. Fitzgerald).
the room heats up uniformly to a steady state [4]. As the air
in the room becomes warm, and hence less dense than the
exterior, a ventilation regime develops in which cold air en-
ters through the lower vent and warm air exits through the
upper vent. The ventilation 3ux increases with the square
root of the separation between the upper and lower vents
and with the average area of the openings [4]. These results
can be used to help design control strategies for simple nat-
ural ventilation schemes. However, designers often wish to
incorporate vents at multiple heights in a room, and it is
therefore important for us to understand how the addition
of further vents impacts the ventilation 3ows within build-
ings. In this paper we develop a methodology for assessing
the impact of vents at intermediate heights in a room, and
use the models to show how intermediate level vents can be
used with maximum e5ect.
We 4rst use the results of Gladstone and Woods [4] to
determine the height of neutral buoyancy in a room heated
by a distributed source at the base. We then use this concept
to understand the impact of introducing a vent at an inter-
mediate height and develop a model to calculate the resulting
3ows. This model can be used to calculate the new height of

0360-1323/$ - see front matter ? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2003.11.003
506 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
neutral buoyancy, and hence the process can be repeated to
assess the impact of introducing further intermediate level
vents.
For the case in which a room is heated by localised point
sources, the resulting 3ows are somewhat more complex.
Sandberg and Lindstrom [2] and Linden et al. [1] investi-
gated the natural ventilation 3ows which arise when a room
is heated with a point source and when the room has vents
positioned at the bottom and top of a room. For this con4g-
uration of heating, they found that the room becomes verti-
cally strati4ed with cold air entering through the lower vent
and warm air exiting through the upper vent. The lower part
of the room is comprised of cold, exterior air except in a
region close to the heat source where a turbulent plume of
hot air rises. At a certain height a sharp interface is formed
which separates the cold lower region from the hot air. The
height of the transition point is determined by the area of
the vents, the total height of the room and the entrainment
coeGcient for the rising plume.
The neutral buoyancy surface lies above the interface.
If there is an intermediate level opening above the neutral
buoyancy height then out3ow develops. If the intermedi-
ate level opening is below the neutral buoyancy height then
in3ow develops. For an opening below the interface, the
two-layer strati4cation simply adjusts; the interface is raised
when the intermediate level vent is opened. However, when
an opening is located between the neutral buoyancy height
and the interface, a plume of cold air enters through the
intermediate level vent and descends to the interface be-
tween the upper and lower layers; at this point the descend-
ing plume is arrested. We develop a series of models to de-
scribe these 3ow regimes. The theoretical results are tested
using a series of analogue laboratory experiments. In partic-
ular, we test the theory for the position of neutral buoyancy
and the steady state temperatures which arise in rooms with
multiple vents heated with a distributed source and a point
source. Finally, we discuss the applications of our models
for building design.
2. Heating of a room by a distributed source
We 4rst consider the case in which a room of height H is
heated by a distributed heat 3ux of magnitude Q as shown
in Fig. 1(a).
2.1. Upper and lower vent model
The room is ventilated by two vents; vent 1 at the base
of the room and vent 3 at the top of the room. The vents
have area a1 and a3 where suGces 1 and 3 correspond to
the respective vents. Following the results of Gladstone and
Woods [4] we assume that the air within the room is well
mixed so that the temperature within the room is uniform.
The density of air within the room i is then given by
i = o − IT; (1)
where  is the thermal expansivity of air. We use suGx i
to denote an interior property, suGx o an exterior property,
and IT the temperature di5erence between the exterior and
interior; positive IT corresponds to the temperature in the
room being greater than outside. Following Gladstone and
Woods [4] we assume that the pressure within and outside
the room varies hydrostatically with depth. Owing to the
lower density of air inside the room, the interior vertical
pressure gradient is lower than the exterior pressure gradient.
The di5erence between these pressure gradients leads to a
ventilation 3ow as indicated in Fig. 1(b).
Using the approach of Linden [3] we assume that the
velocity vj of air 3owing through a vent j is related to the
pressure drop IPj , across the vent according to


2IPj
vj = ; (2)

where  corresponds to the density of the air, and that the
volumetric 3ow rate Vj through vent j of area aj is related
to the velocity vj according to
Vj = aj vj cj ; (3)
where cj is a discharge coeGcient which accounts for the
e5ective reduction in area [3].
The temperature di5erence IT is related to the heat 3ux
Q supplied at the 3oor according to
Q = Cp V IT; (4)
where Cp denotes speci4c heat capacity of the air and V the
total volumetric 3ow rate of the resulting ventilation 3ow.
From Fig. 1(b), it can be seen that the pressure within the
interior of the room is equal to the pressure outside the room
at a speci4c height. Under steady conditions the volumetric
3ow rates at the upper and lower vents are the same so
v1 = v3 ; (5)
where =a3 c3 =a1 c1 is the ratio of the upper and lower e5ec-
tive vent areas. Since the room is well mixed the pressure
drop across the lower vent is related to the reduced gravity
of the interior 3uid acting over the distance hn
IP1 = Ighn ; (6)
where I = o − i . Substituting (6) into (2) for vent 1 we
4nd

v1 = 2hn g
; (7)
where g
= Ig=. A similar expression can be obtained for
the pressure drop across the upper vent and hence

v3 = 2(H − hn )g
: (8)
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521 507

3 Flow out

H Neutral buoyancy

Height
Cold
exterior
Convective mixing
Warm room

1 Flow in

(a) Heat flux Q (b) Pressure

hn

(c) Case A Case B

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of a room heated at the 3oor by a distributed source and ventilated at the top and bottom. (b) The variation of pressure as a
function of height within the room (dashed line) and outside (solid line). Air 3ows out of the upper vent and in through the lower vent. (c) The impact
of an intermediate level vent introduced above and below the neutral buoyancy height.

Combining (5) with (7) and (8) we 4nd that the height of act as an in3ow vent (Fig. 1(c)). The neutral buoyancy
neutral buoyancy is given by analysis suggests that windows positioned at height hn will
exhibit no 3ow. However, vents are of 4nite height and so
2
ĥn = ; (9) in the case where the point of neutral buoyancy is contained
1 + 2 within the opening, an exchange 3ow can develop whereby
where ĥn = hn =H . air exits the vent above the point of neutral buoyancy and
The position of neutral buoyancy ĥn is determined solely enters through the lower portion of the window. We restrict
by the ratio of the upper and lower e5ective vent areas. our analysis here to the case where the vents are of suf-
4ciently shallow vertical extent that they generally act as
pure outlets or inlets.
2.2. Impact of an intermediate level vent

We now use the analysis of 2.1 to determine the impact
of introducing an intermediate level vent, vent 2. We denote
the area of vent 2 as a2 and the distance of vent 2 from the
lower vent as h2 .
The direction of 3ow through the intermediate level will
depend on its location relative to the neutral buoyancy
height. If the middle vent is located at a height h greater
than hn then the middle level vent will act as an out3ow
vent whereas if it is located at a height less than hn it will
2.2.1. Case A: Vent 2 outlet [h2 ¿ hn ]
We 4rst consider the case in which the intermediate level
vent is higher than the neutral buoyancy height calculated
for the two vent scheme discussed in Section 2.1 (Fig. 1(c),
Case A). Let us express the ratio of the middle vent area
to lower vent area as a2 c2 =a1 c1 = . In the case vent 2
acts as an outlet, vent 2 has to be above the height of neu-
tral buoyancy. The pressure drop across vent 2 can be re-
lated to the reduced gravity of the interior 3uid acting over
508 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521

the distance h2 −hn . Following the same approach as in Sec- and outside the building according to
tion 2.1 we can express the velocity of 3uid exiting from
P(h)o = P1o − o gh: (14)
vent 2 as
 For convenience we take the case c1 = c2 = c3 = cd and work
v2 = 2g
(h2 − hn ): (10)
with the dimensionless variable
Conservation of mass may be written as V3
= (15)
v1 = v2 + v3 : (11) 2BHa21 cd2
and 4nd that  is given by

