Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
A Series of Monographs, Textbooks, and Reference Books
Editorial Board
Owen R. Fennema University of Wisconsin—Madison
Marcus Karel Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Gary W. Sanderson Universal Foods Corporation
Steven R. Tannenbaum Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Pieter Walstra Wageningen Agricultural University
John R. Whitaker University of California—Davis
1. Flavor Research: Principles and Techniques, R. Teranishi, I. Hornstein, P. Issenberg, and E. L. Wick
2. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences, John R. Whitaker
3. LowTemperature Preservation of Foods and Living Matter, Owen R. Fennema, William D. Powrie, and Elmer H. Marth
4. Principles of Food Science
Part I: Food Chemistry, edited by Owen R. Fennema
Part II: Physical Methods of Food Preservation, Marcus Karel, Owen R. Fennema, and Daryl B. Lund
5. Food Emulsions, edited by Stig E. Friberg
6. Nutritional and Safety Aspects of Food Processing, edited by Steven R. Tannenbaum
7. Flavor Research: Recent Advances, edited by R. Teranishi, Robert A. Flath, and Hiroshi Sugisawa
8. ComputerAided Techniques in Food Technology, edited by Israel Saguy
9. Handbook of Tropical Foods, edited by Harvey T. Chan
10. Antimicrobials in Foods, edited by Alfred Larry Branen and P. Michael Davidson
11. Food Constituents and Food Residues: Their Chromatographic Determination, edited by James F. Lawrence
12. Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry, edited by Lewis D. Stegink and L. J. Filer, Jr.
13. Handbook of Vitamins: Nutritional, Biochemical, and Clinical Aspects, edited by Lawrence J. Machlin
14. Starch Conversion Technology, edited by G. M. A. van Beynum and J. A. Roels
15. Food Chemistry: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Owen R. Fennema
16. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Statistical Methods and Procedures, Michael O'Mahony
17. Alternative Sweetners, edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
18. Citrus Fruits and Their Products: Analysis and Technology, S. V. Ting and Russell L. Rouseff
19. Engineering Properties of Foods, edited by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi
20. Umami: A Basic Taste, edited by Yojiro Kawamura and Morley R. Kare
21. Food Biotechnology, edited by Dietrich Knorr
22. Food Texture: Instrumental and Sensory Measurement, edited by Howard R. Moskowitz
23. Seafoods and Fish Oils in Human Health and Disease, John E. Kinsella
24. Postharvest Physiology of Vegetables, edited by J. Weichmann
25. Handbook of Dietary Fiber: An Applied Approach, Mark L. Dreher
26. Food Toxicology, Parts A and B, Jose M. Concon
27. Modern Carbohydrate Chemistry, Roger W. Binkley
28. Trace Minerals in Foods, edited by Kenneth T. Smith
29. Protein Quality and the Effects of Processing, edited by R. Dixon Phillips and John W. Finley
30. Adulteration of Fruit Juice Beverages, edited by Steven Nagy, John A. Attaway, and Martha E. Rhodes
31. Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens, edited by Michael P. Doyle
32. Legumes: Chemistry, Technology, and Human Nutrition, edited by Ruth H. Matthews
33. Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus
34. International Food Regulation Handbook: Policy ∙ Science ∙ Law, edited by Roger D. Middlekauff and Philippe Shubik
35. Food Additives, edited by A. Larry Branen, P. Michael Davidson, and Seppo Salminen
36. Safety of Irradiated Foods, J. F. Diehl
37. Omega3 Fatty Acids in Health and Disease, edited by Robert S. Lees and Marcus Karel
38. Food Emulsions: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Kåre Larsson and Stig E. Friberg
39. Seafood: Effects of Technology on Nutrition, George M. Pigott and Barbee W. Tucker
40. Handbook of Vitamins: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Lawrence J. Machlin
41. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Klaus J. Lorenz and Karel Kulp
42. Food Processing Operations and ScaleUp, Kenneth J. Valentas, Leon Levine, and J. Peter Clark
43. Fish Quality Control by Computer Vision, edited by L. F. Pau and R. Olafsson
44. Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages, edited by Henk Maarse
45. Instrumental Methods for Quality Assurance in Foods, edited by Daniel Y. C. Fung and Richard F. Matthews
46. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety, Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth
47. AcesulfameK, edited by D. G. Mayer and F. H. Kemper
48. Alternative Sweeteners: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
49. Food Extrusion Science and Technology, edited by Jozef L. Kokini, ChiTang Ho, and Mukund V. Karwe
50. Surimi Technology, edited by Tyre C. Lanier and Chong M. Lee
51. Handbook of Food Engineering, edited by Dennis R. Heldman and Daryl B. Lund
52. Food Analysis by HPLC, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet
53. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications, edited by Ching Kuang Chow
54. Clostridium botulinum: Ecology and Control in Foods, edited by Andreas H. W. Hauschild and Karen L. Dodds
55. Cereals in Breadmaking: A Molecular Colloidal Approach, AnneCharlotte Eliasson and Kåre Larsson
56. LowCalorie Foods Handbook, edited by Aaron M. Altschul
57. Antimicrobials in Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by P. Michael Davidson and Alfred Larry Branen
58. Lactic Acid Bacteria, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright
59. Rice Science and Technology, edited by Wayne E. Marshall and James I. Wadsworth
60. Food Biosensor Analysis, edited by Gabriele Wagner and George G. Guilbault
Additional Volumes in Preparation
Principles of Food Enzymology for the Food Sciences: Second Edition, John R. Whitaker
Page i
Rice Science and Technology
edited by
Wayne E. Marshall
James I. Wadsworth
Agricultural Research Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
New Orleans, Louisiana
Page ii
Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data
Rice science and technology / edited by Wayne E. Marshall, James
I. Wadsworth.
p. cm. (Food science and technology ; 59)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0824788877 (acidfree paper)
1. RiceProcessing. 2. RiceStorage. 3. RiceQuality.
4. FoodComposition. 5. RiceUtilization. I. Marshall, Wayne
E. II. Wadsworth, James I. III. Series: Food
science and technology (Marcel Dekker, Inc.) ; 59.
TS2159.R5R523 1993
664'.725dc20 9328919
CIP
The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the address below.
This book is printed on acidfree paper.
Copyright © 1994 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. All Rights Reserved.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
MARCEL DEKKER, INC.
270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
Current printing (last digit):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Page iii
PREFACE
Rice research and development in the United States is a multidisciplinary effort involving scientists from academia, government, and industry. This book brings together
researchers from all three areas to focus on particularly active problems and opportunities in rice research and development where the next major advances in rice
storage, quality, processing, and utilization may be made.
In preparation for their contributions, each author was asked to include (a) an introduction to the topic with a short historical perspective, (b) a description of his/her
research and its importance to an end user (grower, processor, consumer), with emphasis on current research underway in his/her laboratory, and (c) a conclusion that
identifies promising new areas for investigation based on an extension of the author's current research. With this kind of information, we hope to stimulate the reader's
interest in the broad field of rice science and technology and show the reader where some of the major problems and solutions lie. For veteran rice researchers, we
hope to supply information of value that they can bring to bear on their particular area of investigation.
The book is intended for a wide audience of rice scientists seeking current information on selected topics in rice storage, quality, processing, and utilization. The book
may also be of interest to investigators working
Page iv
with other cereal crops, since many of the approaches and methods described for rice can apply to wheat, corn, barley, oats, etc.
Although the pursuit of knowledge concerning rice is an international endeavor, the editors have selected authors working in the United States on problems of interest
to the U.S. rice industry. We have chosen this path because we wanted to support and document the strong current activity in U.S. rice research.
We extend our grateful appreciation to the contributors of this book. Authorities in their field, they contributed their time and expert knowledge to making this book a
reality.
Sincere thanks also go to the editorial staff at Marcel Dekker, Inc., who eased the editors' burden, wherever possible, during the publication process.
WAYNE E. MARSHALL
JAMES I. WADSWORTH
Page v
CONTENTS
Preface iii
Contributors ix
1. Introduction 1
Wayne E. Marshall and James I. Wadsworth
Part I: Storage
2. Brown Rice Stabilization 17
Elaine T. Champagne
3. Storage Stability of Extrusion Stabilized and Parboiled Rice Bran 37
Don R. McCaskill and Frank T. Orthoefer
4. Effect of Storage on the Physicochemical Properties and Quality Factors of 49
Rice
Joseph Chrastil
Page vi
Part II: Quality
5. Breeding for Rice Quality 83
Kent S. McKenzie
6. New Methods for the Evaluation of Rice Quality and Related Terminology 113
David E. Kohlwey
7. Degree of Milling 139
James I. Wadsworth
8. The Influence of Rice Protein on Rice Quality 177
Bruce R. Hamaker
9. Enrichment of Rice 195
Diane W. Hoffpauer and Salmen L. Wright III
10. Starch Gelatinization in Brown and Milled Rice: A Study Using Differential 205
Scanning Calorimetry
Wayne E. Marshall
Part III: Processing
11. New Methods and Equipment for Processing Rice 229
Robert S. Satake
12. Parboiling Rice with Microwave Energy 263
Lakshman Velupillai
13. New Methods for OntheFarm Rice Drying: Solar and Biomass 275
Lalit R. Verma
14. MicrowaveVacuum Drying 299
James I. Wadsworth
15. Role of Moisture Content in Affecting Head Rice Yield 341
Terry J. Siebenmorgen
Part IV: Utilization
16. Processing and Utilization of Rice Bran in the United States 381
Keith L. Hargrove, Jr.
Page vii
17. Food Applications for Modified Rice Starches 405
Roy N. Sharp and Carolyn Q. Sharp
18. Rice Bran Oil and Its Heath Benefits 421
Robert J. Nicolosi, Eugene J. Rogers, Lynne M. Ausman and Frank T.
Orthoefer
19. Changing Market Demands for Rice and Rice Products 439
Richard A. Meyers
Index 465
Page ix
CONTRIBUTORS
Lynne M. Ausman Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging and School of Nutrition, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts
Elaine T. Champagne Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
Joseph Chrastil Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
Bruce R. Hamaker Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Keith L. Hargrove, Jr. Farmers' Rice Cooperative, Sacramento, California
Diane W. Hoffpauer Gourmet Technologies, Inc., Crowley, Louisiana
David E. Kohlwey Riviana Foods, Inc., Houston, Texas
Wayne E. Marshall Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
Page x
Don R. McCaskill Research & Development, Riceland Foods, Inc., Stuttgart, Arkansas
Kent S. McKenzie Rice Experiment Station, California Cooperative Rice Research Foundation, Biggs, California
Richard A. Meyers U.S.A. Rice Council, Houston, Texas
Robert J. Nicolosi Department of Clinical Sciences, University of MassachusettsLowell, Lowell, Massachusetts
Frank T. Orthoefer Research & Development, Riceland Foods, Inc., Stuttgart, Arkansas
Eugene J. Rogers Department of Clinical Sciences, University of MassachusettsLowell, Lowell, Massachusetts
Robert S. Satake Satake Corporation, Hiroshima, Japan
Carolyn Q. Sharp Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
Roy N. Sharp* Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
Terry J. Siebenmorgen Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
Lakshman Velupillai International Programs, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Lalit R. Verma Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Louisiana State University, Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
James I. Wadsworth Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
Salmen L. Wright III Wright Enrichment, Inc., Crowley, Louisiana
*Deceased.
Page 1
1—
Introduction
Wayne E. Marshall and James I. Wadsworth
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
I—
Historical Perspective
Rice is a semiaquatic, annual grass which can be grown under a broad range of climatic conditions. Cultivated rice is designated as either Oryza sativa L. or Oryza
glaberrima Steud. O. sativa is the predominant species; O. glaberrima is grown only in Africa on a limited scale.
