DELEGATION

I. INTRODUCTION
Delegation of authority is one of the important factors in the process of
organizing as well in formal organization. Delegation of authority refers to
authorizationof a person to make certain decision. To delegate means to grant or confer
and delegation means conferring authority from one person to another to accomplish a
particular work or activity, itis small slice of the authority of a line superior.
Delegation is the transferring of responsibility to subordinates on behalf of
the manager. It is an act through which a manager gives authority to others to attain
certain assignments. Delegating is a major element of the directing function of nursing
management. Competency by which nurse managers get the work done through their
employees. Delegation is part of management; it requires professional training and
development to accept the hierarchial responsibilities of delegation.
II. MEANING
Delegation of authority refers to authorization of a person to make certain
decision.
Delegate- “to entrust to another; to appoint as one’s representative; to assign
responsibility or authority”.

Delegation - “the act of empowering to act for another”.

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III. DEFINITION

"Delegation is defined as the transfer of responsibility for the performance of a

task from one person to another".
"Transferring to a competent individual the authority to perform a selected
nursing task in a selected nursing situation . The nurse retains accountability for
delegation".
Delegation can be defined as getting work done through others, or as directing
the performance of one or more people to accomplish organizational goals.

Delegation is the process of assigning responsibility and authority to co- worker

and ensuring his accountability

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 IV. ELEMENTS OF DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY

The process of delegation involves three essential elements or aspects:

 Entrustment of responsibility (duties or work) to another for performance;

 Granting of authority to make use of resources, take necessary decisions and so on for
carrying out the responsibility
 Creation of an obligation or accountability on the part of the person accepting the
delegation to perform in terms of the standards established.

It is important to point out that these three elements are inseparable parts of the
process of delegation. A brief explanation of the components of delegation is given
below:

(i) Entrustment of Responsibility or Duty. Responsibility means the work or duties

assigned to a person by virtue of his position in the organization. In order to enable the
subordinate perform his responsibility well, the superior must clearly tell the former as
to what is expected of him. In other words, the superior must determine clearly the task
or duty to be assigned to the subordinate. The duty must be expressed either in terms of
functions or in terms of objectives. If a subordinate is asked to control the operations of
a machine, the duty is in terms of function. But if he is asked to produce a number of
pieces of a product, the duty is in terms of target or objectives. Determination of duties
in terms of objectives will enable the subordinate to know by what standards his
performance will be evaluated.

(ii) Graning of Authority. Authority is the right or power granted to an individual to

make possible the performance of work assigned. Power to produce or use raw materials,
spend money, or ask for allotment of money to hire and fire people, etc.has to be
delegated to individuals to whom the work is assigned. For instance, if the General
Manager of a plant assigns to the Production Manager the production of particular goods
and services he will also grant him the authority to use materials, money and machinery
hire workers and so on to fulfil the production schedule prescribed as his duty.

(iii) Creation of Obligation or Accountability. According to Louis A. Allen,

"Accountability is the obligation to carry out responsibility and exerted authority in terms

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of performance standards established”. It means holding an individual answerable for
final results. The subordinate is held accountable to the superior. Accountability
originates because the manager has a right to require accounting for the authority
delegated and task assigned to a subordinate. The process of delegation of authority is
incomplete unless accountability is created.

The term 'accountability' should not be confused with 'responsibility.

Responsibility denotes the work to be done. It can be assigned to the subordinates;
subordinate will perform his responsibility well if he is give sufficient authority along
with it. When the authority is accepted by the subordinate, he commits himself to account
for the use of authority. Thus, accountability is the obligation for the performance of
work assigned and authority delegated. In other words, it is the responsibility to account
for results.

Authority can be delegated but accountability cannot be delegated. When a senior

executive assigns some duties to a junior executive, he has to delegate corresponding
authority also. The junior executive may, in turn, take the help of a foreman working
under him in performing the work assigned. But the junior executive will continue to be
accountable for performance to the senior executive. That means if the foreman does not
do the job properly, it is the junior executive who is responsible to the senior executive.
Thus, accountability can't be delegated, it always moves upward. In simple words, an
executive cannot escape the responsibility (or answerability for the performance of tasks
assigned to him by delegating authority to his subordinates). However, he can take action
against the subordinate for his carelessness or negligence in doing the job.

Accountability moves upward because a person who is delegated the authority is

always accountable to the superior who delegated him the authority. However, as is
obvious from the mechanism of the delegation process, responsibility and authority move
downward.

The extent of accountability depends upon the extent delegation of authority and
responsibility. A person cannot be held answerable for the jobs not assigned to him by
his superior. For instance, if the production manager is given responsibility and authority
to produce a specified quantity and quality of certain product and the personnel
department is given responsibility and authority for the development of workforce, the
production manager cannot be held accountable for the development of workforce.

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 "Accountability is, by the act which creates it, of the same quality and weight as the
accompanying responsibility and authority."

What can be delegated ?

Authority is delegated when a superior grants some discretion to subordinate.

Superiors can neither delegate authority they do not have and nor they can delegate all
their authority without, in effect, passing on their position to their subordinates. The
authority of a top executive can be divided into three broad categories:

(i) Authority which must be delegated such as authority to take routine decisions for the
accomplishment of tasks;
(ii) Authority which call be delegated such as implementation of policies
(iii) Authority which cannot be delegated at all such as authority to take policy decisions.

A manager must delegate the authority to do the routine work which does not involve
any policy decision. A part of work in every management position consists of activities
which are subsidiary to the primary task of the position itself. The power to perform
subsidiary activities must be delegated to others so that the concerned executive
concentrates on the primary task. For instance, the sales manager of a concern is
responsible for selling its products. In order to sell the products, the sales manager has to
perform many functions like market research, employment of sales force, training of
sales-force, development of means of sale promotion and so on. The sales manager
cannot perform all these functions himself. So he can entrust certain operations to his
subordinates and give them authority to perform them.

