CHAPTER FIVE: Sources and methods of data collections

1.1 Data collection

Data (singular datum) are facts/ values or the set of values that will be used to draw a conclusion
or make a decision. They are the actual measurements or observations that result from an
investigation or survey or the values (response) of the variable associated with an element of a
population or a sample. Raw data are data collected in an original form (not yet organized).

Data can be used to describe situations or events (descriptive research) or to make an inference
(inferential or analytical research).
Data and Information
Data are raw numerical descriptions of a variable, ready to be analyzed and which is obtained by
measuring (continuous data) or counting (discrete data). Information is a set of data
corresponding to a specific aspect of knowledge combined in an organized way. It is a processed
data to be used directly, and it can transfer knowledge and meanings.
1. Sources of data
There are two sources of data. They are primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources
are source of data that provide first hand information for the use of immediate purpose. Data
collected from primary sources are new data which had not existed before and for which the
researcher received full credit. data collected from primary sources are called primary data.

Secondary sources are data which are not originated by the investigator himself but which he
gets from some one’s records. Secondary sources exist as storage of previously collected
information. Usually they are published or unpublished materials, records, reports, magazines,
market reports, etc. Example: Archival or library sources, published books, unpublished
documents, videos, internet, annual reports, statistical abstracts, census of population, economic
censuses, etc. Primary data are costly, accurate and more reliable; a secondary data is less costly
and less accurate. Primary data at some time can be secondary if someone else uses it.

2. Classification of data
Statisticians use certain terms in describing the properties of the data to be analyzed. The type of
data influences the choice of the statistical test to be used. For the purposes of data description,
and statistical analysis, data are looked at as variables. Data can be classified in various ways

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Numerical vs. Categorical: Data are classified as numerical if they are expressed in numbers.
Numerical data may be discrete or continuous. Categorical variables are ones where each
individual is one of a number of mutually exclusive classes. Categorical data may be nominal or
ordinal. The type of statistical test applied depends on whether dealing with numerical or
categorical data.
Qualitative data vs. quantitative data
Qualitative data are the data that are non-numeric, where as quantitative data are data that are
expressed numerically or they are numerical observations of variables. When the data are
quantitative, we are usually interested in how many or what portion fall in each category.
Quantitative variables can be classified as either discrete or continuous.
Cross sectional data vs. time series data: is a data collected from a sample at a given point in
time, and it is a set of data values observed at a fixed point in time. Whereas time series data a
set of ordered data values observed at successive points in time.
Primary data vs. secondary data
Primary data are data originally collected by the researcher for the purpose/ problem at hand.
They are generated from primary sources of data. They are the data that are collected by the
investigator himself for the purpose of a specific inquiry or study.

Secondary data are data which have already been collected by someone else and which have
already passed through the statistical process. They are not original data, and not collected by the
researcher. They can be obtained from journals, reports, government publications, publications
of professionals and research organizations, internet, videos, library, Statistical abstracts in
Central Statistics Authority. etc.

Advantage:

 Obtained more quickly and more cheaply/ less costly

 Research on past events should rely on secondary sources
 Primary information in distant areas could be found from secondary sources.
Limitations:

 The information may not meet the researcher's specific needs.

 The accuracy of information is questionable;

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  It may be out dated/ out of date
Sources of secondary data
There are two basic sources of secondary data: that are internal and external. Internal data within
the organization are information related to the functioning of the firm where records are kept on
the regular basis. They are internal to the organization, i.e. organizational sources; e.g.
department reports, annual reports, financial and accounting reports. External data are collected
and published by external agencies. They are sources outside the organization.
Evaluating secondary data
In evaluating secondary data consider
 How well the data fits the researcher  Measurement used
needs? (pertinent)  Coverage of the data
 How accurate the data is? (accuracy)  Capacity of the collectors but also
 Data quality; the capacity of the respondents
 Data pertinence (relevance) should be considered.
 Understanding the definition and
classification employed.
3. Planning Data Collection
We have to plan concretely how we will collect the data we need, how we will analyze it, and
how we can test the most crucial parts of our methodology. Finally, we will have to develop a
plan for project administration and monitoring and to budget the resources necessary to carry out
the study.
4. Methods of data collection
The selection of appropriate method of data collection depends on the following.