22 − (1 − 2 + 2 )(2 − 2 ĥ2 ) + 2 1 − (2 − 2 ĥ2 )(1 + 2 (1 − ĥ2 ))
= ; (16)
42 + (1 − 2 + 2 )2

Combining (11) with (7), (8) and (10) we obtain

   where the imposed buoyancy is given by
ĥn =  ĥ2 − ĥn +  1 − ĥn ; (12) B = gQ=(2o Cp ): (17)
where ĥ2 = h2 =H . After obtaining the dimensionless variable  from (16),
There is only one solution to (12) as can be seen from and hence the ventilation 3ux V from (15), Eq. (4) can be
Fig. 2, where we show an example for ĥ2 = 0:7 in which the used to determine how the temperature di5erence IT also
upper and lower vents are of equal area  = 1, and  = 0:2. varies with location and area of the middle vent.
The thick solid line corresponds to ĥn , the thin solid Let us 4rst consider the case in which the upper and lower
 vents are of equal area,  = 1. For illustrative purposes we
line
 to  1 − ĥn , and the dashed line to the contribution
consider the case where a room of 10 m vertical extent has
 ĥ2 − ĥn +  1 − ĥn . The neutral buoyancy height with-
a doorway of typical area 2 m2 at the base, so that a1 =H 2 =
out the intermediate level vent is given by the intersection
a3 =H 2 = 0:02. From the analysis of Section 2.1, we deduce
of the thick and thin solid lines, hn = 0:5 as expected. The
that the neutral buoyancy height occurs at ĥn = 0:5. We can
neutral buoyancy height with the intermediate level vent is
therefore use (16) to solve for the case ĥ2 ¿ 0:5.
given by the intersection of the thick and dashed lines. It
In Fig. 3 we show how the dimensionless volume 3ux
may be observed that introducing the intermediate level vent
V̂ = V=(BH 5 )1=3 varies as the area of the intermediate level
raises the neutral buoyancy height. As the size of vent 2
vent a2 =H 2 increases. We 4rst note that since the neutral
increases such that a2 a3 ; a1 , the neutral buoyancy height
buoyancy height occurs at ĥ = 0:5, we 4nd as expected that
hn → h2 .
the total volume 3ux does not increase if the intermediate
We can also derive an expression for the total volumetric
level vent is located at this height. However, as the interme-
3ow rate through the building V by combining (1)–(4), (11)
diate level vent is moved away from the neutral buoyancy
and using the approximation that the pressure within the
height, the total volume 3ux rises as the area of the addi-
building varies hydrostatically with depth (cf Eq. (6))
tional vent is increased. The additional vent has a greater
P(h)i = P1i − i gh (13) impact on the total ventilation 3ow, and hence internal tem-
perature, when it is located furthest from the height of neu-
tral buoyancy.
1.2

1 2.2.2. Case B: Vent 2 inlet [h2 ¡ hn ]

We now consider the case in which the intermediate level
0.8
vent is lower than the neutral buoyancy height calculated
for the two vent scheme discussed in Section 2.1 (Fig. 1(c),
f(h )

0.6
Case B). In this case the intermediate level vent acts as an
0.4
inlet and we again assume that the room is well mixed and
0.2 that the pressure varies hydrostatically with depth. How-
ever, in this case there will in fact be a plume of cold air
0 which descends from vent 2 to the base. The plume will then
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
spread over the base of the room and become mixed by the
h
convection associated with the distributed heating source.
Fig. 2. Graphical solution of Eq. (12) for the case in 
which ĥ2 =0:7; =1, In order for vent 2 to act as an inlet, vent 2 has to be
and  = 0:2. The thick solid line corresponds to ĥn and the dashed below the height of neutral buoyancy (Fig. 1(c), Case B).
 
line to the contribution  1 − ĥn +  ĥ2 − ĥn . The solution to (12) is The pressure drop across vent 2 can be related to the reduced
found to be ĥn = 0:55. gravity of the interior 3uid acting over the distance hn − h2 .
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
As for the analysis of 2.2.1 we can write the velocity of 3uid
entering through vent 2 as

v2 = 2g
(hn − h2 ): (18)
Conservation of mass may be written as
v1 + v2 = v3 : (19)
Combining (18) with (7), (8) and (19) we obtain
  
ĥn +  ĥn − ĥ2 =  1 − ĥn : (20a)
As before for the case in which there was only one solution
to (12), there is again only one solution to (20a). In this case
introducing the intermediate level vent lowers the neutral
buoyancy height and, as for case A (Section 2.2.1), hn →
h2 as the area of the middle vent a2 is increased such that
a2 a3 ; a1 .
We can again derive an expression for the total volume
3ow rate through the building, V , by combining (1)–(4),
(13)–(14) and (19). Considering the case c1 = c2 = c3 = cd
and working with a dimensionless variable , this time given
by
V3
= ; (20b)
2BHa21 cd2 2
 is given by
 Similarly, when the lower vent is much larger than the upper
2 1 + (1 − 2 (1 − ĥ2 ))(2 − 2 − 2 (2 − ĥ2 ))
=
(2 + 2 − 1)2 − 42
22 − (2 + 2 − 1)(1 − 2 (1 − ĥ2 ))
+ : (21)
(2 + 2 − 1)2 − 42
The buoyancy strength B may be related to the imposed
heat 3ux Q using (17) as in Case A.
Let us refer back to the example in Fig. 3 where we show
how the dimensionless volume 3ux V̂ = V=(BH 5 )1=3 varies
as the area of the intermediate level vent a2 =H 2 increases
for the case a1 =H 2 = a3 =H 2 = 0:02. In this 4gure we also
show the case in which vent 2 is located below the height
of neutral buoyancy. In this example the upper and lower
vents are the same size and so the solutions for Case A and
Case B are symmetric about ĥ = 0:5; the increase in total
ventilation 3ow as the area of vent 2 is increased is the same
for vent positions ĥ2 = 0:5 ± ! where 0 6 ! 6 0:5. Again
the intermediate level vent has a greater impact on the total
ventilation 3ow when it is located further from the height
of neutral buoyancy. We now investigate the more general
situation in which the upper and lower vents have di5erent
areas, and discuss the impact of an intermediate level vent
upon the natural ventilation 3ow.
2.2.3. Case a1 = a3
The same general principles apply when a1 = a3 as for
the case in which the upper and lower vents have the same
area. The neutral buoyancy height is given from (9) to be
509
0.5 0.4, 0.6 0.3, 0.7
0.2, 0.8 0.1, 0.9
0.066
0.064
0.062
volume flux
0.06
0.058
0.056
0.054
0.052
0.05
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
2
a 2 /H
Fig. 3. Volume 3ux as a function of a2 =H 2 for the case in which a room
is heated by a distributed source and where a1 =H 2 = a3 =H 2 = 0:02.
ĥn =2 =(1+2 ). In3ow through the middle vent occurs when
h2 ¡ hn whereas out3ow occurs when hn ¡ h2 . From (9), it
can be inferred that in the case where the upper vent is much
larger than the lower vent (1), most of the pressure loss
through the room occurs across the lower vent so that the
neutral pressure height is closer to the upper vent ĥn → 1.
vent (1), most of the pressure loss through the room
occurs across the upper vent so that the neutral pressure
height is closer to the lower vent ĥn → 0.
The analysis thus far has shown how the impact of an
additional, intermediate level vent on the natural ventilation
3ow depends critically on the location of the additional vent
relative to the neutral buoyancy height for the case in which
there are only upper and lower level vents. However, the
analysis is restricted to well mixed rooms heated by dis-
tributed heat sources at the base (or cooled by distributed
heat sinks at the top of a room). We now explore the anal-
ogous problem when there is a localised heat source, and
illustrate that the same basic principle controls the 3ow al-
though the details are more complex.
3. Heating of a room by a point source
We consider the case in which a room of height H is
heated at the base by a localised heat 3ux of magnitude
Q as shown in Fig. 4(a). The room is ventilated by two
vents of area a3 and a1 where a denotes vent area and
suGces 3 and 1 refer to upper and lower respectively.
Linden et al. [1] modelled this case by treating the lo-
calised heat source as a point source of buoyancy, and
showed that a vertically strati4ed environment is estab-
lished. The lower layer is comprised of air at the out-
side temperature, except for a relatively narrow region
within the plume directly above the source of buoyancy,
510 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521