The date and geographical location of the first cultivated rice (O. sativa L.) is obscure. Historical records indicate that rice was simultaneously and independently
cultivated between 2000 and 1500 B.C. in an area extending roughly from central India, through northern Burma, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and into
southeastern China (1). From this broad belt, the cultivation of rice spread to Indonesia, the Philippines, and northern Australia. Later, traders carried the grain
throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.
Rice was introduced into the New World (North and South America) comparatively recently. The first documentation of rice as a commercial crop in the United
States was in 1686 in Charleston, South Carolina, although trial plantings occurred in Virginia in 1609 (2). Rice cultivation moved further south and west in the ensuing
200 years and became an established crop in Louisiana and Texas in 1888, Arkansas in 1904, California in 1912, and Mississippi in 1942 (3). More recently,
Missouri and Florida have initiated commercial production.
Page 2
II—
Structure and Composition
The gross structure of the mature rough rice grain is shown in Figure 1. The principal parts of the grain are the hull, pericarp, seed coat, nucellus, embryo, aleurone
layer, and endosperm. This section will give a brief description of these major parts and the chemical composition of the various milling fractions of which these parts
play a role. Recent comprehensive descriptions of rough rice structure and composition exist in the literature (4,5) for the interested reader.
Figure 1
Structure of the mature rice grain.
(From Ref. 4.)
Page 3
A—
Hull
The hull is the outer covering for the caryopsis (brown rice). It comprises 18–20% by weight of the rough rice (4). The hull serves a protective function against insect
infestation and against rapid changes in moisture content of the grain due to large humidity fluctuations in the external environment. It consists of the lemma, which
covers the dorsal part of the grain, and the palea, which covers the ventral portion (see Fig. 1). The lemma and palea are joined together longitudinally. Hulls are low in
protein, fat, and starch but high in crude fiber, crude ash (mostly silica), and dietary fiber (Table 1). The hull is the only part of the grain that contains appreciable silica
(silicon dioxide). Hulls also contain small quantities of calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, manganese, aluminum, iron, copper, and zinc (4). Their gross
composition makes them nutritionally insignificant (except for their fiber content) and therefore unattractive as a human food.
B—
Pericarp, Seed Coat, Nucellus, and Aleurone
Removal of the hull from rough rice by dehulling exposes the rice caryopsis. The outer four morphologically distinct layers of the caryopsis are the pericarp, seed coat
(tegmen), nucellus, and aleurone (see Fig. 1). Along with much of the embryo (germ), these layers comprise the bran portion of the rice grain. Although the aleurone
layer is botanically part of the endosperm, it is removed as part of the bran fraction during milling. The bran portion accounts for 5–8% of the brown rice weight (4).
The bran is the most nutritious part of the caryopsis. The cells of the aleurone layers, in particular, consist of many inclusions called protein
Table 1 Range of Proximate Composition of Rough Rice, Brown Rice, Milled Rice, Rice Hulls, Rice Bran, Rice
Embryo, and Rice Polish (% dry basis)
Constituent Rough Brown Milled Hulls Bran Embryo Polish
Protein (N × 6.7–8.3 8.3–9.6 7.3–8.3 2.3–3.2 13.2–17.3 17.7–23.9 13.0–14.4
5.95)
Crude fat 2.1–2.7 2.1–3.3 0.4–0.6 0.4–0.7 17.0–22.9 19.3–23.8 11.7–14.4
Crude fiber 8.4–12.1 0.7–1.2 0.3–0.6 40.1–53.4 9.5–13.2 2.8–4.1 2.7–3.7
Crude ash 3.4–6.0 1.2–1.8 0.4–0.9 15.3–24.4 9.2–11.5 6.8–10.1 6.1–8.5
Starch 62.1 77.2 90.2 1.8 16.1 2.4 48.3–55.4
Dietary fiber 19.1 4.5 2.7 77.3 27.6–33.3 — —
Source: Ref. 11.
Page 4
bodies and lipid bodies. Most of the bran protein and oil are stored in these structures. Bran contains a good balance of protein, fat (rice oil), carbohydrate (starch),
and dietary fiber (see Table 1). In addition, the bran contains many vitamins and minerals in amounts beneficial to humans (4).
C—
Subaleurone and Starchy Endosperm
Further milling of the rice caryopsis removes the subaleurone layer and a small part of the starchy endosperm (see Fig. 1). This milling fraction is referred to as ''polish."
The end result of bran and polish removal is milled (white) rice. The polish comprises 3–4% by weight of brown rice (4). The subaleurone layer and the starchy
endosperm differ in the type of inclusion bodies found in the cells. The subaleurone layer is rich in protein bodies, it has fewer lipid bodies than the aleurone layer, but
contains only a small number of starch granules. The starchy endosperm is rich in starch granules, contain some protein bodies, especially in the outer endosperm
layers, and almost no lipid bodies.
Polish contains only slightly less protein and lipid but considerably more starch than bran (see Table 1). The polish fraction is only slightly less nutritious than the bran
fraction, primarily because it contains lower levels of minerals and vitamins than the bran (4). When brown rice is commercially milled to white rice, the bran and polish
fractions are not separated. This entire milling fraction is called rice bran. Although nutritious for humans, most of the rice bran is sold as animal feed. One of the
challenges facing the rice industry is to utilize the food value of rice bran more effectively.
The milling product of greatest commercial importance is white rice. It is composed entirely of starchy endosperm. Starchy endosperm can be further divided into an
outer endosperm, just below the subaleurone layer, and the inner endosperm or central core (5). The regions differ primarily in the number of starch granules and
protein bodies contained within the cells, which reside in the two regions. The protein content is highest in the outer layers, and starch content is highest in the central
core. In the central core, the starch granules are hexagonal in shape, highly compact, and take up most of the intracellular space within the starch cells. Between the
center and the outside of the grain, the starch cells become elongated and radiate outward. The radial wall of the starch cells forms potential cleavage planes that may
result in grain breakage caused by mechanical impact or moisture stress (6).
The starchy endosperm contains more starch per unit weight than any other milling fraction (hulls, bran, polish) and also has one of the lowest lipid contents (see Table
1). Protein content is lower than in the bran and polish fractions, but higher than in the hulls. White rice is considered a
Page 5
good source of protein and carbohydrate but not a significant source of minerals and vitamins unless fortified (7).
III—
Production and Consumption
Rice is one of the leading food crops of the world and is second only to wheat in terms of annual production for food use. It is the main staple food for about 60% of
the world's population. About 90% of the world's rice is produced and consumed in Asia.
A—
World Production and Consumption
Figure 2 shows world rice production and consumption from 1980 to 1993. This period is marked by a steady increase in both production and consumption until the
1985/1986 crop year, when a slowdown occurred. Since the 1985/1986 crop year, both parameters have shown only a gradual increase. The overall increase in
production since 1980 has been the result of higher yields since acres planted worldwide have remained fairly constant. Consumption has kept pace with production
throughout the period. This signi
Figure 2
World rice production and consumption in million metric tons. Data for 1991–92 are
forecast; data for 1992–93 are projected.
(From Ref. 8.)
Page 6
fies the value of rice as a food. Corn, for example, is produced mainly as feed. Food consumption of corn is only a fraction of total production.
B—
Export Market
Thailand and the United States are currently the two top riceexporting countries and have been since at least 1987 (Table 2). However, they only contribute 4–5%
and 1–2%, respectively, to the total world crop (8). China and India are first and second, respectively, in world rice production (8), but they are not considered major
riceexporting countries, since their large populations consume about all of the rice they grow. The United States exports about one half of its annual production and
has contributed on the average about 20% of the total rice on the export market (Fig. 3). There is considerable fluctuation on a yeartoyear basis that is highly
dependent on
Table 2 International Export Trade, 1987–1993, of Major RiceExporting Countries (1000 metric tons of
milled rice equivalent)
Calendar year
Page 7
Figure 3
Percentage of world trade in rice between 1962 and 1992 supplied by U.S. rice exports.
Data for 1992 are forecast.
(From Ref. 8.)
world production/consumption. The United States is able to export a significant percentage of its rice because of high production efficiency (high yields) and low per
capita domestic consumption compared to other countries.
Although U.S. rice exports have been fairly stable at about 20% of the world market over the past decade, fundamental changes in the market have altered the
destination and type of U.S. exports (9). These changes are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Over the past three decades, the Middle East, Africa, and Western Europe
replaced Asia as primary export markets. Since the early 1970s, parboiled rice, demanded by growing markets in the Middle East, has increased its share of U.S.
exports. Brown rice, once demanded in large quantities by South Korea, has declined. Most of the exported rice is the longgrain type, which reached about 70% of
the total exported in the 1980s. This was due to the expansion of the Middle Eastern markets and declines in the Asian markets. Two world political events occurring
since 1989 have had major impact on U.S. rice exports. Before the Persian Gulf war, Iraq was the single largest buyer of U.S. rice, purchasing about 20% of total
exports. This market has disappeared, and the U.S. share of the world rice trade has decreased. The other political event was the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. The
republics of the former Soviet Union (FSU12) have begun purchasing U.S. rice through export programs. In crop year 1991–92, the
Page 8
Table 3 Top 10 U.S. Rice Export Markets (% of exportsa to country of destination)
FSU12 bought 41.9 thousand metric tons of U.S. rice to rank 12th on the list of largest buyers (10). Rice market analysts anticipate that this market will continue to
grow. U.S. governmentsponsored export programs will play a major role in promotion of rice exports to FSU12.
C—
U.S. Production
U.S. rice production and consumption (including exports) since 1980 is shown in Figure 4. Both production and consumption showed a decline in the early/mid
1980s, but have exhibited only minor year to year variations since the 1988–89 crop year. Measurable rice production is confined to Arkansas, California, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Missouri, and Texas. Production by each of these states for the period 1980–1991 is given in Table 5. Arkansas is the leading riceproducing state with
43% of the national total in 1991, followed by California and Louisiana at 16%, Texas 13%, Mississippi 8%, and Missouri 3%.
Traditionally, rice varieties are classified as long, medium and shortgrain types. The majority of rice grown in the United States in 1991 was the longgrain type,
which was grown mainly in the midsouth (Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi, Missouri). This type comprised 71% of the total rice grown. Mediumgrain rice,
grown predominantly in California, Louisiana, and Arkansas, accounted for 28% of the total. Shortgrain rice was grown almost exclusively in California and
represented less than 1% of the total grown.
Page 9
Table 4 U.S. Rice Exports by Type
Crop year Milled (%) Brown (%) Parboiled Rough (%) Brokens
(%) (%)
1977/78 63.9 10.6 21.7 2.0 1.9
1978/79 58.3 11.4 25.8 3.7 0.9
1979/80 56.8 17.6 22.1 2.0 1.5
1980/81 33.4 39.7 25.8 0.4 0.6
1981/82 36.4 18.7 37.3 7.0 0.4
1982/83 44.8 16.0 38.1 0.8 0.2
1983/84 42.8 14.7 36.2 4.6 1.7
1984/85 51.5 8.6 32.2 5.2 2.4
1985/86 50.6 14.5 27.8 2.8 4.3
1986/87 56.8 9.0 24.3 9.7 0.2
1987/88 55.9 7.8 28.0 1.6 6.7
1988/89 51.0 11.5 30.0 4.6 2.9
1989/90 45.8 12.2 37.3 2.0 2.6
Source: Ref. 8.
Breeding programs in the United States have produced varieties for each grain type that are associated with specific cooking, eating, and processing qualities. Long
grain varieties are most desired for direct table use because they cook dry and fluffy and the cooked grains tend to separate rather than stick together in a clump. High
quality medium and shortgrain types are most moist, chewy, and sticky, and for home use they appeal to the U.S.
Page 10
Table 5 State and U.S. Rice Production by Class (1000 cwt), 1980–1991
State 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
Longgrain rice
Arkansas 42,480 57,280 47,608 33,012 46,320
Mediumgrain rice
Arkansas 9,073 11,094 8,400 5,784 6,400
Shortgrain rice
Arkansas 1,062 1,236 1,029 363 180
Total grains
Arkansas 52,615 69,610 57,037 39,159 52,900
Source: Ref. 8.
immigrant population, especially from Asia. Because of the diverse cultural makeup in the United States, there is a demand for all three grain types. Also, rice
processors require different quality characteristics for use in various prepared and convenience food products.