There are certain other activities which a manager can entrust to his subordinates
provided the manager has the necessary skill to delegate and the subordinates have been
trained to accept these assignments. These activities relate to execution of policies. The
manager can keep the control mechanism in his hands and let others execute the policy
decisions. However, he cannot delegate the authority to take policy decisions, develop
plans and establish appropriate organization for the execution of plans. These are
managerial functions of higher order on which the manager must concentrate himself.
Similarly, control function is also to be performed by the manager himself. A manager
who delegates his authority to others must keep the authority to control their activities

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 with himself. He should evaluate the functioning of various subordinates himself and
take necessary action wherever necessary.

V. DELEGATION HAS THREE ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OR DIMENSIONS

1. Assignment of duties and task
2. Grant of authority, power, right or permission
3. Creation of accountability

Assignment of duties: As one person cannot perform all the tasks, he must allocate a
part of his to subordinates for the purposes of accomplishment by them
Grant of authority: Delegation of authority means division of authority and powers
downwards to the subordinates. If the delegated duty is to be discharged by subordinates,
they must be entrusted with requisite authority for enabling them to make such work
performance.
Creation of accountability Delegation of duties implies accountability from side of
subordinates. Because of this accountability, the manager must keep for himself some
reserved authority and duties for directing, regulating and controlling the course of work
undertaken by his subordinates

VI. TYPES OF DELEGATION

Delegation of authority may be specific or general, written or unwritten, precise or vague.

 General and specific delegation

In general delegation, the superior tells his subordinate to do whatever the latter feels
necessary. This is a case of unclear delegation under which the subordinate does not fully
understand the nature of duties and limits of authority. Actually, the usefulness of
delegation will be lost in such cases. There will be overlapping of activities and
misunderstanding among the people. On the other hand, if delegation is specific ie,
precise and clear, there will be no need for the subordinates to wonder how far their
authority goes and to experiment by hit or miss. It will also help the boss to hold the
subordinates accountable. Therefore, it is advisable that delegations of authority should
be precise and clear and it would be better if they are in writing.

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 Written and unwritten

Some people suggest that especially in the upper levels of management, if the authority
delegations are specific and written, they will bring rigidity in the organization.
Sometimes, particularly for new jobs at the top, delegations cannot be very specific, at
least at the outset. But this situation can be remedied with the passage of time. If the
delegations are not specific, there may be organizational frictions, unnecessary meetings
and negotiations and overlapping of activities. Therefore, delegations should be specific
as far as possible. The fear that specific delegations result in inflexibility can be best met
by developing a tradition of flexibility in an organization.

 Shared and Splintered Authority

Authority is shared when it is delegated to two or more persons together. These persons
are responsible for making decisions without following the chain of command. For
instance, the chief executive of a company may delegate his authority to production
manager, marketing manager and finance manager for diversification of company's
products. In such a case, the authority is shared by three persons who will take the
decisions jointly for diversification of company's products.

Splintered authority exists wherever a problem cannot be solved without pooling

the authority delegations of two or more persons. For instance, if the incharge of Plant A
thinks that costs can be reduced through minor modifications in procedures in Plan B. he
cannot bring about this change. He will have to contact the incharge of Plant B for taking
any decision. The change will take place if they pool their authority. Individually, their
authority is said to be "splintered". It should- also be noted that the same decision could
also be taken by their boss. Such practice should not be encouraged as the superior will
be over-burdened. The managers incharge of both the plants who have splintered
authority can meet and pool their authority delegated to them and can quickly take the
decision jointly.

VII. CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Delegation of authority can be exercised only by higher authority: Higher authority

are responsible for delegating the authority to its subordinates.
2. Delegation can be of any kind: there is no rule that delegation to bf a particular kind.

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 3. Delegation does not mean transfer of final authority: Delegation doesn’t mean that it
is the transfer of final authority, it means delegating the works among individuals to
achieve the organization goal.
4. Does not involve surrender of power: There is no surrender or power when delegation
of work done.

VIII. PRINCIPLES OF DELEGATION:

1. Should be written and specific: There should be written specific delegation which
clarifies the responsibilities that is given to each individuals.
2. Authority and responsibility should be equal: there should not be any disequlibrium
between authority and responsibility. It should be equally distributed.
3. Should be properly planned and exercised: Delegation should not happen at a sudden.
It should be properly planned and exercised.
4. Right person should be chosen: For successful completion of the work, the delegation
should be done by choosing right person.
5. Good reporting system should be established: there should be good reporting system
when planning and delegating the work.
6. Should have certain objectives to get certain results: the delegation of work should be
done with clearly defined objectives so that at the end of the program we can evaluate
whether the objectives are achieved or not.
7. Superiors should be ready to give support and guidance: The superiors should
supervise the works of subordinates.
8. Overall responsibility lies with the superior: Delegation does not mean that giving
overall responsibility to subordinates.
9. There are a few guidelines in form of principles which can be a help to the manager to
process of delegation.
The principles of delegation are as follows: -

1. Principle of result excepted- suggests that every manager before delegating the powers
to the subordinate should be able to clearly define the goals as well as results expected
from them. The goals and targets should be completely and clearly defined and the
standards of performance should also be notified clearly. For example, a marketing
manager explains the salesmen regarding the units of sale to take place in a particular
day, say ten units a day have to be the target sales. While a marketing manager provides

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 these guidelines of sales, mentioning the target sales is very important so that the
salesman can perform his duty efficiently with a clear set of mind.
2. Principle of Parity of Authority and Responsibility- According to this principle, the
manager should keep a balance between authority and responsibility. Both of them
should go hand in hand.
According to this principle, if a subordinate is given a responsibility to perform a task,
then at the same time he should be given enough independence and power to carry out
that task effectively. This principle also does not provide excessive authority to the
subordinate which at times can be misused by him. The authority should be given in such
a way which matches the task given to him. Therefore, there should be no degree of
disparity between the two.

3. Principle of absolute responsibility- This says that the authority can be delegated but
responsibility cannot be delegated by managers to his subordinates which means
responsibility is fixed. The manager at every level, no matter what is his authority, is
always responsible to his superior for carrying out his task by delegating the powers. It
does not means that he can escape from his responsibility. He will always remain
responsible till the completion of task.
Every superior is responsible for the acts of their subordinates and are accountable to
their superior therefore the superiors cannot pass the blame to the subordinates even if
he has delegated certain powers to subordinates example if the production manager has
been given a work and the machine breaks down. If repairmen is not able to get repair
work done, production manager will be responsible to CEO if their production is not
completed.