3 Flow out
H
Convective mixing
Warm upper layer Neutral buoyancy
Cold

Height
hn exterior

Interface

1 Flow in

(a) Heat flux Q (b) Pressure

3 3 3

1 1 1

(c) Case A Case B1 Case B2

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic of a room heated at the 3oor by a point source and ventilated at the top and bottom. (b) The variation of pressure as a function
of height within the room (dashed line) and outside (solid line). Air 3ows out of the upper vent and in through the lower vent. (c) The impact of an
intermediate level vent introduced above and below the neutral buoyancy height.

and the upper layer above a sharp interface is comprised and so

of relatively warm air. The pressure within the room varies 
according to the pro4le as shown in Fig. 4(b). The pressure v1 = 2g
H (ĥn − ĥ); (22)
drop across the lower vent enables cold air to enter the

where g =Ig=o . The pressure drop across vent 3 is related
room. The vertical pressure gradient in the lower layer is
to the reduced gravity of the upper layer 3uid acting over
identical to that outside since the densities are the same.
the distance H − hn and so we can use (8) to relate v3 to hn .
Above the interface, located at a height h, the pressure gra-
Substituting (22) and (8) into the equation describing the
dient is weaker owing to the lower density of the warm air.
conservation of mass (5) we obtain an expression relating
At a height hn , the pressure in the room is equal to that out-
the interface height h and the height of neutral buoyancy hn
side. The pressure drop across the upper vent enables warm  
air to leave the room. To determine the impact of an inter-  1 − ĥn = ĥn − ĥ: (23)
mediate level vent on the natural ventilation 3ow in a room
we 4rst use the analysis of Linden et al. [1] to determine The total volume 3ux V can be calculated from the plume
the neutral buoyancy height for a room comprised of upper theory of Morton et al. [7]
and lower level vents. We then develop a model to account
v1 a1 c1 = CB1=3 h5=3 ; (24)
for the additional 3ow through the intermediate level vent.
where C =(6=5)(9=10)1=3 , the point source of buoyancy
3.1. Upper and lower vent model has strength B, and  is the entrainment coeGcient. Conser-
vation of total buoyancy 3ux can be written as
The pressure drop across vent 1 is related to the reduced
gravity of the upper layer acting over the distance hn − h B = v 1 a1 c1 g
: (25)
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
Combining (22), (24) and (25) we obtain a further expres-
sion relating h and hn
C 3 ĥ5 = 2(a1 c1 =H 2 )2 (ĥn − ĥ):
Finally, combining (23) and (26) it is found that the height
of the interface ĥ = h=H is given by
 1=2
5
ĥ A∗
C 3=2 = 2; (27)
1 − ĥ H h. Eq. (26), which results from combining (22), (24) and
where
a 3 a1
A∗ = : (28)
( 12 ((a1 =c3 )2 + (a3 =c1 )2 ))1=2
The dimensionless height of the interface ĥ and neutral
buoyancy height ĥn are governed by the e5ective dimen-
sionless vent area A∗ =H 2 and the entrainment coeGcient ;
interestingly, they are independent of the strength of the
buoyancy source. It is worth noting that although the above
model of a two-hole system based on the work of Linden
et al. [1] is derived by assuming the localised heat source
to be a pure source of buoyancy with zero associated mass
3ux, it is possible to account for a 4nite mass 3ux [8,9].
We now use the concept of the height of neutral buoyancy
in order to predict the impact of introducing a middle vent.
3.2. Impact of an intermediate level vent
We consider an intermediate level vent, denoted as vent 2,
of area a2 a height h2 from the lower vent. If the intermediate
level vent is introduced at a height h greater than the height
of neutral buoyancy hn , the vent will act as an out3ow vent
(Fig. 4(c)) whereas if it is located at a height less than hn it
will act as an in3ow vent (Fig. 4(c)). In the case where the
intermediate level vent acts as an inlet, two di5erent 3ow
regimes can be established as can be seen from Fig. 4(c),
Cases B1 and B2. If the intermediate level vent is below
the interface between the upper and lower layers, then the
simple two-vent scheme described in Section 3.1 is simply
adjusted as the total area available for in3ow is increased.
However, if the intermediate level vent is located between
the interface and neutral buoyancy height, then the 3uid
which enters through the intermediate level vent will be
dense relative to the upper layer 3uid and will descend as
a plume to the interface. We shall consider each of these
cases in turn and develop a model for each.
3.2.1. Case A: h2 ¿ hn
As before in Section 2 let us express the ratio of the
middle vent area to lower vent area as a2 c2 =a1 c1 = . In the
case of h2 ¿ hn the middle vent will act as an outlet (see
Fig. 4(c)). The velocity of air through the upper and lower
vents can again be related to the neutral buoyancy height
by Eqs. (8) and (22) respectively. The pressure drop across
the intermediate level vent is related to the reduced gravity
511
of the upper layer 3uid acting over the distance h2 − hn . We
can therefore use (10) to relate v2 to hn . If we substitute (8),
(22) and (10) into the equation describing the conservation
(26) of mass (11) we 4nd that
  
ĥn − ĥ =  ĥ2 − ĥn +  1 − ĥn : (29)
Conservation of total buoyancy 3ux is again given by
(25) and plume theory (24) may be used to relate v1 and
(25), may again be used to relate hn to h.
We now combine (26) and (29) to obtain an implicit
expression for the dimensionless interface height ĥ
   
 
 C 3 5
ĥ  C 3 5
ĥ
 =  ĥ2 − ĥ −
2(a1 c1 =H 2 )2 2(a1 c1 =H 2 )2
 

 C 3 ĥ5
+ 1 − ĥ − ;
2(a1 c1 =H 2 )2
(30)
The total volume 3ux is given by substituting the value h
from (30) into (24). The reduced gravity, and hence temper-
ature, of the upper layer can then be obtained by substituting
v1 a1 c1 from (24) into (25).
3.2.2. Case B: h2 ¡ hn
For the case ĥ ¡ ĥn the middle vent acts as an inlet (see
Fig. 4(b) and (c)). However, as may be seen from Fig. 4(c),
there are two potential 3ow con4gurations. If the interme-
diate level vent is located below the interface, air will enter
into the portion of the room 4lled with cold air and the in-
terface will simply adjust. We shall refer to this 3ow con-
4guration as Case B1.
When an opening is located between the neutral buoy-
ancy height and the interface, the 3uid entering through the
intermediate level vent descends as a plume through the up-
per layer. This is because the 3uid entering through vent
2 is dense relative to the surrounding warm air and it will
therefore fall. As the air entering through vent 2 descends it
will also entrain a fraction of the warm air. Therefore, when
this descending plume reaches the interface at h it will be
slightly buoyant relative to the lower layer. Consequently,
an intermediate layer may form. We shall describe this sit-
uation as Case B2. We now develop a mathematical model
of Cases B1 and B2.
3.2.2.1. Case B1: h2 ¡ h As in Case A of Section 3.2.1,
the velocity of air through vent 3 is related to the neutral
buoyancy height by (8) and the velocity of air through the
lower vent is related to the neutral buoyancy height by (22).
Since the pressure drop across vent 2 is the same as across
vent 1 we may use (2) to infer that
v 2 = v1 : (31)
512 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
Substituting (8), (22) and (31) into the equation for conser-
vation of mass (19) we 4nd that
 