D—
U.S. Consumption
The United States mirrors the rest of the world in that rice is almost exclusively used for food and rarely for animal feed. The United States is
Page 11
Mediumgrain rice
Arkansas 3,809 4,544 7,656 7,236 6,322 6,912 8,392
Shortgrain rice
Arkansas 76 54 110 52 60 54 60
Total grains
Arkansas 54,597 54,060 53,025 64,735 63,840 60,000 66,780
not a conspicuous consumer of rice compared to many other countries. However, per capita consumption in the United States has doubled since 1975 and is now
approaching 10 kg (22 lb) (Fig. 5). This growth has benefited from several factors, including (a) the growing trend in U.S. diets away from highfat animal products
and towards lowfat grainbased foods, (b) the increase in the Asian and Hispanic segments of the U.S. population, and (c) the aggressive marketing campaign by the
U.S. Rice Council to make rice more visible to a wider range of consumers.
Domestic rice has three different uses (a) direct food use, (b) processed foods, and (c) brewing. Direct food use is the largest category and comprised about 58% of
the total domestic market in 1991 (8). Direct food use
Page 12
Figure 4
United States rice production and consumption in million metric tons. Data for
1991–92 are forecast; data for 1992–93 are projected.
(From Ref. 8.)
Figure 5
United States per capita consumption of rice from 1975 to 1992 in kilograms.
Value for 1992 is forecast.
(From Ref. 8.)
Page 13
Figure 6
United States domestic rice consumption in million metric tons between 1966 and
1992 broken down into three categories: direct food use, processed foods, and
brewing. Results for 1992 are forecast.
(From Ref. 8.)
includes the conventional white rice plus specialty rice products (parboiled, precooked, aromatic, brown, and prepackaged mixes). Specialty products account for
approximately 20% of direct food use. About 70% of the rice destined for direct food use reaches the consumer thought retail outlets and the other 30% through food
service outlets.
Rice consumption through brewing and processed foods share equally the remainder of the U.S. market, but use in the processed food market has almost doubled
over the last decade, while use for brewing has remained fairly stable (8). Breakfast cereals lead the processed food category and consist of mainly mediumgrain rice.
Other processed foods include prepackaged mixes and rice cakes (predominantly longgrain), canned soup and frozen dinners (longgrain), candy (mediumgrain and
brokens), and baby and pet food (brokens and rice flour). Rice (brokens) for brewing is primarily used for the production of beer.
Total consumption of rice for domestic use and its consumption by category for the period 1966 to 1992 is portrayed in Figure 6. The continued increase since the
1982 marketing year has resulted from gains in the processed foods and direct food use categories.
Page 14
IV—
Current Research and Development
The steady increase in both total (see Fig. 6) and per capita consumption (see Fig. 5) of rice in the United States has brought about increased rice research and
development activity from universities, government laboratories, and industry. All of these groups have developed active rice research programs. These programs use
the most recent technology to provide basic and applied information to ensure highquality rice and rice products for U.S. domestic and export markets. The chapters
that follow address particularly active areas of rice research and development where the editors believe the next major advances in rice storage, quality, processing,
and utilization may be made.
Consumer recognition of brown rice as a healthy food has shifted interest toward a greater use of brown rice in the U.S. diet. However, a major obstacle in increased
marketing of brown rice is the short shelf life of the product. After removal of the hull, brown rice quality deteriorates rapidly while sitting on the supermarket shelf.
Chapters 2 and 3 describe current research designed to solve the deterioration problem and significantly extend the shelf life of brown rice. Storage of milled rice can
also affect its quality. Chapter 4 presents a review of current knowledge describing desirable and undesirable changes in milled rice during storage.
Rice quality, in a positive sense, is a term used to describe the specific traits or characteristics of rice that make it appealing to the grower, processor, and consumer.
Chapters 5 through 10 cover rice quality from all of these three perspectives. Chapter 5 describes current breeding strategies used to satisfy grower demands for
certain quality features. Chapter 6 discusses the latest methods used to quantify rice quality from a rice processor's perspective. Chapter 7 describes a critical
determinant in achieving rice quality, namely, degree of milling. It also evaluates the potential of a relatively new technique, near infrared reflectance (NIR)
spectroscopy, as a suitable online method for the determination and control of degree of milling. Chapters 8 and 10 assess the role played by protein and starch, the
two largest components in rice, in determining rice quality, particularly in the cooked grain. The basic research presented in these chapters have application to both the
processor and consumer. Chapter 9 gives the reader uptodate information on the enrichment process that is widely used in the rice industry to improve the nutritional
quality of the grain with its direct, beneficial effects on human health.
The emphasis in Chapters 11 through 15 is on the newest technology used for processing rice. The Japanese have long been leaders in the development of new,
innovative technology (methods and equipment) for rice processing. A description of stateoftheart methods and equipment sold by the U.S. subsidiary of a
Japanese company is presented in Chapter 11.
Page 15
Chapters 12, 13, and 14 discuss innovative approaches to rice parboiling and drying, two processing techniques practiced for centuries without major change.
Emphasis is placed on the use of microwave energy, a relatively recent technology, for greater control and efficiency of the parboiling and drying processes. Chapter
15 evaluates recent data on the relationship between rice moisture content and head yield. This information is critically important to rice millers, who must continually
monitor moisture content to maximize yield of head rice in order to stay competitive.
Storage, quality, and processing of rice are important steps that lead to the ultimate value of rice as a food grain. The ultimate value of rice resides in its utilization by
the processor or consumer as a food or an ingredient in foods. The final chapters highlight a very active area of rice utilization, namely, the increasing use bran and bran
oil (Chapters 16 and 18) and starch (Chapter 17) as nutritional and functional food ingredients. Chapter 19 concludes by presenting an excellent overview of current
and future prospects for rice utilization as seen from a marketing perspective.
References
1. Chang, T. T. (1976). The origin, evolution, cultivation, dissemination, and diversification of Asian and African rices. Euphytica, 25:425.
2. Dethloff, H. C. (1982). The colonial rice trade. Agric. Hist., 56:231.
3. Adair, C. R. (1973). Introduction, Rice in the United States: Varieties and Production. ARS, USDA, Agricultural Handbook 289, Washington, D. C., p. 1.
4. Juliano, B. O. and Bechtel, D. B. (1985). The rice grain and its gross composition, Rice: Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), American Association of
Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul, MN, p. 17.
5. Lu, S., and Luh, B. S. (1991). Properties of the rice caryopsis, Rice: Production, Vol. I (B.S. Luh, ed.), AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT, p. 389.
6. Araullo, E. V., DePadua, D. B., and Graham, M. (1976). Rice Postharvest Technology, International Development Research Center, IDRC053e, Ottawa,
Canada.
7. de Lumen, B. O., and Chow, H. (1991). Nutritional quality of rice endosperm, Rice: Utilization, Vol. II (B.S. Luh, ed.), AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT p.
363.
8. USDA. (1992). Rice, Situation and Outlook Yearbook. Economic Research Service, RS64, July, Washington, D. C.
9. Childs, N. W. (1989). The changing role of the United States in the world rice market, Rice. Situation and Outlook Yearbook. USDA, Economic Research
Service, RS55, July, Washington, D.C.
10. USDA. (1992). Rice Market News, 73:8.
11. Pomeranz, Y., and Ory, R. L. (1982). Rice processing and utilization, CRC Handbook of Processing and Utilization in Agriculture, Vol. II (I. A. Wolff, ed.),
CRC Press, West Palm Beach, FL.
Page 17
2—
Brown Rice Stabilization
Elaine T. Champagne
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
Brown rice is nutritionally superior to white rice. It has higher percentages of all nutrients except carbohydrate (1). Thiamine and oil contents of brown rice are
approximately five times that of white rice, while fiber, niacin, phosphorous, potassium, iron, sodium, and riboflavin contents are approximately two to three times
greater (1). The bran layers that are milled from brown rice to obtain white rice account for the higher nutritive content of brown rice. Besides being nutrientrich, these
bran layers also have hypocholesterolemic properties (2–5). The cholesterollowering activity of the bran is believed to be associated with unsaponifiables found in
processed rice bran oil (6–8).
In spite of its nutritional value, consumption of brown rice worldwide has been limited. Only 3% of the rice eaten in the United States is brown rice (9). A major
deterrent to greater use of brown rice is its short shelf life of 3–6 months due to rancid offflavors and offodors being imparted to the rice as its oil rapidly
deteriorates. This susceptibility to rancidity has limited the commercial production, marketing, and consumption of not only brown rice kernels but also of its
products—flour, bran, and oil.
Page 18
II—
Lipolytic Hydrolysis and Oxidation in Brown Rice
The oil in brown rice is subject to hydrolytic and oxidative deterioration, as depicted in Figure 1. Lipases, both endogenous to the bran and of microbial origin, catalyze
the hydrolysis of kernel oil. In the intact rough rice kernel, lipases are dormant because the enzyme and its substrate (oil) are not in contact. Lipases and oil are
compartmentalized in the testa layer and in the aleurone and germ (10), respectively, as depicted in Figure 2. Dehulling rice disrupts these outer layers, oil diffuses to
make contact with lipases, and the hydrolysis of triglycerides to free fatty acids (FFA) readily proceeds. Lipases produced by mold and bacteria located on kernel
surfaces also have access to bran oil following dehulling and promote its hydrolysis (11).
The rate of FFA formation in brown rice depends on the extent of surface disruption, moisture and microflora contents, and temperature of storage. Typically the level
of FFA in brown rice after 6 months of storage ranges from 6 to 25% (12). In brown rice flours and bran, oil and lipases are mingled and the rate of FFA formation is
very high; approximately 30% of the oil can be converted to FFA within a week under high humidity and temperature (13).
The contribution of FFA to the flavor of brown rice is limited to possibly a soapy taste (14). The offflavors and offodors associated with rancidity result from
oxidative and not hydrolytic deterioration of bran oil. Oxida
Figure 1
Routes of hydrolytic and oxidative deterioration
of rice bran oil.
Page 19
Figure 2
Crosssection of a rice kernel.
tive deterioration can be either enzymecatalyzed or nonenzymatic (see Fig. 1). Enzymatic oxidation in brown rice is primarily attributed to lipoxygenase, an enzyme
found in the germ (15). Lipoxygenase catalyzes the oxidation of free unsaturated fatty acids to hydroperoxides, which react to yield products (e.g., aldehydes, hydroxy
acids) that impart offflavors and offodors. Because lipoxygenase preferentially acts on free unsaturated fatty acids, the extent of oxidation initiated by this enzyme
depends on the amount of substrate made available from hydrolytic degradation of oil (16). Thus, lipolytic hydrolysis may predispose the oil in brown rice to
subsequent lipoxygenaseinitiated oxidation.
Nonenzymatic oxidation is inhibited by antioxidants present in the bran, i.e., tocopherols, and is slow in undamaged rice grains (17,18). Metal ions naturally present in
the bran or introduced by contamination from shelling equipment catalyze nonenzymatic oxidation. Light, highenergy radiation, and heat also act as catalysts.
Nonenzymatic oxidation can occur by free radical (autoxidation) or photooxidation routes. The free radical route depends on the production of free radicals from lipid
molecules via their interaction with oxygen in the presence of a catalyst. Hydroperoxides are the initial reaction products. The rate at which lipids undergo autoxidation
Page 20
increases with the degree of unsaturation in the acyl chain (14). The fatty acids can be in the unesterified form (free fatty acid) or as esters. In the photooxidation
route, a photosensitive molecule (e.g., riboflavin, heavy metal ions) is converted to an excited state by absorbing light. The excited sensitizer reacts directly or indirectly
with oxygen to form singlet oxygen, which reacts with fatty acids forming hydroperoxides. As for enzymatic oxidation, the hydroperoxides formed during nonenzymatic
oxidation yield products in subsequent reactions that cause objectionable flavors and odors in brown rice.