4. Principle of Authority level- This principle suggests that a manager should exercise his
authority within the jurisdiction/framework given. The manager should be forced to
consult their superiors with those matters of which the authority is not given that means
before a manager takes any important decision, he should make sure that he has the
authority to do that on the other hand, subordinate should also not frequently go with
regards to their complaints as well as suggestions to their superior if they are not asked
to do. This principle emphasizes on the degree of authority and the level upto which it
has to be maintained.

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5. Unity of Command.

This prince states that accountability is unitary. Each person should be accountable only
to one superior for delegated authority as he cannot serve two masters well. If a person
reports to two superiors for the same duty, confusion and friction will result. He will find
himself frequently receiving conflicting instructions. When this IS the case, his only hope
is to run the risk of displeasing either or both. Therefore, as far as possible, dual
subordination should be avoided.

6. Scalar Chain.

The scalar principle refers to the chain of direct authority relationship from superior to
subordinate throughout the organization. A clear understanding of scalar chain is
necessary for the proper functioning of the organization. Every subordinate must know
as to why the authority has been delegated to him and to whom matters beyond his own
authority must be referred to.

7. Effective Communication.

There should be two-way communication between the superior and the subordinate. The
superior must give the instructions in clear and unambiguous words and he must also
allow the subordinate to seek clarifications and guidance whenever the latter feels any
difficulty.

IX. SYMPTOMS OF POOR DELEGATION

1. Dissatisfied subordinates: When delegation is poor, the subordinates will not be

satisfied with their work and authority.
2. Disorganized effort: when delegation is not good, there will not be any harmony in the
work.
3. Long queue in front of boss office: In poor delegation, the subordinates have to wait
for their boss by standing in the queue instead the boss has to work with the subordinates.
4. Boss always busy: if the work is poorly delegated, the the authority will not have any
responsibility so that the boss will be busy.
6. Work never completed in time: The poor delegation will not allow the work to
complete at correct time that they decided during the planning phase.

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7. Constant time pressure: There will be constant time pressure when the delegation of
work is not according to the individual capabilities.
8. Hold up of activities due to pending orders from boss: As the boss is not involved in
poor delegation there will be pending of job.

X. STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE DELEGATING

1. Plan ahead: Before strting the programme, the effective planning should be done
by stating the objectives and time.
2. Identify necessary skill and level: We have to identify the necessary skills needed
to complete the task.
3. Select most capable person: According the nature of work the most capable person
should be selected to complete the task.
4. Communicate goal clearly: The objectives or the goals must be stated clearly and
they have to communicate each other so that synchronization of activity is possible
which helps to achieve the goal.
5. Empower the delegate: The delegates should be provided with needed support and
supervision.
6. Set deadlines and monitor progress: The deadlines should be set before starting the
programme, and that should be monitored continuously inorder to avoid unwanted
dues in completing the programme.
7. Model the role: Provide guidance to the delegates to accomplishthe goals.
8. Evaluate performance: The performance should be evaluated at the end of the
programme by assessing the goals achieved or not.
9. Reward accomplishment: the best performance should begiven with reward for
more motivation and support.

XI. RIGHTS TO DELEGATION

National Council of State Board of Nursing in the US presented 5 rights to delegation

from the perspectives of both nursing service administrator and staff nurse. Nursing
service administrator is responsible for job description, role delineation, development of
organisational policies, procedures and standards an assurance of adequate human

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 resources. Staff nurse is responsible for assessing client, delegating appropriately,
communicate clearly, providing monitoring and supervision.
1. Right task
2. Right circumstance
3. Right person
4. Right direction/communication
5. Right supervision/evaluation

1.Right task
Nursing Service administrator(NSA) Staff Nurse

Appropriate activities for consideration in Appropriate delegation activities are

identified for specific client(s).
delegation decisions are identified in UAP
job descriptions/role delineation.

Organizational policies, procedures and Appropriate activities are identified

for specific UAP.
standards describe expectations of and limits

to activities.

Generally, appropriate activities for consideration in delegation decision-making include

those:

 which frequently reoccur in the daily care of a client or group of clients;

 which do not require the UAP to exercise nursing judgment;
 which do not require complex and/or multi-dimensional application of the nursing
process;
 for which the results are predictable and the potential risk is minimal; and
 which utilize a standard and unchanging procedure.

2.Right circumstance

Nursing Service administrator(NSA) Staff Nurse

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Assess the health status of the client Assess health status of individual
client(s),
community, analyze the data and identify
analyze the data and identify client
collective nursing care needs, priorities,
specific
and
goals and nursing care needs.
necessary resources

Provide appropriate staffing and skill mix, Match the complexity of the activity with
the
identify clear lines of authority and
reporting, UAP competency and with the level of

and provide sufficient equipment and supervision available

supplies to meet the collective nursing
care needs.

Provide appropriate preparation in Provide for appropriate monitoring and

management techniques to deliver and guiding for the combination of client,

activity
delegate care.
and personnel.

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3.Right person

Nursing Service administrator(NSA) Staff Nurse

Establish organizational standards Instruct and/or assess, verify and identify

consistent the

with applicable law and rules which UAP’s competency on an individual and
identify client

educational and training requirements specific basis

and

competency measurements of nurses

and UAP.

Incorporate competence standards into Implement own professional development

institutional policies; assess nurse and activities based on assessed needs; assess
UAP UAP

performance; perform evaluations based performance; perform evaluations of UAP

upon
based upon standards; and take steps to
standards; and take steps to remedy
remedy failure to meet standards.
failure to

meet standards, including reporting

nurses

who fail to meet standards to board of

nursing.

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4. Right direction/communication

Nursing Service administrator(NSA) Staff Nurse

Communicate acceptable activities, UAP Communicate delegation decision on a

client
competencies and qualifications, and the
specific and UAP-specific basis. The
supervision plan through a description of
detail
a nursing service delivery model,
standards of and method (oral and/or written) vary
with the
care, role descriptions and
policies/procedures. specific circumstances.