 For simplicity we now develop a model of the downward
1 − ĥn = ĥn − ĥ: (32)
+1
Comparing (32) with (23) it may be seen that we have
e5ectively reduced the problem for this situation to the two
level problem solved by Linden et al. [1] with a modi4ed
average vent area. Hence, we can write [10]
 1=2
5
ĥ A∗∗
C 3=2 = 2; (33)
1 − ĥ H height to be ĥ = h=H and the reduced gravity of the upper
where
a3 c3 ( + 1)
A∗∗ =
1=2 : (34)
1 2
2 ( + ( + 1)2 )
By solving (33), the height of the interface is thus ob-
tained. The total volume 3ux V can then be obtained by
using the plume theory of Morton et al. [7]
V = CB1=3 h5=3 : (35)
The reduced gravity g
and hence temperature of the upper
layer is then given by
B = Vg
: (36)
This modi4ed form of the Linden et al. [1] two-vent anal-
ysis is very useful, since the height of the interface is simply
a function of the total available area (34) if the interface is
above the intermediate level vent (Fig. 4(c), Case B1). In-
deed, if there is more than one intermediate
 level vent, then
(33)
 and (34) can be used with  = (a 2 c 2 )i =a1 c1 where
(a2 c2 )i is the total e5ective area of all intermediate level
vents, so long as the interface height is above the highest
intermediate level vent. We can use (33) and (34) to deter-
mine the limit of 3ow regime B1. The highest vent position
h2 which still yields 3ow regime B1 occurs when ĥ (from
(33)) is equal to ĥ2 .
3.2.2.2. Case B2 Finally, if the intermediate level vent
is located above the interface predicted for Case B1, but
below the point of neutral buoyancy, air will again enter
through vent 2. However, in this case the cold, dense air
which enters through vent 2 will be dense relative to the
upper layer 3uid and will descend through the upper layer.
As it descends, it will partially mix with the upper layer 3uid
and become progressively less dense. When the descending
plume reaches the interface between the upper and lower
layers it will be less dense than the lower layer and its descent
will be arrested. It will then intrude laterally between the
two layers.
In order to model this process fully it is necessary to de-
velop a model of the entrainment of 3uid by the descend-
ing plume. However, entrainment by the descending plume
is only important if the amount entrained is comparable to
or exceeds the mass 3ux entering through the intermediate
level vent. In the limit that there is a large mass 3ux en-
tering through the intermediate level vent or that there is a
small distance between the intermediate level vent and in-
terface, then entrainment may be of secondary importance.
3ow, neglecting entrainment, as would be applicable in the
above limits. We then use the model to develop and specify
the limits in which it is a good approximation.
In the limit of negligible entrainment by the descending
plume, all in3ow accumulates in the lower layer, and as
before a single interface forms. As before let us denote the
height of the lower layer to be h, the dimensionless interface
layer to be g
. Eq. (8) can be used to relate the velocity of
air through vent 3 to the neutral buoyancy height. Since the
top of the intermediate layer h lies below vent 2, and vent
2 by de4nition lies below the neutral buoyancy height, we
may use (18) to relate the velocity of air through vent 2 to
hn . Finally, the velocity of air through vent 1 is related to hn
according to (22). If we substitute (8), (18) and (22) into
the equation for conservation of mass (19) we obtain
  
ĥn − ĥ +  ĥn − ĥ2 =  1 − ĥn : (37)
The volume 3ux of 3uid entrained by the ascending plume
can be expressed as
V3 = v3 a3 c3 = CB1=3 h5=3 : (38)
Conservation of total buoyancy 3ux can be written as
B = v3 a3 c3 g
: (39)
Combining (38), (39) and (8) we 4nd that
C 3 ĥ5
ĥn = 1 − : (40)
2(a3 c3 =H 2 )2
We may then combine (37) and (40) to obtain an implicit
equation for the location of the interface between the upper
and intermediate layers ĥ



C 3 ĥ5 C 3 ĥ5
1 − ĥ − +  1 − ĥ2 −
2(a3 c3 =H ) 2 2 2(a3 c3 =H 2 )2


C 3 ĥ5
= : (41)
2(a3 c3 =H 2 )2
As in the previous cases for a point source, once the
location of the intermediate layer has been calculated, the
various volume 3uxes and the temperature in the upper layer
can also be found.
Validity of model: The expression (41) derived for Case
B2 was based upon the assumption that the amount of upper
layer 3uid entrained by the air entering through vent 2 was
much smaller than that entering through the intermediate
level vent. Using the theory for entrainment of 3uid by a
descending plume, such as from vent 2, we can derive the
conditions under which this assumption is valid.
The 3uid which enters through vent 2 is a source of
buoyancy with 4nite mass 3ux. This buoyant 3uid can be
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521 513

modelled as originating from a virtual source of buoyancy 1

with no mass 3ux, a distance z above h2 . Following the Case A

0.8
approach of Woods et al. [11], the assumption of negligible
Case B2
entrainment by the down3owing plume from vent 2 is valid 0.6
if the amount of 3uid which would be entrained by a plume

h2
originating at the virtual source during its descent to the vent 0.4
Case B1
position over distance z is much greater than that entrained 0.2
by the plume as it descends from the vent to the upper
interface over distance h2 − h. Since the volume of 3uid 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
entrained by a plume scales with plume height [7], we may (a) a2
infer that the assumption for Case B2 is valid if
h2 − h B1, 0-0.5 B2, 0.6 B2, 0.7 A, 0.8
1: (42) A, 0.9 B1, 0.55 B2, 0.55
z 0.6

The buoyancy 3ux b entering at vent 2 may be related to 0.59

the velocity of air through vent 2 using 0.58

0.57
b = g
v2 a2 c 2 : (43)
0.56

Let us consider this buoyancy 3ux to be equivalent to a

h/H
0.55
point source a distance z above vent 2. Using the plume 0.54
theory of Morton et al. [7] we can therefore write 0.53

v2 a2 c2 = Cb1=3 z 5=3 : (44) 0.52

0.51
Hence, the height z of the virtual origin of the plume
0.5
above vent 2 is given by 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