The susceptibility of brown rice to nonenzymatic oxidation may be increased by treatments designed to stabilize rice with respect to lipolytic hydrolysis. Processes
involving heat, moisture, or solvents lead to redistribution of oil, destruction of natural antioxidants, and increased surface area exposed to oxygen (16). These
processes also denature the hemoproteins catalase and peroxidase found in brown rice kernels, allowing exposed heme iron to initiate oxidation (19).
III—
Stabilizing Brown Rice to Lipolytic Hydrolysis
Processes developed for stabilizing brown rice to lipolytic hydrolysis follow three approaches: (a) heat denaturation and inactivation of kernel lipases, (b) extraction
with an organic solvent to remove ''freed" oil that serves as a substrate for lipase, and (c) ethanolic denaturation and inactivation of bran lipases and lipaseproducing
bacteria and mold. Table 1 lists processes using these three approaches and characteristics of their products. An overview of these processes and their products
follows.
A—
Processes Using Heat
Technology developed during the past 30 years for producing quickcooking white rice products has been expanded to apply to quickcooking brown rice products.
These processes not only reduce the cooking time of brown rice but also stabilize it to lipolytic hydrolysis.
Precooking processes used for producing stable, quickcooking brown rice products are variations of the OzaiDurrani "soakboilsteamdry" process (20), which
was used by General Foods Corporation in the late 1940s to make the first quickcooking white rice product, Minute Rice. In these patents brown rice is soaked,
cooked by steaming (21,22), boiling (23), or baking (24), and dried. Hydration and gelatinization is accomplished by two or more successive steps. Precooking
processes fully gelatinize kernel starch and give kernels porous structures allowing rapid rehydration. Ker
Page 21
Table 1 Processes for Stabilizing Brown Rice to Lipolytic Hydrolysis and Characteristics of Their Products
Partial loss of
Gelatinized B Kernel appearance Quick
Process starch Oil Vitamins Minerals (brown rice) cooking
Heat
SoakedCookedDried Yes No Yes Yes porous, fissured, possibly Yes
enlarged
Organic solvent extraction of freed oil
Hexane extractions No Yes Yes No slightly abraded No
Ethanolic denaturation of lipases 24°C Yes
liquid ethanol No No (<10%) No slightly abraded No
Fresh 70°C liquid ethanol No Yes Yes No slightly abraded No
Page 22
nel lipases are inactivated by the hydrothermal treatments. Losses of watersoluble vitamins and minerals by dissolution occur during soaking and cooking steps.
Roberts et al. (23) report losses of thiamin, riboflavin, potassium, and iron in their "soakedboileddried" brown rice product of approximately 31, 67, 22, and 24%,
respectively. Protein, fat, fiber, and niacin levels in this product were comparable to those of raw brown rice.
Dry heat treatments subject brown rice to a hot air stream (90–315°C) followed by a cool air stream (25–27). Dry heat processes fissure brown rice kernel surfaces,
which facilitates cooking by allowing rapid penetration of water. Lipases are heat denatured and inactivated. The endosperm is left opaque and chalky (26). Kernel
starch is probably dextrinized to some extent but is not gelatinized (28). Nutrients are not lost and, if the temperature is not too high, vitamins are not destroyed (26).
At high processing temperatures, the brown rice produced has a puffed appearance and a toasted flavor (26).
Brown rice products produced from rough rice subjected to parboiling or blanching with heated, moist gas (air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide) are also stable to lipolytic
hydrolysis (29–32). Cooking time is not reduced by these processes. Parboiling is a process consisting of steeping rough rice, steaming it to gelatinize the starch, and
then slowly drying the kernels. Kernel lipases are partially or totally inactivated by parboiling during the steaming step and original FFA content is lowered (29,30,33),
as illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3
Free fatty acid (FFA) formation in bran from raw ( ),
soaked (70°C, 3 hr; ), steamed (100°C, 5 min; ×), and
parboiled ( ) rice during storage at 37°C. FFA is
expressed as percent of kernel oil.
(From Ref. 30.)
Page 23
During the parboiling process, watersoluble vitamins and minerals diffuse from the bran layers into the endosperm, while oil from disrupted bodies in the aleuorone
and germ migrates outward as a band (34–36). Total B vitamin contents in brown rice are reduced by parboiling due to dissolution of the vitamins during soaking and
loss to heat destruction (34,37,38). Little or no loss of mineral contents occurs (39). Oil and protein contents are unaffected by parboiling (35,40,41). However,
protein bodies are ruptured during parboiling, and protein solubility and extractability decreases (40).
Van Atta et al. (31) blanched rough rice with steam at temperatures ranging from 85 to 100°C for 0.5–15 minutes. Steam deactivated lipases without gelatinizing
kernel starch. A short steam treatment of 5 minutes at 100°C destroyed most of the lipase activity in the kernels; FFA in the oil increased by approximately 1.7%
during 140 days storage compared with 10% for the unsteamed control (32). Figure 3 depicts the development of FFA in bran prepared from paddy steamed for 5
minutes at 100°C. In contrast to parboiling, nutrients did not migrate in the kernel during this process (31).
The value of parboiling, precooking, or dry or moist heat treatments for stabilizing brown rice to lipolytic hydrolysis is offset by loss of resistance to oxidation (32,42).
Increased susceptibility to oxidation arises from destruction of heatlabile antioxidants, i.e., tocopherols, heat denaturation of hemoproteins, and redistribution of oil in
the kernels during processing. Researchers have observed that the tendency of kernel oil to disperse and move outward increases with temperature (43) and duration
(44) of soaking as well as with increase in pressure of steaming (34). This outward migration of oil leaves a greater proportion of oil on or near kernel surfaces and
exposed to oxygen.
B—
Organic Solvent Extraction of "Freed" Kernel Oil
Kester (45) stabilized brown rice to lipolytic hydrolysis by extracting kernels with either room temperature petroleum ether or boiling hexane. "Freed" oil was extracted
from rice by these fat solvents. As discussed earlier, dehulling rice disrupts the outer bran layers, freed oil diffuses through the bran making contact with lipases, and
lipolytic hydrolysis proceeds. Solvent extraction of freed oil prevents the substrate from interacting with lipases, thus stabilizing the kernels to lipolytic hydrolysis.
Kester (45) found that room temperature petroleum ether extracted 40% of the total oil in brown rice. After a storage period of 80 days, FFA levels in extracted and
control kernels were 3.7 and 22.3% (expressed as % of oil), respectively. Brown rice kernels extracted with hexane were reported to have a FFA level of 3.8%
following one month of storage.
Page 24
An indepth investigation of the effects of extracting brown rice kernels with boiling (68°C) hexane for one hour on nutrient composition and storage stabilities of the
kernels and their flours was recently reported (46). Extraction of brown rice with boiling hexane removed approximately 15% of the kernel oil. No loss of protein, total
dietary fiber, carbohydrate, or minerals occurred during extraction with boiling hexane. Twenty percent of the kernel thiamine was lost. Kernel starch was not
gelatinized. Extraction of freshly dehulled brown rice kernels with boiling hexane yielded a product with a FFA level approximately 85% that of unextracted kernels.
Extraction of kernels with a FFA content of 27% led to a 57% reduction in FFA.
As initially observed by Kester, boiling hexane was effective in stabilizing brown rice kernels to lipolytic hydrolysis; the FFA levels in kernels extracted with boiling
hexane increased from 3.3 to 4.3% during 6 months storage at 36°C, as shown in Figure 4. In contrast, the FFA level of control kernels increased from 4 to 10%
during storage. Flours prepared from kernels extracted with boiling hexane were only partially stable to lipolytic hydrolysis. During 6month storage at 36°C, FFA
level in flour prepared from kernels extracted with boiling hexane increased from 3.3 to 36%, while that in control flour increased from 4 to 47% (see Fig. 4). When
Figure 4
Free fatty acid (FFA) formation in kernels extracted
with hexane at 68°C ( ), flour prepared from
extracted kernels ( ), and
control flour (×) during storage at 36°C. FFA is
expressed as percent of kernel oil.
(From Ref. 46.)
Page 25
flour was produced from hexaneextracted kernels, residual oil was mingled with lipases allowing lipolytic hydrolysis to readily proceed.
Extracting brown rice kernels with boiling hexane did not affect the susceptibility of the kernels to oxidation, as determined by comparing the change in conjugated
diene hydroperoxide contents (CDHP) in extracted and control kernels during 6month storage.
C—
Processes Utilizing Ethanol (EtOH)
Processes for stabilizing brown rice to lipolytic hydrolysis by liquid EtOH extraction and by treatment with EtOH vapors were recently reported (46–50). The
stabilizing action of EtOH was attributed to (1) ethanolic denaturation of bran lipases with concomitant deactivation and (b) killing of lipaseproducing bacteria and
mold located on kernel surfaces.
Liquid EtOH (95%, v/v), at temperatures ranging from 24°C (room temperature) to 70°C, stabilized brown rice to lipolytic hydrolysis (46–48). The effectiveness of
EtOH in stabilizing kernels increased with higher extraction temperatures and longer extraction times, as illustrated in Figure 5. Brown rice kernels extracted with 70°C
EtOH for 60 minutes were the most stable to lipolytic hydrolysis; the FFA level in these kernels increased from 1.0 to 1.4% during 6 months of storage at 36°C. To
produce
Figure 5
Effect of EtOH extraction time and temperature on free
fatty acid (FFA) formation in brown rice kernels stored
at 36°C. Kernels were extracted at 24°C for 10 ( ) or
60 minutes ( ) or at 70°C for 10 (×) or 60 minutes
( ) kernels were untreated. FFA is
expressed as percent of kernel oil.
(From Ref. 48.)
Page 26
stabilized kernels, liquid EtOH needs to make contact with lipases that have been activated during dehulling of the kernel and with lipaseproducing bacteria and mold
found on kernel surfaces. Since these interactions are on or near the kernel surface, high extraction temperatures and/or long extraction times providing "deep"
penetration of EtOH into the kernel are not required. To produce stabilized flours from extracted kernels, EtOH must penetrate the testa layer and denature all or
nearly all of the lipase. This requires higher extraction temperatures and longer extraction times. As indicated by increases in FFA levels during storage (Fig. 6), an
extraction temperature higher than 54°C was required to produce highly stable flours from EtOHextracted kernels. Flours prepared from kernels extracted for 20
minutes or longer at 70°C had high stability to lipolytic hydrolysis.
Vapors from boiling aqueous EtOH (95%, v/v) were also effective in stabilizing brown rice kernels and their flours to lipolytic hydrolysis, as depicted in Figure 7
(49,50). During 6 months of storage at 36°C, FFA levels in brown rice kernels treated with EtOH vapors for 3 or 5 minutes increased from 3.0 to 3.9 and 3.6%,
respectively. FFA content did not change in kernels treated with vapors for 10 minutes, while that of control kernels increased from 3 to 28%. Flours produced from
kernels treated
Figure 6
Effect of EtOH extraction temperature on free fatty acid
(FFA) formation in flours prepared from extracted
kernels and stored at 36°C. Kernels were extracted at
24°C ( ) for 60
minutes. Control ( ) was flour made from untreated
kernels. FFA is expressed as percent of kernel oil.
(From Ref. 48.)
Page 27
Figure 7
Free fatty acid formation (FFA) in (A) brown rice kernels treated
with EtOH vapors, heattreated ( ) and in
(B) flours prepared from these kernels during storage at 36°C.
Kernels were treated with EtOH vapors for 3 ( ), 5 (×), or 10
( ) minutes. Heattreated kernels were heated at 78°C for
10 minutes without vapor treatment. FFA is expressed as
percent of kernel oil.
(From Ref. 50.)