Situation specific communication

includes:

a. specific data to be collected and

method

and timelines for reporting,

b. specific activities to be performed and

any

client specific instruction and limitation,

and

c. the expected results or potential

complications and time lines for

communicating such information.

5.Right supervision/evaluation

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Supervision may be provided by the delegating licensed nurse or by other licensed nurses
designated by nursing service administrators or the delegating nurse. The supervising
nurse must know the expected method of supervision (direct or indirect), the
competencies and qualifications of UAP, the nature of the activities which have been
delegated, and the stability/predictability of client condition.

Nursing Service Staff Nurse

administrator(NSA)

Assure adequate human resources, Supervise performance of specific

including nursing activities or assign supervision to
other licensed nurses.
sufficient time, to provide for
sufficient

supervision to assure that nursing care

is

adequate and meets the needs of the

client.

Identify the licensed nurses Provide directions and clear expectations

responsible to of how the activity is to be performed:

provide supervision by position, title, ¨ monitor performance,

role
¨ obtain and provide feedback,
delineation.
¨ intervene if necessary, and

¨ ensure proper documentation.

Evaluate outcomes of client Evaluate the entire delegation process:

community and
¨ evaluate the client, and
use information to develop quality
¨ evaluate the performance of the
assurance
activity.

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 and to contribute to risk management
plans.

XII. COMMON DELEGATION ERRORS

 Under delegating-frequently occurs from managers false assumption is that it may be

interpreted as a lack of ability on his part to do the job correctly or completely. Another
cause is manager‘s desire to complete the whole job personally due to lack of trust in
sub-ordinates.
 Over delegating- some managers over delegate burdening their subordinates. Others
do so because they feel insecure in their ability to perform a task, and due to lack of
organisation time. It can decrease the productivity.
 Improperly delegating- it includes delegating the things at wrong time, to the wrong
person or for the wrong reason. Also delegating the yaks and responsibilities that are
beyond the capability of the person to whom they are being delegated or that should be
done by the manager.

XIII. BARRIERS TO DELEGATION

1. Lack of confidence and trust in workers: when the authority does not have trust on
the workers, effective delegation of work will not be possible.
2. Low self confidence, insecurity: When the subordinates have less self confidence,
there will not be effective delegation possible.
3. Vague job description: If the job description is not according to the objectives and
goals and if these are not communicated to the subordinates, there will not be effective
delegation of work.
4. Inadequate training: If the people are not getting adequate training the delegation
will not be possible according to their efficiency.
5. Lack of adequate recruitment and selection
6. Time involved in explaining the task

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 7. Reluctance to take the risks involved in depending on others.
8. Fear of loss of power
XIV. ADVANTAGES OF DELEGATION
1. Delegation serves as a vehicle of co-ordination. The various levels of the organization
are used appropriately
2. A sound system of delegation tends to develop an increased sense of responsibility and
enhanced potential work capacity of individual employee.
3. It reduces the executive burden- It relieves the superior of time- consuming, minor
duties and allows him to concentrate more effectively on major responsibilities of his
own position.
4. Delegation minimizes delay when decision have no longer to be referred up the line.
5. As delegation provides the means of multiplying the limited personal capacity of the
superior it is instrumental for encouraging of business.
6. Delegation permits the subordinates to enlarge their jobs, to broaden their
understanding and develop their capacity.
7. Delegation raises subordinates position in stature and importance and increase their
job satisfaction.

XV. DISADVANTAGES OF DELEGATION

1. Frailty (less than normal amount of strength or force) of human life
2. Unfamiliarity with art of delegation
3. Incapacity of subordinates.

CONCLUSION

For the effective administration of any organisation co-ordination and

delegation are essential. Without these two functions it will be difficult to achieve the
organisational goals . The right to delegate and the ability to provide formal reward for
successful completion of delegated tasks reflect the legitimate authority inherent in the
management role. It is a major element of the directing function of nursing management.
It is an effective nurse management competency by which nurse managers get the work
done through their employees. It was essential for management areas.

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 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
I. INTRODUCTION

Any organisation in which people interact has a potential for conflict. Health
care institutions include many interacting groups: staff with staff, staff with patients, staff
with families and visitors, staff with physicians, and so on. These interactions frequently
lead to conflicts. Conflict relates to human feelings, including feelings of neglect, of
being taken for granted, of being treated like a servant, of not being appreciated, of being
ignored, and of being overloaded. Conflict is related to ignoring an individual’s self
esteem and worth. The individual’s feelings build into anger to the point of range. This
results in overt behaviours like brooding, arguing, or fighting.

II. DEFINITION

An expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties, who

perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other party in
achieving their goals. They are in a position of opposition in conjunction with
cooperation.

III. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONFLICT

The characteristics of a conflict situation are:

1) At least two parties (individuals or groups) are involved in some kind of interaction.
2) Mutually exclusive goals and mutually exclusive values exist, either in fact or as
perceived by the patients involved.
3) Interaction is characterized by behaviour destined to defeat, reduce, or suppress the
opponent or to gain a mutually designated victory.
4) The parties face each other with mutually opposing actions and counteractions.
5) Each party attempts to create an imbalance or relatively favoured position of power
vis-a-vis the other.

IV. TYPES OF CONFLICTS

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Conflict has been described and studied from the standpoint of its context, or where it
occurs. 3 types of conflicts are

1. Intrapersonal conflict: - an intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual in

situations in which he or she must choose between two alternatives. Choosing one
alternative means that he or she cannot have the other; they are mutually exclusive. E.g.
we might internally debate whether to complete an assignment that is due the next day
or watch a favourite television programme.
2. Interpersonal conflict: - is conflict between two or more individuals. It occurs
because of differing values, goals, action, or perceptions. For e.g. when you want to go
to a science fiction movie, but your partner may prefer to attend an opera. Interpersonal
conflict becomes more difficult when we are involved in issues relating to racial, ethnic
and life style values and norms.
3. Organizational conflicts: - conflict also occurs in organization because of differing
perceptions or goals. Organizational conflicts may be intrapersonal or interpersonal, but
they originate in the structure and function of the organization. Typically, aspects of the
organisations style of management, rules, policies and procedures give rise to conflict.
When a conflict occurs within an organization, it is important that the conflict be
resolved in a constructive way in order to maintain the team’s motivation. The leader’s
role takes on special significance.