o The nature, the scope and the objective of the inquiry (study)
o Availability of funds, Time factor, The degree of accuracy
o Ability and experience of the researcher, skill of the researcher
5.3 Collection of primary data
We can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with
respondents in one form or another. This means that there are several methods of collecting
primary data. The most common ones are:

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  Observation method  Questionnaire Method
 Interview method
Observation method: - Observation is nothing but seeing things either from a distant or going
near to the object of study. Success of observation very much depends on the ability of the
observer. Observation method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating
to behavioral sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc). And it is in which the
information is collected by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the
respondent. Observation method is a method under which data from the field are collected by the
observer by personally going to the field. In observation the investigator must be present in the
field and collect relevant data of his/her study.
While using observation method, the researcher should keep in mind points like:
 What should be observed?
 How the observation should be recorded?
 How the accuracy of the observation can be ensured?
 a careful definition of the units to be observed,
 the style of recording the observed information,
Much information is acquired from observation through watching, listening and reading.
Features of observation: Observation method has certain peculiar features and characteristics of
its own. Some such features are.
 It is an eye affair - In observation maximum stress is on eye.
 Definite aim - Observation without aim will be just useless, purposeless and
meaningless.
 Planning - the observer should go to the field with proper planning.
 Direct method of study - is a method under which the investigator is personally required
to go to the field and personally observe the situation and objects with his own eyes.
 Collection of primary data
Types of observation: Different observations may be categorized as:
1. Simple or non-controlled observation
 Participant observation  Non-participant observation
2. Controlled observation
Simple or Non-controlled observation:

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Quite a lot of information is collected with the help of non-controlled observation, no matter
whether that is participant or non-participant observation. In this method observation is made in
natural course without extra influence, controls or agencies or instructions from external
agencies and factors. In this subject matter to be observed is left free and there is no interference
in that.

The most important advantage of uncontrolled observation is that it becomes possible to have
firsthand knowledge of the group to be studied without extra influences and pressures.
Uncontrolled observation is unavoidable because in many cases it is difficult to control social
phenomena - social events cannot be artificially created and these will have to be watched
carefully as and when these occur. Uncontrolled observation is two types, namely: Non-
participant and participant observation.
We often talk about participant and non-participant types of observation in the context of studies,
particularly of social sciences. This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or not
sharing the life of the group he/she is observing.
If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, member of the group he is observing
so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as
the participant observation.
Non-participant observation: In non-participant observation the observer does not actually
participate but watches everything from a distant. He is very passive and does not try to
influence the activity in any manner. Under non-participant observation the observer observes as
a detached person without any attempt of participation. He does not participate in the daily
activity of the group.
Participant observation
Here the observer makes himself a member of the group he is observing; interacts with the group
and he shares the activity of the group, and he behaves himself what the group behave.
Characteristics of participant observation:
o What should be observed?
o Recording of observation:

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 o Relationship between the observer and the observed:
If such a relationship is not observed then the observer might not get the required information. It
is therefore, expected of a good observer that he should maintain such a good relation with his
group people that he can get their cooperation.
Controlled Observation
It is being increasingly felt that measurable data of social phenomenon can be obtained with the
help of this method.
It is generally carried on according to definite pre-arranged plans which might include
considerable experimental procedure. Child behavior studies are commonly carried out with the
help of this method.
The devices used for measuring data include one way screens, mirrors, movement recorders,
sound recorders, motion pictures, etc. One of the methods of collecting data with the help of
controlled observation is observation schedule which should be so devised as to provide an
optimum of verifiable quantitative data and to avoid selective bias and misrepresentation of
deserved behavior.
Advantage and Limitations of observation
Observation method of course has its Limitations. For that matter there is no method of study
which does not suffer from its limitations.
Advantage
 Simple and Easy
o It is perhaps the simplest and Easiest method of study of a social problem.
o Once the observer is on the field he is placed in a situation out of which he can
not come out with out finishing his work.
 Helpful for Formulation of Hypothesis:
o Observation method helps in the development and formulation of hypothesis.
o It is with the help of observation that the researcher comes to know about the
sequence of cause and effect and its mutual relationship. While observing
situations he can also formulate the hypothesis.
o It becomes also possible to test the validity of hypothesis.
 Greater Accuracy possible

