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THE ORGGENESIS IN THE ANDEAN SYSTEM OF COLOMBIA

HANS BiiRGL I

Consultorio Paleontologico, BogotB (Colombia)

(Received September 12, 1966)

SUMMARY

The structural provinces of Colombia are briefly outlined and the

tectonic and magmatic events discussed in historical order. The Paleozoic
is considered as an era of compressional movements which culminated in the
Caledonian (and Variscean?) orogeny. They caused a retreat of the sea to the
west Andean area and the temporal consolidation of the east Andean province.
In the east Andean province the Early Mesozoic is a time of tensional
fault movements and extrusion of alkaline magmas. This break-down was
followed by an advance of the sea which, in Middle Cretaceous time, covered
the same geographical area as during the Early Paleozoic. The west Andean
province remained ocean floor and was successively covered by an increasing
amount of toleitic basalt flows.
At the end of the Cretaceous, compressional forces set in again and the
sea retreated from the east Andean province. In the course of several
Cenozoic tectonic phases the cordilleras moved upward, while the depres-
sions between them moved downward and were filled with mainly terrestrial
deposits of up to 10,000 m in thickness. The final uplift of the Colombian
Andes to their present height (up to 5,800 m) took place after Early Pleistocene
time.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to give a concise account of the tectonic

history of the Andean system in Colombia. For the description of the geologic
history the tectonic provinces should be at first considered.

GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES

As shown in Fig. 1, Colombia is divisible into two major units, the

eastern and the western. The eastern unit comprises the Guayana Shield and
the platform of the eastern Llanos, where the Precambrian is covered by
relatively thin layers of Early Paleozoic, Cretaceous and young Cenozoic

“Present address: Apartado National Chapinero 720, BogotP (Colombia)

Tectono~~h~sics, 4(4-6) (1967) 4X3-443 429

 II/ III

BRAZIL

GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES ~
OF
COiOMBIA

Fig.1. Geological provinces of Colombia.

deposits. This stable region furnished the bulk of the sediments to the
western part of Colombia, the Andean zone, which has been a mobile belt
since Cambrian time.

430 Tectonophysies,4(4-6) (1967) 429-443

 The Andean system is again subdivided into two units, the western and
the eastern Andes (Stille, 1940). The limit between the two follows approx-
imately the crest of the central Cordillera and in its northern extension
veers towards the east, crossing the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the
Guajira Peninsula.
Until relatively recent geological times most parts of the western
Andes were ocean floor where abyssal deposits, turbidites and toleitic
basalts were laid down. Only its easternmost parts, which now form the
western flank of the central Cordillera and its northern continuations, were
repeatedly uplifted to form a geanticlinal zone.
The east Andean province, Oriente Andino (Hubach, 195’7), suffered the
most remarkable morphological changes since the end of the Precambrian.
It was repeatedly covered by deep or shallow seas while during other periods
it formed a mainland, sometimes with more or less high mountain ranges,
sometimes representing lowlands with desert conditions. The great variety
of sedimentary and igneous rocks in this province and the frequency of fossil-
iferous layers are the most valuable means for recognizing tectonic events
in the Colombian Andes.

TECTONIC HISTORY

Precambrim

In Colombia, Precambrian tectonic events cannot be recognized in

detail, due to the scarcity of radiometric age determinations. The Colombian
portion of the Guayana Shield and the major portion of the basement of the
eastern Llanos Platform consists of Archean gneisses, intruded by an
extensive batholith of about 1,200 m.y. (million years) inage (Trumpy, 1943;
Pinson et al., 1962). Westwards (Macarena, Santander Massif) the Archean
gneisses are apparently overlain by Proterozoic (Algonkian) meso and cata-
metamorphic schists and migmatites (Garzon Massif). Similar rocks may
underlie the east Andean province.

Early Paleozoic

During Cambrian and Ordovician times most parts of Colombia, with

the exception of the Guayana Shield, were covered by the sea, and three main
groups of sediments were deposited (Fig.2):
(A) Epicontinental, relatively thin sandstones, siltstones, shales and
limestones with trilobites, brachiopods and graptolites on the eastern Llanos
Platform (Giibjar Formation, Trumpy, 1943).
(B) Miogeosynclinal sandstones and shales, several thousand meters
thick, in the east Andean region (Quetame Group, Hettner, 1892).
(C) Eugeosynclinal deep sea sediments and submarine basalts in the
western slope of the Central Cordillera, i.e., west of the continental slope
of that time (Ayura-Montebello Group, Botero, 1963; Macuira Formation,
MacDonald, 1964).
Towards the end of the Ordovician and during the Silurian, the geo-
synclinal deposits were folded and metamorphosed; the miogeosynclinal

Tectonophysics, 4(4-6) (1967) 42F443 431

 r’ I !/ : VENEZUELA

J
PALEOGEOW&APNlC
MA?