Two areas responsible for conflict in organisations are role ambiguity and role conflict

1. Role ambiguity occurs when employees do not know what to do, how to do it, or
what the outcomes must be. This frequently occurs when policies and rules are
ambiguous and unclear.
2. Role conflict occurs when two or more individuals in different positions within the
organization believe that certain actions or responsibilities belong exclusively to them.
The conflict could relate to competition. E.g. In some hospitals, conflict have existed
between the nurse and the social workers about the responsibility for providing
discharge planning. Both groups see discharge planning as an important aspect of their
own care of the patients.
3. Organisational structure: - may be another source of conflict. Often this is seen as a
conflict over territory. Everyone tries to protect his or her current territory or area of
responsibility and perhaps expand it. This type of conflict increases as organization

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 grows. To minimize it organizations use job descriptions, organisational charts and
other such mechanism.
4. Scarcity of resources: - resources are not only monetary. Resources may also refer to
employees, space or other elements critical to the operation of any unit within an
institution.

V. THE CONFLICT PROCESS

Before managers can or should attempt to intervene in conflict, they must be able to
assess its five stages accurately

1. Latent conflict (also called antecedent conditions).

2. Perceived conflict
3. Felt conflict
4. Manifest conflict
5. Conflict resolution
6. Conflict aftermath.

Latent conflict

The first stage in the conflict process, latent conflict, implies the existence of
antecedent conditions such as short staffing and rapid change. In this stage, conditions
are ripe for conflict, although no conflict has actually occurred and none may ever occur.
Much unnecessary conflicts could be prevented or reduced if managers examined the
organisation more closely for antecedent conditions.

Perceived conflict

If the conflict progresses, it may develop into the second stage: perceived
conflict. Perceived or substantive conflict is intellectualized and often involves issues
and roles. The person recognizes it logically and impersonally as occurring. Sometimes,
conflict can be resolved at this stage before it is internalized or felt.

Felt conflict

The third stage, felt conflict, occurs when the conflict is emotionalized. Felt
emotions include hostility, fear, mistrust, and anger. It is also referred to as affective

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conflict. It is possible to perceive conflict and not feel it. A person also can feel the
conflict but not perceive the problem.

Manifest conflict

It is also called as overt conflict, action is taken. The action may be to withdraw,
compete, debate, or seek conflict resolution. People often learn pattern of dealing with
manifest conflict early in their lives, and family background and experiences often
directly affect how conflict is dealt with in adulthood. Gender also may play a role in
how we respond to conflict. Men are socialized to respond more aggressively to conflict,
while women are more apt to try to avoid conflicts or to pacify them. Power also plays a
role in conflict resolution. Therefore, the action an individual takes to resolve conflict is
often influenced by culture, gender, age, power position and upbringing.

Conflict aftermath

The final stage in the conflict process is conflict aftermath. There is always
conflict aftermath- positive or negative. If the conflict is managed well, people involved
in the conflict will believe that there position was given a fair hearing. If the conflict is
managed poorly the conflict issues frequently remain and may return later to cause more
conflict.

Outcomes of conflict

We often hear people hear about conflict situation resulting in win-win, win-lose and
lose-lose. Filley(1975) identified these 3 different positions or outcomes of conflict.

Win-lose outcome: - occurs when one person obtains his or her desired ends in the
situation and the other individual fails to obtain what is desired. Often winning occurs
because of power and authority within the organisation or situation.
Lose-lose outcome: - in lose-lose situation, there is no winner. The resolution of the
conflict is unsatisfactory to both parties.
Win- win outcome: - are of course the most desirable. In these situations, both parties
walk away from the conflict having achieved all or most of their goals or desires.

VI. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

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 The optimal goal in resolving conflict is creating a win- win solution for all
involved. This outcome is not possible in every situation, and often the manager’s goal
is to manage the conflict in a way that lessens the perceptual differences that exist
between the involved parties. A leader recognizes which conflict management strategy
is most appropriate for each situation. The choice of most appropriate strategy depends
on many variables, such as the situation itself, the urgency of the decision, the power and
status of the players, the importance of the issue, and the maturity of the people involved
in the conflict.

Common conflict resolution strategies

1. Compromising
In compromising, each party gives up something it wants for compromising not
to result in a lose-lose situation, both parties must be willing to give up something of
equal value. It is important that parties in conflict do not adopt compromise prematurely
if collaboration is both possible and feasible.
2. Competing
The competing approach is used when one party pursues what it wants at the
expense of the others. Because only one party wins, the competing party seeks to win
regardless of the cost to others. Win-lose conflict resolution strategies leave the loser
angry, frustrated, and wanting to get even in the future. Managers may use competing
when a quick or unpopular decision needs to be made. It is also appropriately used when
one party has more information or knowledge about a situation than the other.
Competing in the form of resistance is also appropriate when an individual needs to
resist unsafe patient care policies or procedures, unfair treatment, abuse of power, or
ethical concerns.
3. Cooperating / Accommodating
Cooperating is the opposite of competing. In the cooperating approach, one
party sacrifices his or her beliefs and allows the other party to win. The actual problem
is usually not solved in this win-lose situation. Accommodating is another term that
may be used for this strategy. The person cooperating or accommodating often collects
IOUs from the other party that can be used at a later date. Cooperating and
accommodating are appropriate political strategies if the item in conflict is not of high
value to the person doing the accommodating.
4. Smoothing

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 Smoothing is used to manage a conflict situation. One person “smoothes” others
involved in the conflict in an effort to reduce the emotional component of the conflict.
Managers often use smoothing to get someone to get accommodate or cooperate with
another party. Smoothing occurs when one party in a conflict attempts to compliment
the other party or to focus on agreements rather than differences. Although it may be
appropriate for minor disagreements, smoothing rarely results in resolution of actual
conflict.