1=5
(v2 a2 c2 )2
z= : (45)
C 3 g

We then use the values for h and z from Eqs. (41) and
(45) in order to test whether condition (42) is satis4ed.
In practice, the 3uid which enters through vent 2 may
tend to slump down the wall. If we take the value of C in
(45) to be that for an isolated plume away from the wall,
Eq. (45) will tend to underestimate z, the height of the virtual
origin. Furthermore, the amount of 3uid which is entrained
by the 3uid as it descends from h2 to h will be less than
for a regular plume, and so substituting z from (45) into
(42) leads to a conservative condition for the validity of our
model for Case B2.
3.3. Application of the model
We now apply these models in order to determine the
impact of an intermediate level vent. From Section 3.1
we can see that the position of the interface does not de-
pend on the heat 3ux. Furthermore, the actual height of
the interface scales with the height of the building H . The
parameters which control the dimensionless height of the
interface ĥ = h=H are the dimensionless areas of the vents
(a1 c1 =H 2 ; a2 c2 =H 2 and a3 c3 =H 2 ), and the height of the in-
termediate level vent ĥ2 =h2 =H . We therefore use the model
to show how the 3ow within a building depends on these
parameters. We consider the case where all vents have the
same discharge coeGcient cd = 0:61 (for a circular open-
ing), and where the plume entrainment coeGcient  = 0:102
so that C = 0:118 [7]. In the situation where the ventilation
(b) a 2 /H 2
Fig. 5. (a) Flow regime as a function of intermediate level vent height h2
and area a2 and (b) interface position as a function of a2 =H 2 , for the case in
which a room is heated by a point source and where a1 =H 2 =a3 =H 2 =0:02.
3ow is given by Case B2, we also test whether the approx-
imation of negligible entrainment by the descending plume
is valid.
3.3.1. Case a1 = a3
As in Section 2 we 4rst consider the case in which the
upper and lower vents are of equal area, =1. For illustrative
purposes we again consider the case where a room of 10 m
vertical extent has a doorway of typical area 2 m2 at the base,
so that a1 =H 2 = a3 =H 2 = 0:02. The height of the interface in
the absence of vent 2, which can be obtained from equation
(27), is found to be ĥ = 0:53. The neutral buoyancy height,
which can be found using (23), is found to be ĥn = 0:77.
In Fig. 5(a) we show how the ventilation 3ow depends
on the location and area of vent a2 . From this 4gure it is
clear that there is a unique 3ow pattern for each geometric
con4guration. For vent locations above the neutral buoyancy
height ĥn = 0:77, the 3ow through vent 2 corresponds to
Case A. For vent locations ĥ2 6 0:53, the 3ow corresponds
to Case B1 since the vent is below the interface. For vent
locations 0:53 6 ĥ2 6 0:77 the situation is more complex.
ĥ = 0:53 corresponds to the interface position in the absence
of an intermediate level vent. However, as the total 3ow
through the room increases owing to an increase in total
area available, the interface rises. Hence we 4nd that for an
514 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521

intermediate level vent located 0:53 6 ĥ2 6 0:77, the 3ow h^ 2 = 0.55 ^h = 0.6
2
^h = 0.7
2
10
regime changes from Case B2 to Case B1 at a critical value
of a2 =H 2 . For the case in which ĥ2 = 0:55, the 3ow regime 1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
changes from Case B2 to Case B1 when a2 =H 2 = 0:005. 0.1

Ve /V2
In Fig. 5(b) we show how the interface position ĥ varies 0.01

as a function of the area a2 =H 2 . For vent locations ĥ2 6 0:53, 0.001

where the 3ow through vent 2 corresponds to Case B1 since
the vent is below the interface, the in3uence of the inter-
0.0001

mediate level vent is independent of its height. This is be- 0.00001

a2 /H 2
cause the density of the 3uid in the lower region is the same (a)
as the exterior 3uid, as can be seen from Fig. 4. 0.68 Entrainment
For vent locations ĥ2 ¿ 0:77, where the 3ow through vent 0.66
Ve/V2=10%

2 corresponds to Case A since the vent is above the neutral 0.64

buoyancy height, it may be observed that the impact on the

h2 /H
0.62
3ow is more signi4cant the further the intermediate level No entrainment
vent is located away from the neutral buoyancy height. In
0.6

this case, the intermediate level vent at height ĥ2 = 0:9 has
0.58

a greater in3uence than when located at ĥ2 = 0:8. 0.56

For vent locations 0:53 6 ĥ2 6 0:77 the situation is
more complex. It can be seen for the case in which
ĥ2 = 0:55 that the interface position is given by Case B2 for
a2 =H 2 6 0:005. However, the interface height rises above
the intermediate level vent for a2 =H 2 ¿ 0:005, and so the
interface position is then given by Case B1.
It is useful to compare the in3uence of an intermediate
level vent for the case of heating by a distributed source
with heating by a point source. Firstly, we 4nd that the to-
tal ventilation 3ow resulting from a point source for a given
con4guration of vents is less than when the room is heated
by a distributed source. We also 4nd that the position of
neutral buoyancy is lower in the case of a room heated by a
distributed source; ĥn = 0:5 for a distributed source whereas
ĥn = 0:77 for a point source. Consequently, the impact of
the intermediate level vent located at a given height and its
in3uence on the control of ventilation and internal tempera-
ture depend critically on the form of heating. For example,
a vent located at ĥ = 0:5 has very little impact if the room
is heated by a distributed source whereas it can increase the
ventilation 3ow by 20% if the room is heated by a point
source.
Finally, since for this con4guration of vents 1 and 3 we
have shown three positions of the intermediate level vent
for which Case B2 describes the 3ow, we need to deter-
mine whether our assumptions for this mode are valid. In
Fig. 6(a) we show how the ratio Ve =V2 = ((h2 − h)=z)5=3
varies as a function of a2 =H 2 , where Ve is the volume 3ux
entrained by the descending plume and V2 is the volume
3ux of 3uid entering through the intermediate level vent. It
can be seen that the condition (h2 − h)=z1 (i.e. Ve =V2 1)
de4nitely holds for vent location ĥ2 = 0:55. However, for
the higher vent locations ĥ2 = 0:6 and 0.7, the case is not so
clear. It is evident that for ĥ2 = 0:6 Ve =V2 1 only holds for
larger values of a2 =H 2 . In Fig. 6(b) we show the range of
conditions over which the zero entrainment model is valid,
by showing how the quantity Ve =V2 =10% varies with a2 =H 2
and h2 for Case B2.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
(b) a2 /H 2
Fig. 6. (a) Variation of the quantity Qe =v2 a2 c2 , as a function of a2 =H 2
in order to determine the validity of the zero entrainment model of the
descending plume for Case B2 in the situation where a1 =H 2 =a3 =H 2 =0:02.
(b) Variation of the quantity Ve =V2 = 10% as a function of a2 =H 2 and
h2 for Case B2 when a1 =H 2 = a3 =H 2 = 0:02.
3.3.2. Case a1 = a3
As for the situation in which a room is heated by a dis-
tributed source (Section 2), the same general principles ap-
ply when a1 = a3 as for the case in which the upper and
lower vents have the same area. Eqs. (23) and (27) can be
used to determine the heights of neutral buoyancy and in-
terface for the case in which there is no intermediate level
vent. Once these are obtained, the impact of an intermediate
level vent can be predicted.
For the case in which the area of the upper vent is much
larger than the lower vent (a3 a1 ), the height of neutral
buoyancy will be close to the upper vent and most of the up-
per layer 3uid will be below the height of neutral buoyancy.
However, in the case where the upper vent is much smaller
than the lower vent (a3 a1 ), the height of neutral buoyancy
will be just above the interface and most of the upper layer
3uid will be above the height of neutral buoyancy. There-
fore, the impact of an intermediate level vent for the same
total e5ective area of the upper and lower vents (28), will
depend on the ratio of the upper and lower vent areas.
Although the same 3ow regimes as described for the case
of equal upper and lower vent areas will be observed when
a1 = a3 , the range of intermediate level vent heights and
areas at which the regimes A, B1 and B2, occur, will depend
on the speci4c areas of the upper and lower vents.
3.3.3. Discussion
The results of Section 3 are di5erent from the earlier
work of Chen and Li [10], where case B2 was previously
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521 515

3 3 Outflow

Upper
layer

Upper
layer

Height
2 2
Inflow

Lower
layer
Intermediate Exterior
layer

Lower
1 1 Inflow
layer

(a) Case B1 (b) Case B2 (c) Pressure

Fig. 7. Schematic of a room heated at the 3oor by a point source and ventilated with upper, lower and intermediate level vents with in3ow through the
intermediate level vent (a) interface above the intermediate level vent; Case B1(b) interface below the intermediate level vent; Case B2(c) The variation
of pressure as a function of height outside the room (thick solid line) and within the room for Case B1 (thin solid line). Dashed and dot-dashed lines
correspond to non-physical realisations of Case B2, illustrating that Cases B1 and B2 cannot co-exist for the same geometrical con4guration of vents.