Page 28
with EtOH vapors had low residual lipase activities. Following 5 months of storage at 36°C, FFA levels in flours prepared from kernels treated with vapors for 3, 5,
and 10 minutes increased from 3 to 9, 7, and 6%, respectively. In contrast, the FFA level in flour prepared from control kernels increased from 3 to 80%.
Stabilization with EtOH, as a liquid or vapor, increased the susceptibility of the oil in brown rice to oxidative deterioration, as indicated by increases in CDHP contents
during storage (Fig. 8). When using liquid EtOH, the higher the temperature of extraction, the more susceptible the kernels were to oxidative deterioration during
storage. Extraction time was not a factor. Microscopic examinations (46,50) of kernel surfaces revealed that liquid and vapor treatments with EtOH disturbed the
caryopsis coat and increased kernel porosity by causing increased waviness and narrow, superficial transverse fissures, respectively. The higher the temperature of
liquid EtOH, the greater was its penetration into the kernel, and the more disruptive it was to the caryopsis coat. By disrupting and increasing the porosity of the
caryopsis coat, EtOH treatment leaves kernel oil exposed to oxygen and susceptible to oxidation. EtOH treatments also caused both ethanolic and heat denaturation
of the hemoproteins, catalase and peroxidase. Unfolding of these enzymes causes greater exposure of the heme groups to oil, allowing heme iron to initiate oxidation
(19). Nonenzymatic
Figure 8
Change in conjugated diene hydroperoxide ( CDHP)
content in kernels treated with liquid EtOH at 24°C for
10 ( ) or 60 ( ) minutes or at 70°C for 10 (×) or 60
( ) or 10 (+)
minutes. Control ( ) kernels were untreated.
(From Refs. 48, 50.)
Page 29
oxidation initiated by heme groups of denatured hemoproteins has been observed to proceed more rapidly than enzymatic oxidation initiated by active hemoproteins
and lipoxygenase (19,51).
Full fat (<3% oil loss) products are produced by extracting brown rice with EtOH at 24°C or at higher temperatures with recycled EtOH (oil saturated) and by
treating brown rice with vapors from boiling EtOH. Extraction with fresh EtOH at temperatures higher than 24°C removes up to 15% of the kernel oil. Little or no loss
of protein, dietary fiber, carbohydrates, or minerals occurred during EtOH extraction or vapor treatments. Thiamine was retained in kernels extracted at temperatures
54°C and in kernels treated with EtOH vapors. Sixtythree percent of the thiamine in kernels extracted at 70°C was lost. Bacterial and mold populations on EtOH
extracted and vaportreated brown rice were very low or not countable. Starch was not gelatinized during processing with EtOH. EtOHstabilized brown rice has the
general appearance and cooking properties of natural brown rice.
IV—
Flour, Bran, and Oil from Stabilized Brown Rice Kernels
Brown rice, stabilized by processes that eliminate all or nearly all of the kernel lipase activity, is a suitable starting material for stable flour or stable bran. Brown rice
flours produced from rice stabilized by methods that render the starch gelatinized (e.g., precooking processes asnd parboiling) have functional properties, unlike raw
flours, and have limited use in baking (52). Stable, ungelatinized brown rice flours are produced by grinding kernels that are extracted with EtOH at elevated
temperatures or treated with EtOH vapors (46–50). Processes subjecting brown rice kernels to dry heat (25–27) or rough rice to moist heat at elevated temperatures
(>100°C) (31) are also suitable for producing stable brown rice flours with ungelatinized starch. These processes may partially dextrinize the starch and impart a
toasted flavor to the brown rice flour. Residual lipase activity is too high in brown rice kernels stabilized by hexane extraction to allow stable flour to be produced.
Foodquality, stabilized bran is produced by milling kernels that are extracted with EtOH at elevated temperatures or treated with EtOH vapors (46–50). Protein,
dietary fiber, carbohydrate, and mineral contents of bran from EtOHtreated products are the same as those of bran from untreated brown rice. Oil and thiamine are
fully retained in bran from kernels treated with EtOH vapors and are lower in bran produced from kernels extracted with EtOH at elevated temperatures. Bran from
parboiled rice contains more oil than untreated bran and lower levels of minerals and B vitamins
Page 30
(34). Starchy endosperm contamination is low in parboiledrice bran, since the endosperm of parboiled rice has a greater resistance to milling, allowing the bran to
effectively separate from it (34). Although parboiling inactivates kernel lipases, bran from parboiled rice is stable to lipolytic hydrolysis only if properly dried and stored
(53). If not dried, the high moisture content in parboiledrice bran causes the bran to be susceptible to insect and fungal infestation, which leads to FFA formation
during storage (54). Stabilized bran is also obtained by milling brown rice produced from the Van Atta et al. process (31) in which rough rice is treated with moist,
heated gas. Brown rice produced by precooking (quickcooking) processes has altered kernel surfaces (fissured, porous, brittle, puffed) and is not suited for milling.
The rapid manner in which lipases hydrolyze oil in unstabilized rice bran does not provide industry with the time needed to transport the bran and extract oil low in
FFA. Losses for potentially edible oil during refining are two to three times the FFA content of the oil (13). Bran stabilized by the brown rice treatments described
above is suitable for extraction to produce edible oil. Problems are encountered in extracting oil from the bran of parboiled rice that are not present when untreated
rice bran is used (55–57). Parboiled bran does not produce hard pellets, as untreated bran does, which leads to poor extraction and solvent loss (57). Oil obtained
from parboiled bran is difficult to bleach (56). Also, parboiled bran tends to stick to the steamjacketed dryer wall, which may cause selfignition during preheating
(55). Oil from parboiled rice bran has a lower saponification number and a lower iodine value than does oil from untreated rice (58).
Flour, bran, and oil produced from kernels stabilized by processes using heat or ethanol are susceptible to oxidative deterioration.
V—
Stabilizing Brown Rice to Oxidation
Removal of oxygen prevents oxidative rancidity. However, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic oxidation require only low levels of oxygen. Technically and economically
it is difficult to achieve and maintain oxygen levels below 1% in food packaging (16). Researchers (12,18,59–61) have demonstrated that storing brown rice in the
dark at low temperatures under modified atmospheres, e.g., carbon dioxide, or under vacuum slows but does not prevent oxidation. Adding an iron oxide absorbant
to a sealed container having a high oxygen barrier reduces oxygen levels to 100 ppm or less (62) and could possibly be a suitable method for preventing oxidation in
brown rice products.
Enzymatic oxidation initiated by lipoxygenase is halted by heat treatments designed to stabilize brown rice to lipolytic hydrolysis. Antioxidants have little effect on
lipoxygenaseinitiated oxidation but are effective in
Page 31
inhibiting nonenzymatic oxidation. However, tocopherols and their derivatives, which serve as naturally occurring antioxidants, may be destroyed by lipoxygenase
catalyzed oxidation and by processing with heat (14). Adding antioxidants to brown rice products provides protection against oxidative rancidity. An extract from
rosemary leaves at 300 ppm was recently shown to be effective in inhibiting oxidation in brown rice (62). Metal chelators, e.g., citric acid, phosphoric acid, ascorbic
acid, EDTA, and phytic acid, prevent iron and other metals from initiating oxidation. Studies are currently underway in our laboratory at the Southern Regional
Research Center to evaluate the effectiveness of adding iron chelators and/or antioxidants to EtOH used in brown rice extractions.
VI—
Need for Stabilized Brown Rice
Two factors will determine the need for stabilized brown rice. The first is consumer interest in brown rice as a table rice. Through efforts of the U.S. Rice Council and
others, consumers are being made aware of the nutritional benefits of brown rice and their interest in adding this food to the diet is increasing. However, consumer
interest will wane if brown rice does not retain a fresh, nutty taste and readily develops rancid offflavors and offodors during storage. Without stabilization to
hydrolytic and oxidative deterioration, the nutritional advantage of brown rice will be lost, and its future as a table rice will be bleak.
A second factor is market demand for products derived from stabilized brown rice, such as flour, foodgrade bran, and oil. Processes using ethanol are well suited for
production of these commodities since kernel components, including the oil, show little or no modification from the process. In the last 2–3 years, processors have
shown considerable interest in food uses of rice bran and oil. Interest has been spurred by the potential LDL cholesterollowering effects of the oil when added in
reasonable quantities to the diet and by the health benefits of dietary fiber in bran. These factors have also increased the interest in stabilized brown rice flour,
particularly that with ungelatinized starch. Processes that treat brown rice with ethanol or dry heat or rough rice with moist heat are attractive for the production of
stabilized brown rice flours with ungelatinized starch. The market for brown rice flour, bran, and oil has the potential to grow rapidly. However, the growth of this
market is dependent upon economically feasible processes being available to stabilize brown rice and its products to hydrolytic and oxidative deterioration, while
retaining their nutritional value. Stabilized brown rice and its products have the potential to play a significant role in increasing the demand for rice in the United States
and returning greater profits to the farmer and riceprocessing industry.
Page 32
References
1. Kennedy, B. M. (1980). Nutritional quality of rice endosperm, Rice: Production & Utilization (B. S. Luh, ed.), AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT, p. 439.
2. Kahlon, T. S., Saunders, R. M., Chow, F. I., Chiu, M. C., and Betschart, A. A. (1989) Effect of rice bran and oat bran on plasma cholesterol in hamsters, Cereal
Foods World, 34:768.
3. Gerhardt, A. L. (1989). Food Chemical News, Nov. 13.
4. Kestin, M., Moss, R., Clifton, P. M., and Nestel, P. J. (1990). Comparative effects of three cereal brans on plasma lipids, blood pressure, and glucose metabolism
in mildly hypercholesterolemic men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 52:661.
5. Hegsted, M., Windhauser, M. M., Lester, F. B., and Morris, S. K. (1990). Stabilized rice bran and oat bran lower cholesterol in humans. FASEB 4:368a.
6. Sharma, R. D., and Rukmini, C. (1986). Rice bran oil and hypocholesterolemia in rats. Lipids, 21:715.
7. Nicolosi, R. J., Ausman, L. M., and Hegsted, D. M. (1989). Lipoprotein levels in monkeys fed a diet containing rice oil. Circulation, 80:86A.
8. Applewhite, T. H. (ed.) (1990). Unsaponifiables in rice bran oil under study, Inform, 1:831.
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11. DeLucca, A. J., Plating, S. J., and Ory, R. L. (1978). Isolation and identification of lipolytic microorganisms found on rough rice from two growing areas. J. Food
Prot., 41:28.
12. Sharp, R. N., and Timme, L. K. (1986). Effects of storage time, storage temperature, and packaging method on shelf life of brown rice. Cereal Chem., 63:247.
13. Enochian, R. V., Saunders, R. M., Schultz, W. G., Beagle, E. C., and Crowley, P. R. (1980). Stabilization of rice bran with extruder cookers and recovery of
edible oil: A preliminary analysis of operational and financial feasibility, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Marketing Research Report 1120.
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50:3165.
16. Galliard, T. (1989). Rancidity in cereal products, Rancidity in Foods (J. C. Allen and R. J. Hamilton, eds.), Elsevier Applied Science, New York, p. 141.
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18. Sowbhagya, C. M., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1976). Lipid autoxidation in rice. J. Food Sci., 41:1018.
19. Eriksson, C. E., Olsson, P. A., and Svensson, S. G. (1969). Oxidation of fatty acids by heat treated hemoproteins, Lipids, 5:365.
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20. OzaiDurrani, A. K. (1948). Quickcooking rice and process for making same. U.S. Patent 2,438,939, April 6.
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45:1080.
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bran, Rice ByProducts Utilization, Vol. IV (S. Barber and E. Tortosa, eds.), Int. Conf. Valencia, Spain, 1974. Inst. Agroquimica Tecnol. Alimentos, Valencia,
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39. Bhattacharya, K. R., and Ali, S. Z. (1985). Changes in rice during parboiling and properties of parboiled rice, Advances in Cereal Science and Technology,
Vol. VII (Y. Pomeranz, ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, p. 105.