5. Avoiding
In the avoiding approach, the parties involved are aware of a conflict but choose
not to acknowledge it or attempt to resolve it. Avoidance may be indicated in trival
disagreements, when the cost of dealing with the conflict exceeds the benefits of solving
it, when the problem should be solved by people other than you, when one party is more
powerful than the other, or when the problem will solve itself. The great problem in
using avoidance is that the conflict remains, often only to re-emerge at a later time in
an even more exaggerated fashion.
6. Collaborating
Collaborating is an assertive and cooperative means of conflict resolution that
results in a win-win solution. In collaboration, all parties set aside their original goals
and work together to establish a supraordinate or priority common goal. In doing so, all
parties accept mutual responsibility for reaching the supraordinate goal. Although it is
very difficult for people truly to set aside original goals, collaborating cannot occur if
this doesn’t happen. For example, a nurse who is unhappy that she did not receive
requested days off might meet with her superior and jointly establish the supraordinate
goal that staffing will be adequate to meet the patient safety criteria. If the new goal is
truly a jointly set goal, each party will perceive that an important goal has been achieved
and that the supraordinate goal is most important. In doing so, the focus remains on
problem solving and not on defeating the other party.
Collaboration is rare when there is a wide difference in power between the
groups or individuals involved. In collaboration problem solving is a joint effort with
no superior-subordinate, order giving-order taking relationship. True collaboration
requires mutual respect; open and honest communication; equitable, shared decision
making powers.
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For a leader to gain competence in facilitating collaboration, the following ten lessons
must be learned.
1. Know thyself - as individuals come to the process of collaboration, they must
be conscious of their own goals and values so that they may be more reflective.
2. Learn to value and manage diversity - diverse perspective assist with synthesis
and improve quality of the collaboration process. Diversity includes both gender
and cultural differences.
3. Develop constructive conflict resolution skills - conflict resolution skills are
essential for successful collaboration. These skills include an understanding of
the conflict process, the nature of emotional versus task conflict, and effective
conflict management.
4. Use your power to create win- win situations - while dominant power has no
place in the collaboration process, the leader can use power to mediate, draw
out others, show respect for members, demonstrate good will, share
information, and use the power of position to facilitate the collaborative process.
5. Master interpersonal and process skills - interpersonal skills such as flexibility
and cooperation are important as well as the organisational skills of systems
thinking, especially understanding organizational connections.
6. Recognize that collaboration is a journey - establish rapport, clarifying
expectations, and requesting feedback takes time, and lack of time often limits
opportunities for effective collaboration. But each collaborative effort is a step
in the journey to establishing a climate of collaboration for future conflict.
7. Leverage multidisciplinary forums to increase collaboration - shared decision
making is a hallmark of the collaborative process. Use forums to both listen to
others and to put forth your own position.
8. Appreciate that collaboration can occult spontaneously - sometimes, the best
collaboration may begin in a hallway conversation that results in people
beginning to work together and share ideas to solve a conflict. Such exchanges
can be exciting when a shared commitment for action is agreed up on.
9. Balance autonomy and unity in collaborative relationships - the leader must
balance cooperation with the need to meet one’s own needs to find integrative
solutions.

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 10. Remember that collaboration is not required for all decisions - autonomous
decision making is still vital, and taking the time for the collaborative process
is often not cost effective for many conflict issues.
7. Negotiation
Negotiation is probably the most rapidly growing technique for handling
conflicts. According to Hampton, Summer, and Webber, negotiation includes
bargaining power, distributive bargaining, integrative bargaining and mediation. They
are defined as follows:
 Bargaining power: refers to another person’s inducement to agree to your terms.
 Distributive bargaining: What either side gains is at the expense of the other.
Most labour-management bargaining falls into this category.
 Integrative bargaining: negotiators reach a solution that enhances both parties
and produces high joint benefits. Each party looks out for its own interest, with
the focus shifting to problem solving- from reducing demands to expanding the
pool of resources.
 Mediation: mediators attempt to eliminate surrender as a demand. They
encourage each party to acknowledge that they have injured the other, but are
also dependent on each other.
STRATEGIES TO PREVENT CONFLICT IN NURSING

1. Deal with the situation

Most people prefer to avoid conflict. Nurses who actually have quit their jobs
rather than attempt to resolve an interpersonal conflict at work. This almost never is a
good solution, and it usually leads to feelings of regret and guilt. When ignore or avoid
it, it can lead to increased stress and unresolved feelings of anger, hostility and
resentment. When learn to manage conflict effectively, become a better leader, a better
team member and a better person and gain respect, improve self-esteem and build
courage.

2. Think it through

Before addressing the person with whom you have a conflict, consider
discussing the situation with an objective friend or family member. This can help to
clarify issues and needs. Seek feedback and advice in dealing with the situation. But be
careful not to rely on the opinion of an involved third party who may have his or her own

25
agenda. Plan your strategy, including what you want to say, and then write it down and
rehearse it. Create a note card, if necessary, with your main talking points. This will help
you to feel more in control and stay on target.

3. Talk it out, face to face

Meeting in person can be intimidating, but it is often the best way to go. Face-
to-face communication is more effective than other forms because it allows for an active
exchange of information. It gives you the opportunity to make use of the handshake, a
smile, eye contact, hand gestures and other important body language. It also allows you
to observe important nonverbal cues from the other party. Set aside time to meet with the
person face-to-face at a mutually convenient time and place. When possible, meet on
“neutral turf” rather than one of your offices so no one has the “home court” advantage.
E-mail and letter writing should be avoided, if possible, to resolve conflict or to discuss
sensitive topics, problems or hurt feelings. It is too impersonal and indirect and increases
the risk of miscommunication and misunderstanding. A phone call is the next best thing
when in-person meetings aren’t possible.

4. Use a mediator, if necessary

If a situation is particularly volatile or troublesome and other efforts have not

worked and can invite a neutral third party, such as a supervisor, to act as a mediator if
this is agreeable to all concerned. A mediator can remain objective, listen to both sides,
and facilitate resolution and compromise. Be firm on our objectives; there to resolve a
conflict, not defeat an opponent.

5. Apologize when appropriate

Be aware of own part in creating the conflict. If done something wrong or

inappropriate, be willing to acknowledge it and say you’re sorry, even if the conflict is
not entirely a result of your actions. Sometimes you have to meet people halfway to get
to where you want to go. There always will be differing opinions and ways of doing
things. Decide which issues you can live with and which need addressing. If you bring
up only the most important issues, will develop credibility. On the other hand, if make
an issue about everything, will be labeled a complainer.