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 o Since in this method researcher him self collects the data, therefore, what so ever
data is collected by him is very accurate and a first hand collection that can be
fairly dependable, if interpreted in an unbiased manner.
 Limitations observation method.
o It is an expensive method
o The information provided by this method is very limited
o Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task
Interview method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal questions and reply
in terms of oral-verbal responses.
Interview is fundamentally a process of social interaction. It is face to face interpersonal situation
in which one person, the interviewer asks a person being interviewed, the respondent, questions
designed to obtain answers pertinent to research problems. In this method, the researcher
personally interviews the parties from whom research information is to be sought.
Preconditions and basic tenets of interviewing
For successful implementation of the interview method,
 interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and briefed, and also be honest, sincere,
hard working, impartial and must possess the technical competence and necessary
practical competence.
 Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating
nor deviating from instructions given to them for performing their job efficiently.
 The interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently and must record the
responses accurately and completely as well as must answer legitimate questions (s), if
any, asked by the respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has.
 The interviewers approach must be friendly, polite, conversational and unbiased.
Types of interview
Interviewing is a data collection, procedure involving verbal communication between the
researcher and respondent either by telephone or in a face to face situation. (Eckhardt and
Ermann),

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In general, for effective observation proper selections should be very important and rapport is the
main one.
Rapport is simplistic and harmonious relationship between colleagues between the interviewers
and the respondents. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, and
telephone interviews.
Hence interview method is divided in to two.
1. Personal interview (face to face interview)
2. Telephone interview
Personal interviews
Two way conversation between the interviewer and the respondent, It is used when we need
detailed information. The most successful data on condition that the respondent should
understand the question, the interviewer should pose the question more clearly and in an
attractive way.
It is an oral questioning of respondents either individually or in group (focus group). This
method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face to face
contact to the person or persons.
For a face to face approach to be successful consider the following

o Respondent’s information level.

o The respondent should be able to believe that his /her role is critical.
o Adequate motivation is necessary.
Advantages of personal interview
 Detailed and adequate information can be acquired relative to telephone and mailing
 More control on the interview-clarification and elaboration.
 Adjustment to the language of the interview can be made.
 More information and that too great depth can be obtained.
 Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents.
 There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, especially in the case of unstructured interviews.
 It offers a lot of flexibility in allowing the interviewer to explain questions, to probe
(investigate) more deeply in to the answers provided.

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  It more accurate and reliable.
 It maximizes trust and cooperation between interviewer and the interviewee.
 It has a higher rate of response. It decreases refusals.
 It is useful in situations where great depth study is required.
Weaknesses of personal interview
 It tends to be relatively expensive and time consuming especially when large and
widely spread geographical sample is taken and hence not ideal to large group of
informants.
 Certain type of respondents (officials, etc) may not be easily approachable under this
method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
 This method is relatively time consuming, especially when the sample is large.
The Telephone interview:
This method of collecting information consists of contacting respondents through telephone
itself. It is similar to the personal interview, but uses telephone instead of personal interaction. It
is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed nations.
Advantages telephone interview:
 It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method
 It is faster than other methods, i.e., quick way of obtaining information.
 It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively
low.
 No field staff is required.
Weaknesses of telephone interview
 Little time is given to respondents to respond.
 Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
 Some people in the population may not have phones or may not be at home when the
calls are made. Hence, not all people have a chance of being surveyed.
 Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
Approach in questioning
Structured interviews

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  Interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized
techniques of recording, follow procedures lay down and ask the question in the order
prescribed.
 the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking
questions in a form and order prescribed.
Unstructured interviews
 are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. They do not follow a system
of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information.
 the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary
questions or at times he may omit or may change the sequence certain questions if the
situation so requires.
Questionnaire method: - method is collection of data through questionnaire. It is a method in
which information is obtained with the help of a questionnaire, which is prepared exclusively for
the purpose. In other words with the help of a set of questions all the required data is collected.
In this method the investigator doesn’t go to any respondent for the collection of information. He
simply mails the questionnaire and collects the required information on the basis of replies
received by him. This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
inquiries.