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41. Sondi, A. B., Reddy, I. M., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1980). Effect of processing conditions on the oil content of parboiledrice bran. Food Chem., 5:277.
42. Houston, D. F., Hunter, I. R., McComb, E. A., and Kester, E. B. (1954). Deteriorative changes in the oil fraction of stored parboiled rice. J. Agric. Food
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Souvenir, Seminar on Modern Technology of Rice Milling, East India Rice Mills Association, Calcutta, p. 21.
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Organization, ECAFE, and Government of India, Madras.
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46. Champagne, E. T., Hron, Sr., R. J., and Abraham, G. (1991). Stabilizing brown rice products by aqueous ethanol extraction. Cereal Chem., 68:267.
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55. Pe, M. (1977). Parboiled rice bran as a source of edible oil in Burma. I. Storage of stabilized and parboiled rice bran. II. Processing problems, Proceedings Rice
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3—
Storage Stability of Extrusion Stabilized and Parboiled Rice Bran
Don R. McCaskill and Frank T. Orthoefer
Riceland Foods, Inc., Stuttgart, Arkansas
I—
Introduction
A—
Quality of Rice Bran
Rice bran as a food is a rich source of nutrients. Several obstacles have hindered its utilization. In rice milling, the historical emphasis has been on the economical
production and maximum output of whole grains. Bran quality has typically received little attention. Some mills were set up in a ''singlebreak" design, which involves
the simultaneous removal of hulls, bran, and germ. Even in "doublebreak" systems, especially those involving frictiontype bran removal, relatively high levels of hulls
are often allowed to enter the bran removal step. The presence of hulls with a high silica and cellulose content, even at low levels in the bran, severely limits its
acceptability as human food. Carefully controlling the quality of rough rice used in milling results in bran composition with limited contamination by rice endosperm from
immature, damaged, or otherwise weak grains. Calcium carbonate or ground limestone is often used as a milling aid with parboiled rice because of the increased
difficulty in achieving adequate bran removal. This also becomes a contaminant in the resultant bran.
B—
Dietary Considerations
Recent studies have indicated that a diet supplemented with rice bran may be an effective means of reducing serum cholesterol (1,2). As a result,
Page 38
interest in the use of rice bran as a food ingredient has increased. Rice bran, when compared to other food fiber sources that reduce cholesterol, is a rich nutrient
source. Rice bran, like most cereal brans, contains antinutritional properties, including phytin content, presence of trypsin inhibitor, potential antigenicity, and mineral
binding (3). There are indications that the heat treatment associated with stabilization may minimize or eliminate at least some of these characteristics. In feeding trials,
Sayre et al. (4) observed significant improvement in weight gain of chicks fed diets containing stabilized versus raw rice bran.
C—
Mechanism of Deterioration
The greatest restriction to the use of rice bran as a food ingredient, or even as a source of edible oil, is its reputation for being highly unstable in storage. At 18–22%
lipid, it contains the necessary substrate for rancidity development. Indeed, rice bran possesses all the components necessary for rapid flavor deterioration.
There are two types of deterioration of lipids in the bran layer: hydrolytic and oxidative rancidity. Hydrolytic rancidity, catalyzed by lipase, is primarily responsible for
deterioration of bran.
Lipase activity increases early during seed development and reaches a maximum 12 days after flowering and levels off to 50% of maximum activity (5). Lipase activity
is not limited to rice. Oat lipase has higher activity than rice lipase. Lipase is concentrated in the bran and germ layers. Rice bran lipase has an optimum pH between
7.5 and 8.0 and an optimum temperature of 37°C (6). It is inactivated by heating for 15 minutes at 60°C. Bran lipase, similar to pancreatic lipase, preferentially
hydrolyzes fatty acid ester bonds at the 1,3 positions. Other lipolytic acylhydrolase activity occurs with galactolipase and phospholipase and their isozymes (7).
Lipoxygenase activity, which usually results in oxidative rancidity, increases to 20 days after flowering, then levels off. Lipoxygenase shows lower activity in the
endosperm than in the bran layer. It promotes oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, leading to the formation of shorterchain aldehydes and ketones associated with
rancid odors and flavors. Isozymes are present in both the germ and bran layers. Lipoxygenase produces mainly the nine hydroperoxides from linoleic acid. The
optimum pH for the major lipoxygenase of rice bran is 8.5. Lipoxygenase activity is generally not associated with oil degradation in rice bran.
DeLucca et al. (8) reported that approximately 10% of the bacterial population of rough rice samples grown in Arkansas and Louisiana were lipolytic and that all
molds isolated from the samples demonstrated at least some lipolytic activity. Finally, the actions involved in rice milling bring the
Page 39
reactive components (lipids, enzymes, and oxygen) together in a homogeneous mixture. After milling, bran quality degradation will occur rapidly unless it is stabilized.
II—
Stabilization Research
A—
General
Sayre et al. (9) have reviewed the methods used for the stabilization of rice bran. These include dry heat, wet heat, and extrusion methods. Most rice bran stabilization
research has sought to develop methods to prepare the bran for economically feasible extraction of oil. Studies have repeatedly shown that free fatty acids (FFA)
develop rapidly in untreated rice bran or loosely milled rice during the first few days or weeks after milling (10–14). This change profoundly affects the value of bran
for the extraction of oil. As FFA content rises, oilrefining losses increase proportionately. While oxidative changes also negatively impact oil quality, these changes are
not as rapid or obvious. Therefore, primary attention in stabilization efforts has been paid to destruction or inhibition of lipase, the enzyme responsible for FFA
development.
B—
Effects of Rice Processing
Parboiled rice has been shown to exhibit a reduced level of FFA as compared to unprocessed rice (15) and to be more resistant to the development of FFA during
storage (10,12). It is generally accepted that lipase enzymes are destroyed in the process, due to the treatment times and temperatures typically involved in parboiling.
Some preformed free fatty acids apparently are leached out, oxidized, and/or complexed with amylose, which accounts for the initial reduction. The oil in parboiled
rice and in bran from parboiled rice has been shown to be highly susceptible to oxidative deterioration (13,16). This is generally attributed to destruction or removal of
natural antioxidants during parboiling.
A process for stabilizing brown rice by aqueous ethanol treatment was recently described by Champagne et al. (17). Treatment at 78°C inactivated lipase, but
accelerated oxidative changes as measured by development of conjugated diene hydroperoxides. This work is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.
C—
Enzyme Inhibition
Enzymes are typically inactivated or denatured through the application of heat or by chemical treatment. Enzyme activity may be inhibited by modify
Page 40
ing the moisture, pH, or temperature of the sample. Drying to low moisture levels was shown to limit lipase activity in bran (10) and rice polish (18), but actually
hastened oxidation (13,18). Adjustment of pH requires the addition of undesirable acidulants, alters the flavor profile, necessitates elaborate processing steps, and
ultimately reduces the overall compatibility of bran as a food ingredient. Storage of bran (10) or brown rice (19) at refrigerated temperatures has been found to
prolong storage life. However, the refrigerated shelf life is still too short to enable practical utilization of rice bran as a food ingredient. In most cases, the cost of
refrigerated storage is prohibitive as well.
D—
Requirements of Food Ingredients
The ability of rice bran supplements to reduce serum cholesterol triggered considerable interest within the food industry and prompted several ricemilling companies to
enter the stabilized rice bran market. Continued increases in use of rice bran in packaged consumer goods is likely. Since its cholesterolreducing properties were first
reported, several major food companies have either introduced or announced plans for products containing rice bran. Breakfast cereals and bread containing rice bran
are being produced and marketed. In addition, packaged rice bran is now available in many supermarkets.
For stabilized rice bran, insufficient information is available to adequately answer questions regarding optimum packaging systems, anticipated shelf life, and ingredient
storage requirements so as to avoid unexpected problems in the marketplace. Additionally, both extrusionstabilized and parboiled rice bran are being marketed. Due
to the inherent differences in lipolytic and oxidative characteristics of these brans, their performance in commercial distribution would be expected to differ. Storage
trials were initiated by a Riceland Foods research group to develop the data required to resolve these questions.
E—
Lipolysis and Oxidative Deterioration
Both lipolysis and oxidative deterioration of the lipids in bran occur during storage. In the presence of active lipase enzymes, lipolysis occurs very rapidly. The free fatty
acid content of rice bran is commonly determined by simple titration. Longchain free fatty acids formed during lipolysis of rice bran oil are not responsible for typical
rancid odors but are believed to impart an acidic or "soapy" taste.
Oxidative deterioration of fats generally occurs by a free radical mechanism. In the initiation step, an active hydrogen, especially in the presence of a metal catalyst such
as copper, is removed from a triglyceride to yield a free
Page 41
radical. The free radical can then combine with oxygen to form a peroxidefree radical, which removes hydrogen from another unsaturated molecule to yield a
peroxide and a new free radical. This propagation stage becomes a chain reaction and may continue until the free radicals react with each other to form inactive
products, leading to termination of the cycle.
Peroxides are the primary oxidation products. Peroxides are quite unstable and decompose into a range of secondary products including aldehydes, alcohols, and
ketones, which produce the typical rancid oil aroma. It is only during the initial stages of oxidative deterioration that peroxide value may be used to indicate oxidative
deterioration. Peroxide value is a term used to quantify the content, expressed in milliequivalents of peroxide per kilogram of sample, of all substances that oxidize
potassium iodide under specified conditions. In fat and oil testing, these substances are assumed to be peroxides or similar products of fat oxidation.
Storage and shelf life of fatbearing foods have been studied by a number of techniques that rely on a combination of analytical and sensory methods covering a series
of storage times and conditions (20). Sharp and Timme (19) coupled HPLC analysis for conjugated diene hydroperoxide (CDHP) with a duotrio sensory method for
offodor and offflavor in studying the shelf life of brown rice. Champagne et al. (17) monitored changes in ethanol treated (stabilized) brown rice by analysis for free
fatty acids (FFA) and CDHP. Shin et al. (21) cited nhexanal as the compound most responsible for stale flavor in rice and demonstrated the correlation (r = 0.99)
between levels of oxidized linoleic acid and nhexanal during storage of brown rice. Kroll et al. (22) utilized gas chromatographic analysis of headspace gas for lipid
oxidation products, particularly hexanal, to study storage changes in oatmeal cereals, tortilla chips, and soybean oil.
III—
Riceland Foods Storage Study
A—
Methodology
At Riceland Foods, lipolysis and oxidative deterioration of rice bran lipids were followed during storage. This study was designed to monitor changes in free fatty
acids, peroxide value (PV), and odor of two bran types stored in two packaging materials and at two storage temperatures over a period of one year. PV was chosen
to monitor oxidative changes since an increase in this value is the first indication of lipid oxidation. Variables are summarized in Table 1.
The extrusionstabilized bran used was processed through a Wenger TX80 twin screw cooker/extruder system. Extruder configuration and operating conditions that
would meet the criteria identified as "optimal stabiliza
Page 42
Table 1 Independent Variables in Riceland Rice Bran Storage Study
Variable
Bran type Extrusionstabilized
Parboiled
Packaging type Low barrier (2mil polyethylene, heatsealed)
High barrier (laminated 25lb paper outside, 7.5lb polyethylene,
0.00035inch aluminum foil, 15lb polyethylene inside, heatsealed)
Storage temperature 22°C
38°C
Storage time None (Initial)
1 Month
2 Months
3 Months
4 Months
6 Months
12 Months
tion conditions" reported by Randall et al. (14) were employed. Parboiled bran was randomly collected from the normal bran stream. Each bran sample was then split
into multiple 100g portions for packaging, storage, and subsequent analysis.