COLOMBIA
DURING
CAMBRO-OFfDOVICiAN

- ..,..
____~ _-__-
0

--_---.. . . -..._ ~- ._.-

*
100 *$wn
- I
i
Fig.2. Paleogeographic map of Colombia during CambreOrdovician.
 ‘4

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iy

Fig.3. Diagram showing the history of sedimentation and tectogencsis in v

 pp.433-436

Tectonic Movements

i I i
x,x.x XXXY

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Coledoneon Orogeny

arious provinces of Colombia.

P

Fig.4. P
 ..A:.y.;n .’
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1.

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PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAP

OF c OLOMBIA
I -*:
MIDDLE LlASSIC TIME
ECUADOR ‘;
*+*+++a’%
x II

laleogeographic map of Colombia in Middle Liassic time.

sandstones and shales to quartzites and phyllites, the eugeosynclinal strata
to ortho-amphibolites, schists and gneisses (Caledonian orogeny).
The east Andean region was uplifted to form mountain ranges (Paleo-
Andes) which were exposed to erosion (Harrington, 1962) during most of the
Silurian Period (Fig.3). In the western Guayana Shield and in the Quetame
Massif, some syenitic intrusions of this age (485-436 m.y.; Pinson et al.,
1362) are known.

Late Paleozoic

At the beginning of Early or Middle Devonian, the Andean region under-

went renewed subsidence. This downward movement persisted until the end
of the Paleozoic. But, during the Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian, the
eastern Llanos Platform remained a mainland.
In the east Andean province only epicontinental (Floresta, Cuche,
Gacheta Formations) and continental deposits (Paleogiron, Biirgl, 1965a)
were laid down. Due to the near absence of fossils it is not known which
groups or formations of the west Andean province may represent the later
Paleozoic. Some Carboniferous and Permian (? ) fossils, found in slightly
metamorphosed rocks of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Chundua Group,
Gansser, 1955) and the Guajira Peninsula (Alas Metasediments, Lockwood,
1965), indicate that miogeosynclinal sediments were laid down at least in
some parts of the west Andean province. Also, the basal layers of the Dagua
and Cajamarca groups (Nelson, 1957) in the western and central Cordilleras
(phyllitic and graphitic slates mainly) may be as old as Late Paleozoic.
In the eastern Cordillera very slight unconformities are observed
within, and at the top of the Carboniferous and these may be correlated in
time, but not in intensity, with the Variscean orogeny in the Northern Hemi-
sphere. In the western Andes, Variscean compressional movements may have
been more intense and they may have caused also a low degree of meta-
morphism, particularly near the continental slope of that time (Cajamarca
Group).
A comparison of the paleogeographic conditions at the beginning and at
the end of the Paleozoic shows that the tectonic movements during this era
were essentially of compressional character and resulted in a steady growth
and temporal consolidation of the continent at the expense of the marine realm.

Mesozoic

During the Mesozoic the tectonic movements were of an entirely differ-

ent character and were governed, almost exclusively, by tensional forces.
The west Andean region apparently remained below sea level during the whole
era. Its western portion, occupied now by the western Cordillera, formed
part of an abyssal platform, while its eastern portion was a deep sea trough
which was filled, predominately, by turbidity current deposits (Dagua and
Cajamarca Groups, Nelson, 1957). In the Cretaceous deposits west of the
crest of the central Cordillera (Diabase Group, Nelson, 1957) basic sub-
marine flows predominate and sedimentary rocks (siliceous slates and
shales, etc.) are reduced to a few thin and poorly fossiliferous intercalations.