Take steps to minimize conflict at work before it happens. Work at developing

good relationships with coworkers and colleagues. Get to know people. Be friendly and

26
 sociable. Everyone has different needs and priorities and comes from different cultural
backgrounds. Contrary to what you’ve heard, familiarity breeds respect.

7. Work on your communication skills

The ability to express yourself clearly will allow you to say what’s on your
mind, ask for what you want and need and get your point across. There is an expression
that a problem well-stated is a problem half-solved. Avoid troublemakers as much as
possible; they will suck you in and drag you down. Don’t engage in gossip or
backstabbing. Get the facts before jumping to conclusions about something you’re heard
through the grapevine. Know when it’s appropriate to walk away from a confrontation,
and always consider the source in the face of criticism or hurtful comments.

Conflict can’t be avoided, but it can be minimized and resolved. Although

avoidance sometimes seems like the easy way out, facing conflict head-on in an
appropriate and professional manner will lead to better relationships, a more productive
work environment and empowerment.

SPECIFIC SKILLS IN MANAGING CONFLICT

 Establish clear rules or guidelines and make them known to all.

 Create a supportive climate with a variety of options. This makes people feel
comfortable about making suggestions. It energizes them, promoting creative thinking
and leading to better solutions. It strengthens relationship.
 Tell people they are appreciated. Praise and confirmation of worth are important to
every one for job satisfaction.
 Stress peaceful resolution rather than confrontation. Build a bridge of understanding.
 Confront when necessary to preserve Pease. Do so by educating people about their
behaviour. Tell them the behaviour you perceive, what is wrong with it, and how it
needs to be corrected.
 Play a role that does not create stress or conflict. Do not play an ambiguous and
fluctuating role that creates confusion among employees.
 Judge timing that is best for all. do not postpone indefinitely.
 Keep the focus on issues and off personalities.
 Keep communication two-way
 Emphasize shared interests.
 Examine all solutions and accept the one most acceptable to both parties.

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 If conflict is evident at decision making or implementation stage, work to reach an
agreement. Commit to a course of action serving some interests of all parties. Seek
agreement rather than power.
 Understand barriers to cooperation or resolution and focus on the dynamics of conflict
to resolve it.
 Determine needs that are being ignored or frustrated and require recognition and
nurturing.
 Build trust by listening, clarifying, and allowing the challenges to unwind completely.
Give feedback to make sure you understand. Let people know you care and that you
trust them.
 Renegotiate problem solving procedures to forestall further anger, distrust, and
defensiveness.

MANAGING UNIT CONFLICT

Managing conflict effectively requires an understanding of its origin. Some common

causes of organisational conflicts are

 Poor communication
 Inadequately defined organisational structure
 Individual behaviour (incompatibilities or disagreements based on differences of
temperament or attitudes).
 Unclear expectations
 Individual or group conflicts of interest
 Operational or staffing changes
 Diversity in gender, culture or age.

All these types of unit conflicts can disrupt working relationship and result in lower
productivity. It is imperative, then, that the manager can identify the origin of unit
conflicts and intervene as necessary to promote cooperative, if not collaborative conflict
resolution.

The following is the list of strategies that a manager may use to deal effectively with
interpersonal, organisational, or unit conflict:

1. Confrontation: Many times the subordinates inappropriately expect the manager to

solve their interpersonal conflicts. Managers instead can urge subordinates to attempt

28
 to handle their own problems by using face to face communication to resolve conflicts,
as emails, answering message machines, and notes are too impersonal for the delicate
nature of negative words.
2. Third party consultation: Sometimes, managers can be used as neutral party to help
others resolve conflicts constructively. This should be done only if all parties are
motivated to solve the problem and if no differences exist in the status or power of the
parties involved. If the conflict involves multiple parties and highly charged emotions,
the manager may find outside experts helpful for facilitating communication and
bringing issues to the forefront.
3. Behaviour change: this is reserved for serious cases of dysfunctional conflict.
Educational modes, training development, or sensitivity training can be used to solve
conflict by developing self awareness and behaviour change in the involved parties.
4. Responsibility charting: when ambiguity results from unclear or new roles, it is often
necessary to have the parties come together to delineate the function and responsibility
of roles. If areas of joint responsibility exist, the manager must clearly define such areas
as ultimate responsibility, approval mechanisms, support services, and responsibility
for informing. This is useful technique for elementary jurisdictional conflict.
5. Structure change: sometimes, managers need to intervene in unit conflict by
transferring or discharging people. Other structure changes may be moving a
department under another manager, adding an ombudsman, or putting a grievance
procedure in place. Often increasing the boundaries of authority for one member of the
conflict will act as effective structure change to resolve unit conflict. Changing titles
and creating policies also are effective techniques.
6. Soothing one party: this is a temporary solution that should be used in a crisis when
there is not time to handle the conflict effectively or when the parties are so enraged
that immediate conflict resolution is unlikely regardless of how the parties are soothed,
the manager must address the underlying problem later or this technique will become
ineffective.

POSITIVE ASPECTS OF CONFLICTS

Not all conflicts are equally serious, ominous or intimidating. Not all conflicts
results in contest. A certain amount of conflict or tension is needed for our personal
growth and development.