Weighed portions were filled into one of two types of flexible packaging material and the packages heatsealed. A 2mil polyethylene film similar to that commonly
used for packaging rice was used to represent a package having relatively low oxygen and water vapor barrier properties. Pouches formed with a laminate of 25lb
paper (outside), 7.5lb polyethylene, 0.00035inch aluminum foil, and 15lb polyethylene (inside) were used to represent packaging with high oxygen and vapor
barrier characteristics.
Onehalf of each package type was stored under ambient temperature (22°C) conditions. The other half of each package type was stored at 38°C. No humidity
control was applied, and all samples were stored in an unlighted environment.
Samples were analyzed at 0 (initial), 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12 months. Although no formal sensory panel was available, a team of five persons familiar with the evaluation of
lipidbearing products for rancidity and odor development was selected so that at least two of them could be used to assess the odor of samples prior to analysis at the
end of each storage period. Analysis consisted of determination of FFA as a percent of oil and PV as meq/kg of oil. Samples were prepared for analysis by extraction
of the oil from 100 g of bran using hexane at ambient temperature. The bran/
Page 43
solvent mixture was agitated periodically for 5 minutes, then allowed to stand until bran settling was essentially complete. The miscella was decanted and filtered to
remove the remaining fines. The solvent was then removed under aspirator vacuum at 70°C using a Brinkman Rotavapor. The resulting oil was analyzed for FFA and
PV by AOCS official methods Ca5a40 and Cd853, respectively (23).
B—
Results
Our results were consistent with earlier reports regarding lipolytic and oxidative characteristics of parboiled rice bran. As shown in Table 2, initial FFA levels were
slightly lower in parboiled bran than in extrusionstabilized bran. Conversely, peroxide values were initially much higher in parboiled bran and increased rapidly during
the first 4 months of storage. To confirm that the parboiled bran used in the storage test was typical, additional samples of a commercially marketed parboiled bran
were analyzed for FFA and PV with similar results. In general, both brans appeared to be quite stable to lipolytic activity. Additionally, the extrusionstabilized bran
showed good resistance to oxidation as measured by peroxide value.
Looking at the effects of packaging material type, data in Table 3 demonstrate that free fatty acid development was not materially influenced by the choice of
packaging, although highbarrier packaging generally tended to result in slightly higher free fatty acid levels in extrusion stabilized bran. As shown in Table 4, peroxide
values tended to rise in parboiled bran at similar rates through the first 2 months in both packages. But beyond this point, peroxide development leveled off in the high
barrier package, while
Table 2 Changes in Free Fatty Acid Content and Peroxide Value of
ExtrusionStabilized and Parboiled Rice Bran During Storagea
FFA (% oil basis) PV (meq/kg oil basis)
Storage time
(months) ESB PBB ESB PBB
0 4.0 2.4 4.0 26.7
ESB, Extrusionstabilized rice bran; PBB, parboiled rice bran.
Page 44
Table 3 Influence of Packaging Type Upon Changes in Free
Fatty Acid Content of ExtrusionStabilized and Parboiled Rice
Bran During Storagea
FFA (% oil basis)
ESB PBB
Storage time
(months) Poly Foil Poly Foil
0 4.0 4.0 2.4 2.4
Table 4 Influence of Packaging Type Upon Changes in
Peroxide Value of Extrusion Stabilized and Parboiled Rice Bran
During Storagea
PV (meq/kg oil basis)
ESB PBB
Storage time
(months) Poly Foil Poly Foil
0 4.0 4.0 26.7 26.7
continuing to rise in the lowbarrier package. It is speculated that oxygen availability became limiting in the highbarrier package. Peroxide value remained relatively
unchanged in extrusionstabilized bran regardless of packaging type through the first 6 months. However, a moderate increase occurred between 6 and 12 months in
the lowbarrier package.
Data presented in Table 5 indicate that storage temperature produced no clear effect on free fatty acid development in these enzymeinactivated
Page 45
Table 5 Effect of Storage Temperature Upon Changes in Free
Fatty Acid Content and Peroxide Value of Stabilized Rice Bran
During Storagea
FFA (% oil basis) PV (meq/kg oil
basis)
Storage time
(months) 22°C 38°C 22°C 38°C
0 3.2 3.2 15.4 15.4
Table 6 Summary of Observations from Informal Sensory Evaluations of Rice Bran
Storage Samples
Storage
Bran Packaging temperature
type type (°C) Observations
ESB Poly 22 No offodors noted through 12 months
ESB Poly 38 Rancid after 12 months
ESB Foil 22 Slight unidentified odor after 3 months; soapy
aroma after 4 months
ESB Foil 38 Slight unidentified odor after 3 months; soapy
aroma after 4 months
PBB Poly 22 No offodors noted through 12 months
PBB Poly 38 Rancid after 4 months; secondstrongest rancid
odor after 12 months
PBB Foil 22 Soapy aroma after 4 months; progressed to rancid
odor at 12 months
PBB Foil 38 Slight unidentified odor after 3 months; soapy
aroma after 4 months; strongest rancid odor of all
samples after 12 months
samples, but that storage at 38°C clearly accelerated the formation of peroxides. As noted earlier, increases in peroxide value were limited almost totally to parboiled
bran.
Interestingly, no readily apparent offodors were noted in either bran type during the 12 months of storage at 22°C in lowbarrier poly bags (Table 6).
Page 46
The data for peroxide value indicate that substantial oxidation occurred in the parboiled bran stored under these conditions. It is unclear why odor was not detected at
any of the evaluation times. Since only secondary oxidative reactions generate compounds responsible for offodor, the permeable nature of the poly packaging may
have resulted in nondetection of odor. All other samples developed some type of agerelated odor, in some cases as soon as 3 months after storage. "Soapy" was the
word most frequently used to describe aromas noted in the extrusion stabilized bran, while "sour" or "rancid" were often used in describing aromas in parboiled bran
samples. While no specific pattern was apparent, samples stored at 38°C tended to develop earlier and more intense offodors. When individual sample data for free
fatty acid and peroxide values were compared, a loose relationship appeared to exist. Due to the nature of oxidative changes in lipids involving primary and secondary
reactions and the fact that peroxides are not directly responsible for offodors, effort to establish a precise correlation was not practical. Nevertheless, the monitoring
of free fatty acid levels and peroxide value is an effective means of following chemical changes in rice bran products during storage.
C—
Discussion
Results of this study have generally confirmed previous reports (10,12–14,16) and may provide practical guidance for the storage, packaging, and utilization of
stabilized rice bran as a food ingredient. As indicated by relatively stable free fatty acid levels, lipase was inactive in both extrusionstabilized and parboiled rice bran.
Extrusionstabilized bran demonstrated good oxidative stability. Parboiled bran, however, proved to be quite susceptible to oxidative deterioration.
Highbarrier packaging does not appear to be necessary for storage of extrusionstabilized bran. In fact, our results suggest that lowbarrier packaging may be better
for this type of bran so that volatile reaction products may escape, rather than accumulating to detectable undesirable odor levels. Conversely, barrier packaging may
be more important for storage of parboiled bran, although barrier packaging alone did not prevent oxidation. Gasimpermeable packaging, coupled with a controlled
atmosphere (nitrogen flush) or the addition of antioxidants to replace those presumably lost or destroyed during parboiling, could provide satisfactory results.
Additional studies are required.
Storage temperature appeared to have little effect on the rate of free fatty acid development. In parboiled bran, elevated storage temperatures accelerated peroxide
formation. In addition, storage at 38°C tended to accelerate the development of undesirable odors.
Page 47
IV—
Summary
It appears that properly processed extrusionstabilized rice bran may be safely stored for up to one year at 22°C in gaspermeable packaging. Parboiled rice bran
would require additional protective measures to achieve a similar storage life. The maximum safe storage life of parboiled bran appears to be 3–4 months. Addition of
antioxidants and/or the use of controlled atmosphere packaging may effectively extend its storage life, but further research is required before specific recommendations
for storage of parboiled rice bran are appropriate.
References
1. Kahlon, T. S., Saunders, R. M., Chow, F. I., Chiu, M. C., and Betschart, A. A. (1989). Influence of rice, oat and wheat bran on plasma cholesterol in hamsters.
FASEB J., 3:958A.
2. Hegsted, M., Windhauser, M. M., Lester, S. B., and Morris, S. K. (1990). Rice bran and oat bran lower cholesterol in humans. FASEB J., 4:368A.
3. Juliano, B. O. (1985). Rice bran, Rice: Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), AACC, St. Paul, MN, p. 654.
4. Sayre, R. N., Earl, L., Kratzer, F. H., and Saunders, R. M. (1987). Nutritional qualities of stabilized and raw rice bran for chicks. Poultry Sci., 66:493.
5. Choudhury, N. H., and Juliano, B. O. (1980). Lipids in developing and mature rice grain. Phytochemistry, 19:1063.
6. Aizono, Y., Funatsu, M., Sugano, M., Hayashi, K., and Fujiki, Y. (1973). Enzymatic properties of rice bran lipase. Agric. Biol. Chem., 37:2031.
7. Matsuda, H., and Hirayama, O. (1975). Purification and characterization of lipolytic acylhydrolases from rice endosperm. Nippon Nogei Kagaku Kaishi, 49:577.
8. DeLucca, A. J. II, Plating, S. J., and Ory, R. L. (1978). Isolation and identification of lipolytic microorganisms found on rough rice from two growing areas. J.
Food. Prot., 41:28.
9. Sayre, R. N., Saunders, R. M., Enochian, R. V., Schultz, W. G., and Beagle, E. C. (1982). Review of rice bran stabilization systems with emphasis on extrusion
cooking. Cereal Foods World, 27:317.
10. Loeb, J. R., Morris, N. J., and Dollear, F. G. (1949). Rice bran oil. IV. Storage of the bran as it affects hydrolysis of the oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 26:738.
11. Roberts, R. L., Van Atta, G. R., Hunter, I. R., Houston, D. F., Kester, E. B., and Olcott, H. S. (1949). Steam blanching of fresh rough rice curbs spoilage by
fatty acids. Food Ind., 21:1041.
12. Shaheen, A. B., El Dash, A. A., and El Shirbeeny, A. E. (1975). Effect of parboiling rice on the rate of lipid hydrolysis and deterioration of rice bran. Cereal
Chem., 52:1.
Page 48
13. Sowbhagya, C. M., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1976). Lipid autoxidation in rice. J. Food Sci., 41:1018.
14. Randall, J. M., Sayre, R. N., Schultz, W. G., Fong, R. Y., Mossman, A. P., Tribelhorn, R. E., and Saunders, R. M. (1985). Rice bran stabilization by extrusion
cooking for extraction of edible oil. J. Food Sci., 50:361.
15. Anthoni Raj, S., and Singaravadivel, K. (1982). Reduction in free fatty acids due to parboiling of paddy. J. Food Sci., 47:692.
16. Houston, D. F., Hunter, I. R., McComb, E. A., and Kester, E. B. (1954). Deteriorative changes in the oil fraction of stored parboiled rice. J. Agric. Food
Chem., 2:1185.
17. Champagne, E. T., Hron, R. J., and Abraham, G. (1991). Stabilizing brown rice products by aqueous ethanol extraction. Cereal Chem., 68:267.
18. Kelly, V. K. (1979). Stabilization of rice polish. U.S. Patent 4,158,066.
19. Sharp, R. N., and Timme, L. K. (1986). Effects of storage time, storage temperature, and packaging method on shelf life of brown rice. Cereal Chem., 63:247.
20. McCormick, R. (1984). Prediction of rancidity essential when extending shelf life of processed foods. Prepared Foods, (Feb. 1984):111.
21. Shin, M. G., Yoon, S. H., Rhee, J. S., and Kwon, T. (1986). Correlation between oxidative deterioration of unsaturated lipid and nhexanal during storage of
brown rice, J. Food Sci., 51:460.
22. Kroll, R. D., Dennis, M. R., and Hether, N. W. (1989). Determination of volatile compounds in cereal foods by dynamic headspace analysis. Cereal Foods
World, 34:775.