Tectonophysics, 4(4-6) (1967) 429-443 437

To the north and northeast the volcanic rocks are progressively replaced by
normal elastic sediments, and in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the
northern Guajira peninsula, they form only a few dykes and flows (Santa
Marta Schists, Gansser, 1955; Jarara and Etpana Formations, Lockwood,
1965).
In the east Andean region, in contrast, the Early and Middle Mesozoic
were periods of essentially continental deposition and of erosion(Harrington,
1962). The Triassic was initiated by block faulting and by intrusion and
extrusion of alkaline acid magmas (Radelli, 1963) along its eastern and
western margins (Gondwana phase, 195 + 8 m.y.; MacDonald, 1964). In Late
Triassic time (Carnian and Norian) its southwestern portion was invaded by
a local marine transgression from the west Andean sea (Payande Formation,
Trumpy, 1943). At the beginning of Late Liassic time, renewed fault
movements took place accompanied by intrusions of, initially acid and finally
basic, alkaline magmas which had their centre in the eastern flank of the
central Cordillera and formed a volcanic swell separating the west and east
Andean provinces (Fig.4). In the eastern Andes these fault movements led to
the formation of an extensive continental geosyncline in which up to 3,000 m
of cross-bedded sandstones, conglomerates, variegated clays and shales
were deposited (Neogirbn Group, Biirgl, 1965a). In some places this group
contains a thin intercalation of littoral to lagoonal fossiliferous beds in-
dicating a temporal marine invasion in Late Liassic time. During Middle and
Late Jurassic times, the greatest part of the east Andean region was a low
plain without notable erosion or sedimentation.
Then in Tithonian to Albian times the region subsided progressively
and became a marine province in which accumulated the thickest and most
extensive sedimentary sequence that has been deposited there since the
Ordovician. In the deepest portion of this miogeosyncline, the Cundinamarca
Basin around Bogot& (Bfirgl, 1961, 1964), most of the sedimentary succession
consists of euxinic shales which grade north-, east- and southwards into
epicontinental shales, limestones, and sandstones. The Cretaceous deposits
there attain a total thickness of more than 12,000 m.
During a pre-Albian tectonic phase, the eastern portion of the east
Andean region was uplifted while the western one subsided. At the same time
the intrusion of the tonalitic and granodioritlc p&tons of the central Corclil-
lera (100-115 m.y., Botero, 1963) began and went on almost until the end of
the Cretaceous.
In the Albian, the east Andean sea attained its maximum extension and
covered approximately the same area as that of the Early Paleozoic (Fig.5).
The Cenomanian, Turonian and Coniacian were stages of quiet sedimentation,
But, at the beginning of the Santonian and the Campanian, new fold movements
took place, accompanied, in the central Cordillera, by tonalitic and dioritic
intrusions and strong tuff eruptions. These movements correlate in time with
Subhercynic phases (Stille, 1924) and the Peruanic folding in Peru (Steinmann,
1929).
During Early Maastrichtian the sea covered, for the last time, the
whole Andean region and the adjoining parts of the eastern Llanos Platform.
Then the east Andean province emerged and slowly changed from marine to
Iagoonal and lacustrine environments.
In resume, it can be stated that at the beginning of the Mesozoic Era the
mainland attained its maximum extension (of any pre-Pleistocene time),

438 Tectonophysics, 4(P-6) (1967) 429-443

PALEOGEOGRAPHIC t4w

OF

COLOMBIA

IN

ALBIAN TIME

Fig.5. Paleogeographic map of Colombia in Albian time.

while only the west Andean province remained below sea level. Then the east
Andean region broke down along tensional faults and became a continental and
finally a marine geosyncline.

Tectono$iysies, 4(4-6) (1967) 429-443 439

 The Mesozoic can be considered, therefore, as an era of break-down
and destruction of the continental margin. Not until Senonian or, possibly,
Albian time did new compressional movements take place.

Cenozoic

In the east Andean province, slight unconformities at the base of the

Paleocene indicate some folding movements at the beginning of the Tertiary.
These movements, which correlate with the Laramide orogeny in North
America, were apparently much more intense in the west Andean province,
although the scarcity of fossils and the subsequent erosion of Early Tertiary
strata impede the recognition of details.
At the Cerro Cansona, in the northern extension of the western Cordil-
lera, the Paleocene rests unconformably on Santonian strata. Some Paleocene
erosion remnants in the Cauca depression and in the western Cordillera show
that the deep sea trench and the continental slope which previously lay in the
central Cordillera moved slightly westwards.
At the end of the Middle Eocene (Pyrenean phase, Stille, 1924; Incaic
phase, Steinmann, 1929), the continental slope shifted still further westwards
to the western foot of the western Cordillera. The strata of this mountain
range and of the northern Guajira Peninsula were folded and intruded by
tonalites and quartz-diorites (Parashi pluton 48 m.y., Lockwood, 1965), while
the pre-Upper Eocene strata of the Bolivar geosyncline’(Olsson, 1932, 1956)
were locally intruded by basaltic magmas to such an extent that their
sedimentary characters are sometimes hardly recognizable (Gansser, 1950).
In the other regions of Colombia, the Pyrenean phase resulted mainly in the
raising of the central and eastern Cordilleras and the Guayana Shield and in
the subsidence of the sub-Andean, Magdalena and Cauca Depressions, in
which the debris of the rising cordilleras was accumulated in the form of
thick conglomerates and coarse sandstones (Mirador, Picacho, Regadera
Sandstones, La Paz Formation, Hoyon and Lower Gualanday Conglomerates,
Salvajina Sandstone of Lower Cauca Formation, San Jacinto Formation).
Somewhat weaker compressional movements took place at the beginning
of the Miocene (Savean phase, Stille, 1924; Biirgl, 1965a). At this time, the
central and eastern Cordillera were again uplifted and exposed to renewed
erosion. Regional unconformities at the base of the Miocene, conglomerates,
and local marine or brackish water invasions show that the subsidence of the
intra-Andean depressions was considerably accelerated (Leon, Mugrosa,
upper Cauca Formations, upper Gualanday Conglomerate). Along the Carib-
bean coast, extensive areas such as the Lower Magdalena (San Jorge) Basin
and the Guajira Peninsula (Fig.1) sank below sea level.
After the Lower Miocene, structural movements followed one another
so closely that it becomes difficult (and sometimes even arbitrary) to
distinguish individual phases, particularly in areas where very detailed
paleontological data are lacking.
In the areas of marine sedimentation (Bolivar geosyncline, Sinli and
Lower Magdalena Basins, Guajira Peninsula) unconformities and reworked
Foraminifera indicate accelerated movements at the beginning of Middle
Miocene (older Styrian phase) and the upper Middle Miocene (younger Styrian
phase, Stille, 1924). During the older phase the Bolivar geosyncline was sub-