considered to involve 3uid entering through vent 2 and fully
mixing with the upper layer, and to co-exist with Case B1
for certain geometric con4gurations. In Fig. 7(a) and (b) we
show the two scenarios of Case B1 and B2. In Fig. 7(c) we
also show how the pressure varies as a function of depth for
both these situations. Let us take case B1 (Fig. 7(a)) to be
the reference case, as shown by the arrows indicating 3ow
through the vents owing to the di5erence in pressure between
the exterior (thick solid line) and interior (thin solid line).
We now consider two potential scenarios of B2, one where
the upper layer is at a lower temperature than Case B1, and
one where the upper layer is at a higher temperature.
If g
is lower in case B2, then the volume 3ux through
the upper vent has to be higher than case B1 in order that
buoyancy 3ux is conserved. The pressure di5erence across
the upper vent is therefore greater than B1, as shown by
the dashed line and thick solid line at vent 3 in Fig. 7(c).
Since g
is lower, the pressure gradient in the upper layer
is steeper than in Case B1. In order for the total in3ow to
the room to be higher than case B1, the pressure di5erence
across the lower vent has to be higher. The dotted line in
Fig. 7(c) shows a potential scenario where this is achieved.
However, all of the 3uid entering through the lower vent has
to enter the intermediate layer, but the interface is lower.
Since the amount of 3uid entrained by the ascending plume
scales with interface height (Eq. (35)), the amount of 3uid
entrained is less than for case B1. The model is therefore
inconsistent and we can deduce that there is no case in which
Case B1 and B2 can both be achieved where g
is lower in
Case B2.
If g
is higher in case B2, then the volume 3ux through
the upper vent has to be lower than case B1 in order that
buoyancy 3ux is conserved. The pressure di5erence across
the upper vent is therefore smaller than B1, as shown by the
dot-dashed line in Fig. 7(c). Since g
is higher, the pressure
gradient in the upper layer is less steep than in Case B1.
Hence, the pressure di5erence across the middle vent and
the 3ow through it is higher than for Case B1. We also
4nd that the pressure di5erence across the lower vent and
hence 3ow through it is higher than for Case B1. Since the
total in3ow to the room is higher than for Case B1, the
requirement that the total 3ow is lower than for Case B1
is not achieved. We can therefore conclude that there is no
case for which Case B1 and B2 can both be achieved for the
same geometrical con4guration. Similar arguments can be
used comparing Case A with Case B2 or Case B1 to show
that there is a unique solution describing the 3ow for the
three-vent scheme.
4. Experimental observations
4.1. Experimental method
The analogue experimental system consists of a small per-
spex tank (the room) of dimensions 17:8 × 17:6 × 28:6 cm3
516 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
with a number of circular openings in one wall, placed in-
side a large reservoir tank (the external environment) of di-
mensions 88 × 43 × 48 cm3 . A series of 4 to 6 ventilation
holes each of diameter 15 mm were located at mid-point
heights 3, 9.1, 15.3, 19.0, 21.4 and 27:5 cm from the base
of the tank. A further series of smaller ventilation holes of
5 mm diameter were located at mid-point heights 4.7, 6.0,
9.0, 10.5, 12.0 and 13:5 cm from the base of the tank. These
ventilation holes were sealed by rubber stoppers which could
be removed to allow a ventilation 3ow for a wide range of
vent areas.
Two types of experiments have been performed. In the
4rst set of experiments, a distributed heating wire capable
of delivering up to 500 W was positioned 1.0 –1:2 cm from
the base of the tank so as to provide a distributed buoyancy
source. The heating wire was connected to a 30 V trans-
former via leads which were also connected to two digital
multimeters, thereby enabling accurate measurements of ap-
plied current and voltage. Three type K thermocouples, ac-
curate to ±0:1◦ C were positioned in the small tank at heights
4, 15 and 27 cm from the base of the tank and connected via
a Pico Technology data logger to a PC. A further two ther-
mocouples were placed within the reservoir tank to ensure
that the temperature of the water below the uppermost vent
remained roughly constant. Temperatures were recorded ev-
ery 5 s throughout all experiments. The 3ow was observed
using the shadowgraph technique, as well as tracer dyes
which were injected from long syringes. Prior to commenc-
ing an experiment the water in the reservoir and room tank
was thoroughly mixed. The requisite number of rubber stops
were removed from the perspex tank and the water was then
allowed to settle. After roughly 15 min the heating wire and
datalogger were switched on. A range of experiments were
conducted, with vent area ratios 0:25 6 a2 =a1 6 4, and with
mid-vent positions ĥ at 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1. Tempera-
ture elevations of up to 7◦ C were recorded and compared
with the theoretical predictions of Section 2.
In the second set of experiments a purpose-built plume
source was used as the source of buoyancy in order to test
the hypothesis for the development of a vertically strati4ed
interior in the case of a room subject to a point source of
buoyancy. For convenience a relatively dense saline mixture
was supplied to the source whilst the room and exterior
tank were initially 4lled with fresh water. Consequently the
source of dense 3uid was supplied from above. The room
was elevated 20 cm from the base of the exterior tank so
that the dense 3uid exiting from the room could sink to
the bottom, away from the ‘room’. The nozzle used for the
plume source is the same as that used by Woods et al. [11].
A range of experiments were conducted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8,
and 10 × 15 mm diameter vents open at 3 and 27:5 cm from
the base of the tank. The plume source was arranged to be
coincident with the upper vents, 27:5 cm from the base of
the tank. A further set of experiments was also conducted
with 4 × 15 mm diameter vents open at 3, 9.1, 15.3, 19.0,
21.4 and 27:5 cm from the base of the tank.
19
18
Temperature (C)
17 4 cm
15 cm
27 cm
16 Transient theory
Steady state theory
15
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (s)
Fig. 8. Experimental results showing temperature within the room as a
function of time as the room is heated uniformly at the base. Temperatures
measured in the interior of the room at heights of 4, 15 and 27 cm are
denoted by squares, triangles and crosses, respectively. Circles represent
the prediction of the temperature evolution using the transient model. The
solid line denotes the prediction of the steady state temperature.
4.2. Experimental results
For the experiments involving a distributed source of
buoyancy, plumes of hot 3uid were observed to rise from
the heating wire to the top of the tank within a few seconds
of switching on the transformer. Several minutes later the
shadowgraph began to show the 3uid entering and leaving
the tank and experiments typically approached a steady state
within 30 min. The theory of Section 2 is predicated on the
basis that the room is heated uniformly. In Fig. 8 we show
the results of a typical experiment. In this experiment four
15 mm diameter holes were located at 3, 21.4 and 27:5 cm
from the base of the room. A steady heat 3ux of 282 W was
applied for the duration of the experiment and the results
show that the room is indeed heated uniformly. In this case
the vent located at 21:4 cm acts as an outlet since it is above
the point of neutral buoyancy predicted by the steady state
theory of Section 2.
In Fig. 8 we also show the theoretical prediction for the
steady state temperature obtained using the analysis pre-
sented in Section 2. The experimental results indicate that
the temperature in the room does indeed approach the value
predicted from the steady state theory.
We now compare the prediction of the height of neu-
tral buoyancy with our experimental observations. In Fig. 9
we show that our predictions of 3ow direction through the
middle vent agree well with experimental observations for
a wide range of middle vent heights ĥ, and upper to lower
vent area ratios .
Finally, for the distributed heat source we compare the
results obtained from a series of experiments with the the-
oretical predictions of steady state temperature excess IT
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
1 or below the height of neutral buoyancy. The results from a
0.8
0.6
h
0.4
0.2
0 cordingly. It is seen that the experiments are in broad agree-
0.1 1 10
γ
Fig. 9. Experimental results for 3ow direction through the intermediate
level vent compared with theoretical prediction when the apparatus was
heated uniformly at the base. Experiments where the middle vent acted as
an inlet and outlet are denoted by triangles and diamonds, respectively.
9
Temperature Excess - Measured
8
7
6 blue, blue 3uid entered through this vent and rose through
5 4
4
2 terface between the upper and lower layer. At this point the
1
3 3uid migrated in a horizontal manner to form an interme-
0.5
0.25
2
1
0 In Fig. 12(b) the intermediate level vent was much larger.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Temperature Excess - Theory
Fig. 10. Experimental results for temperature elevation compared with
theoretical predictions for a room comprised of upper, middle and lower
vents which is heated uniformly from the base. In all experiments the
upper and lower vent areas were the same,  = 1. The middle vent area
and position were varied; values of ĥ are as follows: cross 4, square 2,
triangles 1, diamonds 0.5, and dash 0.25.
for a range of vent area ratios and locations. Steady state
conditions were typically approached within 20 –30 min, as
may be seen from the example of Fig. 8. In Fig. 10 we com-
pare the experimental results for steady state temperature
with those predicted using the theory of Section 2. It may
be seen that the results agree well, and thus the theory of
Section 2 appears to be validated.
In the second set of experiments we 4rst test the theory
for the interface height and neutral buoyancy height of a
localised buoyancy source with upper and lower vents. A
series of experiments were conducted in which the upper
and lower vents were of identical area, separated by a dis-
tance of 24:5 cm. 4% salt solution dyed red was injected
via the nozzle at a rate of 0:37 cm3 =s. After a sharp inter-
face had developed a further small 5 mm diameter vent was
opened in order to determine whether the hole was above
517
series of experiments are shown in Fig. 11. Hunt and Kaye
[9] developed a method to account for the virtual origin of
pure plumes, i.e. no initial volume or momentum 3ux, when
conducting experiments involving 4nite volume and mo-
mentum 3uxes. Using the method presented in their paper
(Eq. (37), Hunt and Kaye [9]), the virtual origin was found
to be 0:8 cm below the nozzle opening. We have therefore
adjusted the experimental results for the interface height ac-
ment with the theoretical predictions for the interface height
and neutral buoyancy height.
We then used the apparatus to investigate the impact
of introducing an intermediate level vent. In Fig. 12 we
show two cases where the intermediate level vent is located
between the interface and height of neutral buoyancy. In
Fig. 12(a) 4 × 15 mm diameter upper and lower vents were
separated by a distance of 18:4 cm. The interface was pre-
dicted to be 9:9 cm below the upper vent and the neutral
buoyancy point to be 14:2 cm below the upper vent. When
a relatively small 5 mm diameter vent located 11 cm below
the upper vent was opened and the exterior 3uid was dyed
the salty red layer as a distinct plume until it reached the in-
diate layer. As this 3uid migrated towards the centre of the
room some of the 3uid became entrained into the descending
plume.
The upper, intermediate and lower vents were comprised
of 1, 4 and 5 × 15 mm holes, respectively. In this case
the plume which ascended from the intermediate level vent
overshot the interface and mixed with the upper layer. Since
the ascending plume entrained a small fraction of the salty
red 3uid the upper layer became a light red colour. However,
the interface separating the salty lower layer of dark red
3uid from the upper layer was still reasonably clear as can
be seen from the photograph.
Finally, these experiments have also been used to test
the theoretical predictions of the 3ow regimes and interface
height presented in Section 3. In Fig. 13 we show the results
of two con4gurations of upper and lower vents. In Fig. 13(a),
the upper and lower vents were of equal area, 4 × 15 mm
diameter vents 24:5 cm apart. 4 × 15 mm diameter inter-
mediate level vents were opened, and as predicted by the
theory, the interface position decreased slightly as the inter-
mediate level vent approached the neutral buoyancy height.
In Fig. 13(b), the upper inlet area was comprised of 1 ×
15 mm diameter vent and the lower inlet area of 5 × 15 mm
diameter vents. In this case, the range of intermediate level
vent positions for which ventilation 3ow regime B2 exists
is much larger, and enables us to test the approximation of
negligible entrainment for the model of this 3ow regime.
We 4nd that the experimental results are in broad agreement
with the theoretical predictions.
518 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521

