TOPIC 1

ANALOGUE
CONTROLLERS
ANALOGUE CONTROLLERS
INTRODUCTION

 An analogue controllers is a device that using

analog signals to represent the loop parameters.

 The analogue signal may be in the form of an

electric current or a pneumatic air pressure.

 The controller accepts a measurement expressed

in terms of one these signals, calculates an output
for the mode being used ( P, I, D) and outputs an
analogue signal of the same type.

 The controller must be able to add, subtract,

multiply, integrate, and find derivatives. Because
many controllers are now using IC op-amps as the
primary circuit element.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)
 The operational amplifier is linear Integrated Circuit (IC)

 The op-amp has BIPOLAR power supply :

a positive power supply (+Vcc) and
a negative power supply (-Vee)

 The op-amp has two inputs and one output :

The two inputs terminal are labeled Inverting input (-)
Non-inverting input (+)

 An op-amp produces an output voltage larger than the

voltage difference between its input terminals
Voltage gain (A) is the ratio of the output voltage of
an amplifier to its input voltage :
Voltage gain (A) = Vout/Vin

 An op-amp is a very high gain differential amplifier with

high input impedance and low output impedance
SCHEMATIC SYMBOL OF OP-AMP

 Op- amp operand's principle is distinguish input

signal and double that input signal difference in
output stage.
 The output of an ideal differential amplifier is
given by:

 Where (non-inverting input) and (inverting

input) are the input voltages and Ad is the
differential gain.
IC CONFIGURATION

Pin:

1 – Offset null

2 –inverting input

3 –Non-inverting input

4 – Vcc (negative)

5 – Offset Null

6 – Output voltage

7 – Vcc (positive)

8 - N/C (not connected)

BLOCK DIAGRAM AN OP-AMP

 Block diagram an Op-amp consisting of three stages :

i. Input Stage (Differential amplifier)

ii. Intermediate stage (More stages of gain amplifier)

iii. Output stage low impedance (Push-pull amplifier)

 Operational amplifier in built-in three stages to avoid problems when

weak signal corrupted by noise such as static noise, signal interference
from power supply . The block diagram an op-amp is shown below :
High-impedance differential
amplifier input
 Is a dual/double input of differential amplifier,
the output balance (with two inputs and one
output)
 To provide high input impedance to each
input signal
 Provides low gain to common mode signals
such as humming and noise / noise.
 To provide high-gain to a useful signal.
 input offset voltage is reduced.
 This stage is very important because this is
where the input impedance of the amplifier is
set.
High gain of the amplifier voltage

 Itis a dual/double input of differential

amplifier ,output balance.
 Provides high voltage gain.
 To provide current gain to triggered /
drive current required to trigger the
output stage, without burdening the input
stage.
Low Impedance Differential
Output amplifier
 Possess a single input-output balance
 To act as a 'buffer' relates to the second
stage amplifier output
 Increasing the impedance to the point
where the voltage of the differential
amplifier is not affected by the load.
 To provide sufficient current to trigger the
load at the output.
 To provide low output impedance. Op
amp output impedance is determined
here.
ADVANTAGES OF OP AMP
 Small size
 High reliability
 Cheap price
 Low offset voltage and offset current
 Amplifies and doubling the signal
 THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER

IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER REAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Voltage gain is not limited to High input impedance Zi = 2 M
(infinity) Ω-5MΩ

Output impedance , Zout = 0 Low output impedance , Zout =

75 ohm

Input offset voltage, Vio = 0 Minimum offset voltage, Vio = 2

mv
Offset current = 0 Minimum offset current = 100 Na

Bandwidth = infinite Bandwidth = 1 MHz

TYPES OF OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIERS

 Inverter
 Non-Inverter
 Integral
 Derivative
 Adder
 Comparator
 Differential
Amplifier
 Voltage Follower
 Inverting Op-amp
• The circuit is called an inverting
amplifier because its voltage gain is
NEGATIVE
• If the input voltage is going positive,
the output voltage will be going
negative and vice versa.

 An inverting amplifier uses Negative Feedback to invert and

amplify a voltage.
 For any given input signal is inverted at the output
Opposite phase of the output waveform to the input 180°
 For ideal op-amps there are 2 very important rules to
remember about inverting amplifiers, these are:
 No Current Flows into the Input Terminals
(Input impedance = ∞)
 The Differential Input Voltage is Zero as V1=V2
(Open Loop Gain = ∞)
Inverting Op-amp cont.
 The input signal is applied through resistor, R1
to the inverting op amp input.
 Resistor,
RF is the feedback resistor which
connects from the output to the inverting
input.
 The output is being inverted from the input
 In ideal conditions, point ‘a’ is virtual ground
 Exercise 1:
Calculate Vout and Av Ω
Rf Vin × R f
Rf
AV = − Vout =
Rin
15kΩ
Rin Rin
10kΩ

Vin
5V
 Non-Inverting Op-amp
 The circuit is called a non-inverting
amplifier because its voltage gain
is POSITIVE.

 If the input voltage is going

positive, the output voltage will
also going positive (not inverted).
𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑
The input voltage, Vi is applied to 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 = � + 𝟏𝟏� 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕

𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑
the non-inverting op amp input.

𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
 Ideal condition, Vi = 0 Where AV = � + 𝟏𝟏�
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
 Exercise 2:
Calculate Vout and Av
Rin + R f  Rf 
Av = − Vout =  + 1Vin
Rin  Rin 
Vin
Rf
=− +1
5V Rin
Rf
Rin 15kΩ
10kΩ
 Integral Op-amp
o An integrator is a circuit which has
an output voltage that is
proportional to the time integral of
its input voltage.

o Integrates the (inverted) signals

over time.

o The longer the input is present, the

greater the output becomes.
 Exercise 3a:
Calculate Vout
t
1
Vo = − ∫ Vin dt
C
0.01𝜇𝜇𝐹𝐹
Rin Rin C 0
10kΩ

Vin
5V
Exercise 3b:
Intergal Op-amp:

t =?
Vo = -15V
C = 0.01𝜇𝜇𝐹𝐹
Rin = 10kΩ
Vin = 5V
Exercise 3c:
Intergal Op-amp:

t = 5s
Vo = ?
C = 0.1𝜇𝜇𝐹𝐹
Rin = 200kΩ
Vin = 1.5V
Derivative/Differentiator Op-
amp

A differentiator is a circuit which has an

output voltage that is proportional to the
time derivative of its input voltage.
Derivative/Differentiator Op-
amp
 Differentiator waveforms :
 Adder/Summing Op-amp

• The summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its

output voltage is proportional to the negative of the algebraic
sum of its input voltages.
o If Rf = R1 = R2 = R3

𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑

𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 = − 𝐕𝐕1 + 𝐕𝐕2 + 𝐕𝐕3
𝐑𝐑1 𝐑𝐑2 𝐑𝐑3
 Exercise 4a:
Calculate Vout

 V1 V2 V3 
VO = − R f  + + 
R
 1 R2 R3

R1 = R2 = R3 = R f = 10kΩ
V1 = −1V
V2 = −1.5V
V3 = −2V
VO = ?
Exercise 4b:
Calculate Vout

 V1 V2 V3 
VO = − R f  + + 
R
 1 R2 R3

R1 = 5kΩ
R2 = 10kΩ
R3 = 20kΩ
R f = 100kΩ
V1 = 50 sin ωt mV
V2 = 100 sin ωt mV
V3 = −200 sin ωt mV
VO = ?
Comparator op-amp

 When there are no components connected to the op-amp, it

operates as a comparator.

 The op-amp compares the voltage applied at one input to the

voltage applied at other input.

 Any difference between the voltages, even if it is small drives the

op-amp into saturation.

 When the voltages supplied to both inputs are same magnitude

and same polarity, the op-amp output is 0 volts.

 The saturation voltages can be either positive or negative.

 These output voltages produced by the op-amp are
from both the negative and positive voltage power
supply terminals.

 These saturation voltages are approximately 80% of

the supply voltage value.

 When the voltage applied to the non-inverting is

more positive than inverting input, the output will be
at positive saturation, +Vs.

 When the voltage applied to the inverting input is

more positive than the non-inverting input, the output
voltage will be at negative saturation, -Vs.

 If the supply voltages are +6.25V and -6.25V, the

saturation voltages will be 80%, or -5V and +5V.
Example:
 A fixed reference voltage VREF is applied to
the inverting (-) input terminal and sinusoidal
signal VIN is applied to the non-inverting (+)
input terminal.
 When VIN exceeds VREF the output voltage
goes to positive saturation because the
voltage at the (-) input is smaller than at the
(+) input.
 When VIN is less than VREF the output voltage
goes to negative saturation. Thus output
voltage VOUT changes from one saturation
level to another whenever VIN = VREF.
 Differential (Subtractor /
Difference ) Op-amp
 The difference op-amp
produces the algebraic
difference between two
input voltages.
 The voltages are applied to
both inputs at the same
time, and difference
between them is amplified.

 If the input voltages are the

same, the output voltage is
0V.

**If all of the external resistors are the same value, no amplification takes place
 𝐑𝐑
Output voltage: 𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨 = 𝐑𝐑 𝐅𝐅 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 − 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 ; unity gain
𝐀𝐀

𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨 = 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 − 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏

Voltage follower op-amp
 Based on the non-inverting
amplifier, Rin is open circuit, Rf is
short circuit

𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
Av = 1 + , where = 0
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹

Av = 1

 Output signal is same with the

input signal (waveform, phase,
amplitude)
Vout = Vin

 Act as buffer between 2 circuit

Exercise:
1. If the inverting amplifier has Ri =100KΩ and Rf =500KΩ,
what output voltage results for an input of Vi =2V?
(Ans:-10V)
2. Calculate the output voltage of a non inverting
amplifier for values of Vi =2V, Rf =500KΩ and Ri =100KΩ
(Ans:+12V)
3. Calculate the output voltage of an op-amp summing
amplifier for the following set of voltages and resistors
V1 = +1V, V2 = +2V, V3 = +3V, R1 = 500KΩ, R2 = 1MΩ,
R3 = 1MΩ, RF=1000kΩ (Ans: -7V)
Exercise:
4. Refer to figure below, calculate the output
voltage. (Ans:3V)