440 Tectonophysics, 4(4- 6) (1967) 429-443

Fig.6. Geological profile of the eastern Cordillera.
divided into a number of deep-sea troughs with euxinic conditions. At the
same time the “neovolcanic activity” in the southern parts of the central and
western Cordillera began. During this activity first andesitic and later rhyo-
dacitic magmas and ashes were extruded. In all other regions of Colombia
during Middle Miocene time, the cordilleras continued to move upward and
the depressions downward (Guayabo Formation in the sub-Andean Depression,
Colorado Formation in the Magdalena, La Paile Formation in the Cauca
Depression).
One of the most intense compressional movements took place at the
beginning of the Upper Miocene and is sometimes considered as the Andean
orogeny s.str. (Antillean orogeny, Blackwelder, 1914). During this period the
western Cordillera, which perhaps existed already in Lower Miocene time
as an island chain, and the Baud6 Range (Fig.1) emerged completely above
sea level. The volcanic activity on both sides of the southern part of the
Cauca Depressions attained its maximum intensity. Along the margins of the
cordilleras thrust faults, with up to 5,000 m displacement, were formed. In
many places the cordilleras moved over the depressions along these faults
(Fig.6). In these depressions, extremely thick successions of conglomerates
were laid down (Real or Honda Group in the Magdalena, Zarzal Formation in
the Cauca Depression).
At the beginning of the Pliocene, the whole Colombian territory was
mainland; but strong vertical movements in the Andean system persisted.
The Pliocene deposits consist mainly of lacustrine clays and conglomerates
and fluvial boulder beds. In one locality of the Lower Magdalena Basin,
Pliocene strata attain a (true ?) thickness of 3,000 m.
The Pleistocene began with a marine transgression of short duration
along the Caribbean coast (La Popa Clay and coral reef limestones). In the
interior of the country, the structural movements diminished in intensity.
Only at very few localities do the Pleistocene beds show dips of more than 5O
At the beginning of the Pleistocene the greater part of Colombia was
still lowland, but, from the Middle Pleistocene onward the whole territory
was uplifted, particularly the cordilleras which were raised to their present
heights. They attain 5,223 m in the eastern Cordillera, 5,760 m in the central
Cordillera, and 5,800 m in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. This relatively
late uplift may explain why no traces of Early Pleistocene glaciations are
known in Colombia (Gansser, 1955).
In Colombia, the Cenozoic (including the youngest Cretaceous) was
therefore, an era of strong compressional movements which not only
consolidated and restored the continent to its early Mesozoic extent but also
incorporated the west Andean province in the mainland and resulted in the
uplift of the Andean chains.

CONCLUSIONS

In Colombia the structural events of the different eras and their

results can be summarized briefly as follows:
(A) Paleozoic: compressional movements, Caledonian and weaker
Variscean orogenies, retreat of the sea, temporal consolidation of the east
Andean province. The west Andean region remained ocean floor.

442 Tectoncfphysics, 4(4-6) (1967) 429-443

 (B) Mesozoic: tensional fault movements, extrusion of alkaline magmas,
break-down and remobilization of the east Andean province, advance of the
sea to its Early Paleozoic extent.
(C) Cenozoic: new compressional movements, Andean orogeny, progres-
sive retreat of the sea, reconsolidation of the east Andean province and in-
corporation of the west Andean province in the continent.

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Tectonophysics, 4(P6) (1967) 42%443 443