1 Predictions from theory

interface position
0.8
neutral buoyancy height

height / H
0.6

0.4
Experimental results
0.2 outflow
inflow
0 interface position
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
A*

Fig. 11. Experimental results for 3ow direction through the intermediate level vent and interface position compared with the theoretical predictions from
Section 3. Diamonds correspond to out3ow and triangles in3ow from the intermediate level vent. Crosses correspond to the height of the interface in
the two-vent scheme. The solid line and dashed lines correspond to the theoretical predictions for the locations of neutral buoyancy height and interface
respectively.

(a) (b)

Fig. 12. Photograph of an experiment in which 2% salt solution was injected from a point source at the top of a tank initially 4lled with fresh water.
(a) 4 × 15 mm diameter vents were located at a distance 18:4 cm apart. A further 5 mm vent was located 11 cm below the upper vent. (b) 1 × 15 mm
diameter upper vent, 5 × 15 mm diameter lower vents located 24:5 cm below the upper vent. 4 × 15 mm diameter intermediate level vents located
18:4 cm from the upper vents. Arrow denotes the extent of the upper layer.

5. Applications source may be better described as a series of point sources,

We now apply the results of Sections 2 and 3 to illustrate
how these models can be used to inform the designers and
users of naturally ventilated buildings. Let us 4rst consider
a room of height 3 m comprised of vents at three levels, the
upper and lower vents of area 0.225 and 0:1575 m2 located
at 3 and 0 m, respectively, and an intermediate level vent
of area 0:09 m2 in the upper half of the room, at a height of
2:4 m. We now consider how such a room may operate in
practice.
Let us consider the case in which the room is subject to a
heating load of 1000 W and where the occupants have some
degree of control over how this is distributed. This is impor-
tant since occupant satisfaction can be increased by allowing
users to have some control over their environment [12]. A
collection of electrical equipment located close together, for
example printers and computers, may closely approximate a
single point source. However, if the equipment is distributed
into smaller equal clusters around the room, then the heating
or even as a distributed source. In Fig. 14 we show how the
form of heating can impact the total ventilation 3ow.
For the case in which the room is heated by a single point
source we can use the analysis of Section 3 to show that the
neutral buoyancy point and interface (for the simple upper
and lower vent scenario) are located at heights of 2.56 and
1:6 m, respectively. When the middle vent is opened at a
height of 2:4 m, air enters in through the vent and a venti-
lation scheme corresponding to Case B2 develops in which
the total volume 3ux is 88 l=s. If the electrical equipment is
divided into two equal clusters, the neutral buoyancy point
and interface height (for the simple upper and lower vent
scenario) decrease to 2.43 and 1:3 m respectively. Conse-
quently, the ventilation form still corresponds to Case B2.
Note that owing to the increased number of buoyant plumes,
the total ventilation 3ow increases to 92 l=s. As the heating
load is distributed yet further, the neutral buoyancy point
(for the simple upper and lower vent scenario) decreases
below 2:4 m and the intermediate level vent becomes an
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521 519

0.7
B1 B2 A intermediate level vent
0.6 closed
additional
interface height

0.5
intermediate level vent
0.4

0.3 25
0.2 Acceptable
range

Internal Temperature
0.1

0
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a) vent position

0.6 15
B1 B2 A
0.5
Heating Additional vents
interface height

0.4 required required

0.3 10
5 10 15 20
0.2
Outside temperature
0.1

0 Fig. 15. Internal temperature for a room of height 3 m heated by a

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 distributed source of 1000 W at the base. The room has vents at 0, 2.4 and
(b) vent position 3 m from the 3oor with areas of 0.1575, 0.09 and 0:225 m2 , respectively.