Questionnaires are groups or sequences of questions designed to collect data upon a subject/
sample.
Under this system, a comprehensive questionnaire is prepared and effort is made to see that the
answer is either in the negative or positive. Before using this method, it is always advisable to
conduct ‘pilot study’ for testing the questionnaires.
The advantages of this method are:
 There is low cost even when the population is large and widely spread.
 It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

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 The disadvantages of this method are:
 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires.
 It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
 The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
 There is inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once the
questionnaires have been dispatched.
Main aspects of a questionnaire
Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence it should be
very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail. This fact
requires us to study the main aspects of a questionnaire namely the general form, question
sequence and Question formulation and wording.
Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire.
General form: of a questionnaire can either be structured, unstructured or semi structured
questionnaire.
Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and
predetermined questions. In short,
Structured: Questionnaire that contains only closed-ended questions
Semi-structured: Contains both open-ended and closed ended questions
Unstructured: Contains open-ended questions exclusively or majority
Question sequence: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the
replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the
questionnaire. A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual
questions being misunderstood.
The question-sequence
 must be clear and smoothly-moving,
 The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest.
 The following of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a
questionnaire:
1. Questions that put too great strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;
2. Questions of a personal character;
3. Questions related to personal wealth, etc.

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Following the opining questions, we should have questions that are really vital to the research
problem and a connecting thread should run through successive questions. Ideally, the question
sequence should conform the respondent’s way of thinking.
Relatively difficult questions must be put towards the end so that even if the respondent decides
not to answer such questions, considerable information would have already been obtained.

Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the general to the more specific and the
researcher must always remember that the answer to a given question is a function not only of
the question itself, but of all previous questions as well.
Question formulation and wording
In general, all questions should meet the following standards
 should be easily understood; and should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at
a time; should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s
way of thinking.
Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms, viz., closed questions
and open-end questions. In the former the respondent selects one of the alternative possible
answers put to him, whereas in the latter he has to provide the answer in his own words.
Essentials of a good questionnaire
o Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple
o should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.
o Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
o Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be
avoided in a questionnaire.
o Questions may be closed ended or open –ended. The latter type of questions is often
difficult to analyze and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.
o Finally, the physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the
researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking questionnaire,
particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting cooperation.
1.2 Collection of Secondary Data
Secondary data means data that are already available, i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else.

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Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.

Usually published data are available in: various reports and publications of the central, state or
local governments; of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organizations; of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.;

o books, technical and trade journals, magazines and newspapers;

o reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields;
and
o public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published
information.
The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers,
trade associations, labor bureaus and other public/private individuals and organizations.

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make scrutiny/ inspection
because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the
context of the problem which the researcher wants to study.
“It is never safe to take published statistics at their face value without knowing their meaning
and limitations and it is always necessary to criticize arguments that can be based on them.’
(Dr.A.L. Bowley)
Before using secondary data, the researcher must see that they possess following
characteristics:
1. Reliability of data:
 The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
o Who collected the data? o Was there any bias of the
o What were the sources of data? compiler?
o were they collected by using o What level of accuracy was
proper methods desired? Was it achieved?
o At what time were they
collected?
2. Suitability of data:
 The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in
another enquiry.
3. Adequacy of data:

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  The data will be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be
either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
1.3 Selection of appropriate method of Data Collection
There are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must prudently select the
method/ methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:
1. Nature, scope and objective of enquiry:
This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a particular method. The
method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the
researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available
(secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds:
Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method to be used
for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will
have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as
some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has
to act within this limitation.
3. Time factor:
Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of data
collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be
collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus,
affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required:
 Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of
selecting the method of collection of data.

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