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1. Conflict is an impetus for change :- conflict may have many positive consequences.
First, it often provides the impetus for change through the identification of problems or
differences in procedures. New methods, procedures, policies, or approaches will be
searched for, evaluated and implemented. A situation in which individuals or
departments are struggling with one another must be resolved. Solutions must be found
that will result in greater harmony. Thus the conflict results in stimulating innovation,
creativity and change.
2. Conflict helps understand others jobs and responsibilities :- conflict also helps
individual understand one another’s jobs and responsibilities. The health care
environment and the medical, nursing and allied health professionals are becoming
increasingly specialized. The differences provide a fertile ground for conflict. In the
process of looking for solutions to a problem, it is necessary to learn more about the
other person and the factors that impinge on that individual’s workday and
responsibilities. This knowledge results in a great appreciation for others on the team,
creating unification and bonding within the organization. Conflict situation provide an
area in which differences in values and beliefs can be brought out into the open, re-
evaluated or challenged.
3. Conflict opens new channels of communication: - setting conflicts involve defining
and examining a problem. Both these activities require skills in communication. In the
process, new approaches and avenue may evolve. In this sense conflict can result in
providing a formalized channel by which to express a grievance or once dissatisfaction
with the manner in which something is being done. Thus accumulated hostility can be
reduced. Conflict may also result in more equitable distribution of resources or power
within an organization.
4. Conflict as an energizer: - conflict also serves to energise people. It wakes them up
a spicy disagreement between departments or individuals tend to get our attention, and
add a new dimension to the work environment. In this sense conflict also provide an
outlet for pent up emotions.
5. Conflict as a unifier: - there are times in any organization when a staff group can be
united by a threat or challenge from outside the group. The conflict may ultimately
result in strengthening of group identity and sense of togetherness.

VII. THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER IN THE RESOLVE OF THE CONFLICT

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 The most precious source of an organization is the human resource undoubtly.
For this reason, during the process of change and development, the evaluation of human
resources in all management activities in the most effective and efficient ways has
become more important . It is necessary for the manager to cease the conflicts between
the people and to head for resolving the conflicts in the name of using the human
resources efficiently and effectively. Strategic decision-making influences
organizational performance.
 There are some prominent analyzes that a manager who wants to resolve the
conflicts should primarily do. Who are the conflicting parties? What are the
reasons? What are the phases of the conflict? Moreover, which stage does exist
in it? Moreover, which conflict stage does the organization exist in? What are
the positive effects and negative effects that the conflict has had on the business
organization, which of them take precedence over the others? Can the conflict
be managed? Can it be prevented? What are the solutions fort he conflicts? The
manager who can answer these question with adequate and valid information
can now make decisions more correctly, and the effort to resolve the conflict in
this way can be fictionalized on a more reliable ground.
 The conflict does not become out of a clear sky and win through. It grows
mature by going through different phases. We can explain these phases briefly
as following:
1. First Phase: This is the phase of waiting and foresight. The manager foresees
that different opinions will be manifested due to the reasons that may cause
conflicts and awaits.
2. Second Phase: The symptoms of the conflict become evident slowly. The
indications with respect to that conflict, hardships will show up rear their ugly
heads. •
3. Third Phase: This is the phase of open-ended interview. The change is
mentioned for all of the world the questions are asked and dissents or namely
collisions (difference of opinions) become apparent.
4. Fourth Phase: The subject of the conflict is discussed in this phase.
5. Fifth Phase: The parties finally made their positive or negative decisions
regarding the problem. The struggle has began. Either one will win and the other
will be defeated or a mutual solution will be achieved. The involvement of the

31
 manager in the conflicts will vary in line with the phases. The active
involvement will be made in the first phase while the least active one is done in
the fifth phase. Seeing that which phase is the conflict present, the manager
should choose to prevent the conflict or annihilate it in accordance with the
phase that the conflict is present in. If conflict is moderate, the profits that the
business organization will obtain from are not adequate from the viewpoint of
the manager, he/she can deem to preventing or annihilating the conflict more
profitably. Within this scope, these are the methods he/she can resort.
The methods that prevent and annihilate the conflicts in the organizations are:
a) Commitment. This attitude adds up to ignore the conflict. The manager does not
become a party evidently and doesn’t get involved in the conflict directly. The
decisions regarding the conflict are retarded.
b) Freezing. The water awaits until it calms down a bit. In this case, moderation
method is used. By this way, decreasing the differences between the groups the
emphasis that all the groups have common benefits. By determining more important
purposes, a struggle is made by the parties to incorporate and cooperate for the same
purposes in question by making the parties forget the differences between themselves.
c) The approach to resolving the problem. By this method, the conflict is given a
hard time without hesitation. The manager enables the conflicting parties to discuss
the matter for all of the world to see by making them confront each other. This method
is very useful especially for those conflicts that stemmed from a lack of information
and communication.
d) Moderating. This way means downscaling the conflict by bringing the collective
benefits or differences between the parties of the conflict into the forefront. The
manager thus leads the conflicting parties to moderating and compromising. For
example, one way is that the manager approaches conflicting parties by saying ‘we
are a family’ moderates the parties.
e) Using power and authority. This means the resolution of the conflicts by using
power, authority and jurisdiction of the manager. The manager that follows this
method says ‘I am the manager here, and this will be as I want’ and this resolves the
problem. It is beyond any doubt that this decision may not bring the parties to an
agreement, but it ceases the conflict.
f) Setting an objective. By setting more important, effective and comprehensive
purposes than the purposes of the conflicting parties, by putting aside the differences
32
 between the conflicting parties, this method enables the parties to unit together in
accordance with these purposes.
g) Making a concession. By this method, it may have power to strike a balance by
making a sacrifice for their purposes. In this way, no party prevails. Both parties reach
an agreement by making concessions.
h) Changing the persons. The prevention of the conflict may be ensured by
assigning which become a party to conflict to other units. This method can be used in
conflicts that harm the organization and bear only negative results.
i) Changing the organizational relations. The rearrangement and development of
the organizational relations decrease the conflicts within the organization.
j) Punishing. At a certain point when the conflict brings damage to people and the
foundation, the ones that caused the conflict may be punished.
k) Mediation. Assigning an expert as an arbitrator between the parties, making them
arbitrate and preparing in an agreement environment between the parties may be
useful so as to prevent the conflict.
l) Competition. Implementing the parties the approach of ‘win or lose’, playing
power games, pushing them to knuckle down are some of the competition methods.
m) Collaboration. Being willing to resolve the problem, confronting with the
differences and exchange of ideas, seeking for coalescent solutions, finding out the
cases as a result of which everyone will be profitable as factors of collaboration
method.

CONCLUSION

The interrelationship among nurses and other personnel, patients, and families
offer many potentials for conflict. For this reason nurse managers should know how
to manage conflict. Conflict management keeps conflict from escalating, making work
productive, and can make conflict a positive or constructive force.

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