Fig. 13. Interface height as a function of intermediate level vent height

(a) 4 × 15 mm diameter upper, lower and intermediate level vents (b)
1×15 mm diameter upper (inlet) vent, 5×15 mm diameter lower (outlet)
vents and 4 × 15 mm diameter intermediate level vents. Lines correspond
This example illustrates that the performance of a building
to the theoretical predictions, symbols to experimental results. Repeated is sensitive not only to the initial design, but also to its end
experiments indicate that experimental observations of interface height use and how the equipment in a room is distributed. Con-
are accurate to within 1 cm. sequently, designers need to ensure that the type of heating
load is known before selecting the location of the vents.
Finally, let us consider the case in which the room is
115
Distributed (vent 2 outflow) heated by a distributed source of 1000 W, the upper and
110 lower vents are maintained open and the occupants can con-
trol the middle vent. In this example we shall consider the
105
Volume flux (l/s)

Vent 2 case where the middle vent can simply be fully open or fully
inflow
100
Case B2 closed. Using the appropriate physical properties for air we
95 can calculate the internal temperature in the room as shown
in Fig. 15. The acceptable range of temperatures within the
Vent 2 outflow
90
Case A room may be tightly de4ned to be 20 –21◦ C. From Fig. 15
85 we may see that by incorporating a middle vent, the range
of external temperatures which can be accommodated is in-
80
0 2 4 6 8 10
creased from 11–12◦ C to 11–14◦ C. However, it is also in-
teresting to note from Fig. 15 the e5ect of including a rather
Number of heat sources
limited range of settings for the vent areas. In this example,
Fig. 14. Volume 3ux through a room of height 3 m with vents at 0, 2.4 if the external temperature is between 12◦ C and 13◦ C, then
and 3 m from the 3oor of areas 0.1575, 0.09 and 0:225 m2 , respectively, there is no setting for which the user can obtain a steady
whilst it is subject to a heating load of 1000 W. Symbols correspond to internal temperature within the required range of 20 –21◦ C.
the case where the heating load is divided into clusters. The dashed line
In this case, the occupant would have to oscillate between
corresponds to the case where the heat source is uniformly distributed
across the base of the room. the open and closed positions of the middle vent; this could
be achieved automatically with the requisite controller or by
manual operation.
outlet rather than an inlet. The ventilation form for a heat- Clearly the issue of no steady states being available at
ing load distributed over more than three points therefore certain external temperatures can be avoided by incorporat-
corresponds to Case A. As predicted from Section 3, the ing further 3exibility on the settings of the middle vent. In
ventilation 3ow increases as the heating load becomes more addition, the range of external temperatures which can be
distributed, and is a maximum when the heating load is uni- accommodated can be increased further still by building in
formly distributed across the base of the room. In this case 3exibility to the upper and lower vent areas. However, de-
the point of neutral buoyancy occurs at a height of 1 m. signers wish to minimise cost and reducing the number of
520 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
vents or settings for each vent is one way in which costs
can be removed. This example illustrates that the 3exibil-
ity which variable vent areas gives is important. If during
the 4nal 4tting stage of a construction project it is realised
that the costs have risen beyond the forecast, there may be
a temptation to reduce the number of variable vents without
due consideration of the potential impact on building per-
formance. The repercussions of such action can be to limit
the ability to control the internal temperature of the build-
ing naturally, and may result in subsequent installation of
expensive equipment or retro4tted vents.
6. Design implications
The results of this study are of interest to building de-
signers where the principle source of heat is at the base of
a room. We have shown that the neutral buoyancy height
for a room with upper and lower vents is determined by the
ratio of the vent areas, and in the case of a localised heat
source, also the total e5ective vent area. If the intention of
introducing an intermediate level vent is principally to con-
trol the total 3ow through the building, then locating the
vent away from the neutral buoyancy height will provide the
greatest control. Indeed, it may be more appropriate and cost
e5ective to consider increasing the area of the upper and/or
lower vents and providing controls on these vents rather than
introducing intermediate level vents. This will depend on a
number of issues such as the accessibility and 3exibility of
the upper and lower level vents. However, if the design re-
quirement is to provide for a localised source of fresh air
then including an intermediate level vent is certainly a fea-
sible option. In this case it is also important that the upper
and lower vent areas are designed to ensure that the neutral
buoyancy height is above the location being considered for
the additional vent.
7. Conclusions
This experimental and theoretical study has shown that
the nature of the impact of a middle vent depends critically
on the type of heat source(s) within the room and the geo-
metric arrangement of the vents. If the room is heated by a
distributed source at the base, the room heats up uniformly,
and the upper and lower vents act as outlets and inlets, re-
spectively. The direction of steady 3ow through the middle
vent depends upon its height relative to the location of the
neutral buoyancy point. The total ventilation 3ow can be
raised by increasing the separation between the upper and
lower vents, the total e5ective vent area and the distance
between the intermediate level vent and neutral buoyancy
height. The height of neutral buoyancy is controlled by the
ratio of upper and lower vent areas.
If the room is heated by a point source, or series of point
sources, a vertically strati4ed environment develops and the
point of neutral buoyancy is increased. The upper and lower
vents will act as an outlet and inlet respectively. The di-
rection of 3ow through the middle vent will depend on its
location relative to the height of neutral buoyancy. If the
intermediate level vent is located above the height of neu-
tral buoyancy predicted by the theory for a simple upper
and lower vent scheme, then it will act as an outlet. If the
intermediate level vent is located below the height of neu-
tral buoyancy it will act as an inlet. If the intermediate level
vent is located below the interface the incoming air will mix
with the lower layer. If the intermediate level vent is lo-
cated between the interface and height of neutral buoyancy,
a three-layer system can develop.
We have developed an analogue experimental system to
test our theoretical models for the 3ow through a single
room. The measurements of the steady state temperature of
the distributed source system are in close agreement with the
predictions based on the new model. The predictions of 3ow
direction through the middle vent for both the distributed and
point sources are also in broad agreement with the theory.
The experimental apparatus has also been used to verify the
hypothesis of the formation of a three-layer system for the
case in which the room is heated by a point source and where
the middle vent is located between the interface and point
of neutral buoyancy.
Finally, we have shown that these models can be used
to predict the form and amount of ventilation which can be
obtained from a speci4c design where the occupants have
some control over the vents and the heating load. We have
shown that the ability to control the ventilation, and hence
temperature, within a room is highly sensitive to the vent
openings and form and amount of heating.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Cambridge-MIT (CMI) pro-
gramme and the BP Institute for Multiphase Flow. We thank
Charlotte Gladstone for assistance with the experiments.
Appendix A.
For completeness we also show on Fig. 8 the predictions
obtained from a numerical solution to the equations govern-
ing the evolution towards the steady state, assuming that the
3ow through the vent at 21:4 cm is an outlet. For the tran-
sient evolution, conservation of energy may be expressed as
dT Q v 1 a1 c1
= − (T − To ); (A.1)
dt Cp W W
where t represents time, To is the temperature of the water
outside the room, suGx 1 denotes the lower vent and W is
the volume of the room. Eq. (7) can be used to relate v1 to g

where g
= y(T − To )g= and the height of neutral buoyancy
 S.D. Fitzgerald, A.W. Woods / Building and Environment 39 (2004) 505 – 521
ĥn , where ĥn is given by Eq. (12). Eqs. (A.1), (7) and (12)
may therefore be combined in order to obtain an ordinary
di5erential equation for temperature T as a function time t.
By applying the appropriate values for the geometry of the
experimental apparatus, using a value y = 0:36 kg=m3 C for
water [13], applying the initial condition T (0)=To and using
cd = 0:62 as per small ori4ce theory [14], the solution may
be readily obtained. It can be seen that the simple model
agrees well with the theoretical prediction for the evolution
towards the steady state. Note that we also independently
veri4ed the value of cd from a series of transient experiments
in which the room tank was allowed to discharge into the
atmosphere.
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