23. American Oil Chemists Society. (1987). Official and Tentative Methods, 3rd ed. The American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL.
Page 49
4—
Effect of Storage on the Physicochemical Properties and Quality Factors of Rice
Joseph Chrastil
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
Storage of rice is a normal step between harvest and consumption. Storage conditions (temperature, time, and moisture) may differ significantly. In the United States,
rice storage is required to change certain physicochemical properties of the rice, such as stickiness, from a sticky to a relatively nonsticky product after cooking.
Storage temperatures, moisture content, and storage times vary between 10 and 35°C, 10 and 15% water, and 2 and 24 months, respectively. In this chapter we will
report changes in physicochemical and quality factors of rice grains that occur during postharvest storage. These changes influence the chemical, physical, and
functional qualities of rice. Storageinduced aging has both desirable and undesirable effects on the end product, depending on storage conditions and rice variety.
Aging changes are the result of the physicochemical interactions among rice components and enzymic reactions involving protein, starch, and lipid. Generally, the outer
(aleurone) layers of the rice grains are more susceptible to these changes than the inner (endosperm) layers. Storage changes are temperature dependent. The changes
probably start during field drying of the rice and after harvest (1). Many of the physicochemical and functional changes that occur during storage, such as swelling,
water uptake by cooking, cooking time, stickiness after cooking, and dough leavening, are
Page 50
TABLE 1 Changes in Reducing, Nonreducing, and Total Sugar Contents of Milled Rice During Airtight Storage.
Comparison of Changes in Outer Layer, Nucleus, and Entire Kernel
Outer layer Residual nucleus Entire kernel
Moisture
Milling content Temper Before After 5 Before After 5 Before After 5
(%) (%) ature (°C) storage months storage months storage months
Reducing sugars (g maltose/100 g rice, d.b.)
Nonreducing sugars (g sucrose/100 g rice, d.b.)
Total sugars (%)
Source: Ref. 17.
Page 51
caused by proteinstarch interactions (2–6). Other changes due to aging are not yet fully understood.
II—
Physicochemical Changes in Rice Components
A—
Carbohydrates
Reducing sugars (maltose) increase and nonreducing sugars (sucrose) decrease during storage (7–13, 17) (Table 1). The degradation of carbohydrates to CO2 is
usually very small, but it may become significant at moisture content > 14% (12,14,15) (Table 2). The changes in free carbohydrate content are greatly influenced by
temperature. Maillard's browning reaction between free carbohydrates and free amino acids may play a significant role in CO2 formation. Nonreducing carbohydrates,
free fatty acids, and germination activity are closely related (16–18).
B—
Starch
Starch in rice grains is concentrated mainly in the endosperm. Total starch content does not change significantly during storage (4,12,17,19–23), however, some small
changes in starch properties have been observed (18,24). The changes in molecular weight of starch and its components (amylose and amylopectin), although small,
may be significant (4,15,17,25,26) (Table 3).
Table 2 Changes in CO2 Concentration in Intergranular Air During Airtight Storage of Milled Rice
Storage conditions
CO2
Moisture Temperature
content (%) (°C) Dec. 13 Jan. 23 Feb. 14 March 7 May 8 May 29
13.0 +5 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.08
13.0 +25 0.06 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
13.0 +35 0.06 0.9 1.1 1.2 2.0 2.8
14.3 +5 — 0.09 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.09
14.3 +25 — 0.3 0.4 0.6 2.4 7.2
14.3 +35 — 10.6 12.2 10.3 13.3 13.3
15.7 +5 — 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
15.7 +25 — 8.3 8.9 9.4 11.2 12.3
15.7 +35 — 13.2 16.9 15.7 16.6 17.8
Source: Ref. 12.
Page 52
Table 3 Molecular Weightsa of Rice Oryzenin and Starch Components
M( ), M(s), M( ), M(u),
Rice ( ), mP ×105 S ×105 , nm ×105 ×105
Oryzenin
mediumgrain rice
control 0.094 1.03 6.52 1.19 1.2
longgrain rice
control 0.096 1.22 6.98 1.33 1.2
Amylose
mediumgrain rice
control 0.356 1.24 4.80 1.15 612 1.20
4°C 0.352 1.18 4.86 1.18 611 1.16
40°C 0.341 1.03 4.50 1.02 608 1.04
longgrain rice
control 0.375 1.55 5.40 1.45 619 1.53
4°C 0.370 1.46 5.45 1.47 618 1.48
40°C 0.346 1.10 4.66 1.09 609 1.08
Amylopectin
mediumgrain rice
control 0.750 29.9 26.06 31.0
4°C 0.756 31.0 26.64 31.1
40°C 0.762 32.0 27.15 32.3
longgrain rice
control 0.720 25.2 23.70 24.8
4°C 0.723 25.6 23.80 25.0
40°C 0.757 31.2 26.67 31.2
Starch
mediumgrain rice
control 0.718 24.9 23.95 23.3 25
longgrain rice
control 0.680 19.7 21.70 21.0 20
Page 53
The average molecular weight of starch slightly increased during storage at higher storage temperatures (25–40°C). In these experiments the increase was caused
mainly by the increased molecular weight of amylopectin, because the molecular weight of amylose slightly decreased (see Table 3). Thus, depending on rice variety
and storage conditions, the average molecular weight of starch might increase or decrease. These changes are small but real and are probably caused by starch
synthesis or degradation within the kernel by, for example, amylases, Qenzyme, Renzyme, etc.
C—
Proteins
Although the proteins are more concentrated in outer layers (aleurone and/or bran) of rice grains, significant amounts are present also in endosperm (polished rice)
(Table 4). Total protein content does not change significantly during storage (4,12,19,21–23,27,28). On the other hand, the chemical and physicochemical properties
of proteins (especially of the rice storage protein oryzenin (glutelin), which constitutes more than 80–90% of the total protein) change significantly during storage
(12,22,27,29–35).
The resistance to proteases increased and the solubility of protein fractions decreased during storage (4,12,27,28,36) (Table 5). Small changes of the
albumin:globulin:prolamin:glutelin (oryzenin) ratio have been found during storage (28), especially at higher storage temperatures where a marked decrease in amino
acids was also found (Table 6) (10,12,28,30,37). The free amino acids and carbohydrates were related to the Maillard's nonenzymic browning as determined by color
changes in rice during storage (Fig. 1).
The molecular weight and the number of SS bridges (4,6,35,38) in oryzenin increased significantly during storage, especially at higher storage temperatures. After
one year of storage at 40°C the average molecular weight of oryzenin (measured after extraction and purification) had doubled in both medium and longgrain rice
varieties (see Table 3).
Simultaneously, the binding capacity of oryzenin for starch or its components decreased (Table 7). The composition of oryzenin subunits changed to higher molecular
weight subunits during storage (Table 8). These oryzeninstarch interactions were correlated with several functional properties of rice.
D—
Enzymes
The apparent initial velocities of rice enzymes frequently decreased during storage (12,33,34,39–45) (Table 9), but this fact was misleading because the specific
activities of many enzymes did not decrease (33,34) (Tables 10–12).
Page 54
Table 4 Chemical Composition of Outer Layer, Nucleus, and Entire Kernel of Milled Rice
Outer Entire
Constituent Unit layer Nucleus kernel Ref.
Starch % 61.86 92.00 90.68 64
Amylose % 16.12 29.85 29.46 64
Reducing sugars g maltose/100 g rice 0.50 0.07 0.12 4
Nonreducing sugars g sucrose/100 g rice 2.42 0.11 0.26 4
Total sugars % 2.92 0.18 0.38 4
Fiber % 1.47 0.22 0.28 38
Total N g N/100 g rice 2.53 1.27 1.39 71
Nonprotein N g N/100 g rice 0.04 0.018 0.019 71
Protein N g N/100 g rice 2.49 1.25 1.37 71
Albumin g (N × 5.95)/100 g rice 1.75 0.29 0.30 71
Globulin g (N × 5.95)/100 g rice 1.12 0.60 0.67 71
Prolamin g (N × 5.95)/100 g rice 0.72 0.22 0.25 71
Glutelin g (N × 5.95)/100 g rice 7.93 5.05 5.25 71
Insoluble fraction g (N × 5.95)/100 g rice 3.28 1.48 1.69 71
Free amino N mg/100 g 25.11 2.55 3.40 71
Alphaamylase SKB units/g rice 1.0 0.07 0.1 1
Betaamylase mg maltose/g rice 223.8 31.2 44.9 1
Protease hemoglobin units/g rice 6.0 0.6 0.9 1
Total lipids % 4.44 0.45 0.66 1
Free fatty acids % 1.34 0.15 0.21 1
Neutral fats % 2.53 0.26 0.38 1
Phospholipids % 0.57 0.04 0.07 1
Thiamine mg/100 g 0.797 0.047 0.081 64
Riboflavin mg/100 g 0.075 0.019 0.022 64
Niacin mg/100 g 9.270 0.885 1.264 64
Pyridoxine mg/100 g 1.185 0.080 0.128 43
Ash % 6.10 0.45 0.72 19
Calcium % 0.359 0.007 0.023 64
Iron % 0.028 — 0.001 19
Phosphorus % 1.022 0.099 0.140 64
Source: Ref. 12.
The decrease of the initial velocities could be explained by specific reversible substrate binding (33,46).
Substratebinding proteins inactivated the substrates so that they could not be converted to products. The amount of these ''blocking" proteins increased during
storage, which resulted in an apparent inhibition of the enzymic activities when measured by initial velocities. However, the spe
Page 55
Table 5 Changes in Protein Solubility Fractions of Milled Rice During Airtight Storage.
Comparison of Changes in Outer Layer, Nucleus, and Entire Kernel
After 5 months
Albumins, %, d.b
Entire kernel 0.30 0.38 0.25 0.18
Globulins, %, d.b.
Entire kernel 0.67 0.57 0.59 0.45
Prolamins, %, d.b.
Entire kernel 0.25 0.14 0.08 0.13
Glutelins, %, d.b.
Entire kernel 5.25 4.90 4.81 3.74
Total soluble, %, d.b.
Entire kernel 6.47 5.99 5.73 4.50
Insoluble, %, d.b.
Entire kernel 1.68 1.87 1.98 3.11
% Extraction yield
Entire kernel 79.3 76.1 74.3 59.0
Source: Ref. 12.
cific activities and the enzyme content remained unchanged during storage. Thus, these substrateinhibiting proteins protected the enzymes and simultaneously
depressed their apparent activities.
E—
Lipids
Most of the lipids in rice grains are concentrated in the outer layers (aleurone and/or bran). During aging the lipids and/or phospholipids are
Page 56
Figure 1
Color changes in polished rice during airtight storage. Stored
at (. . . .) 20, () +5, (∙∙) +25, and (—) +35°C, respectively;
( ) 15.6% moisture. L, a, b =
color parameters.
(From Ref. 12.)
hydrolyzed and/or oxidized to free fatty acids and/or peroxides. This causes increased acidity and a markedly increased deterioration of taste and flavor and
production of rancid odors. Several kinds of lipases, lipoxidases, esterases, phospholipases, and/or phosphatases are involved in this process (47,48).
The intermediates of the lipid oxidation are organic peroxides, which decompose further to the final products: aldehydes, ketones, ketoacids, or carboxylic acids.
These reactions occur more frequently in the outer (aleurone and/or bran) layers of the rice grains, because these layers con
Page 57
Table 6 Changes in the Free Amino Nitrogen Content of Milled Rice During Airtight
Storage. Comparison of Changes in Outer Layer, Nucleus, and Entire Kernel
Storage conditions
Free amino N (mg/100 g rice, d.b.)
Moisture
content Temperature (° Residual
(%, d.b.) C) Outer layer nucleus Entire kernel
Undermilled rices (7.7% milling)
15.6 20 46.0 4.3 9.8
Wellmilled rices (12.0% milling)
15.5 20 17.7 3.2 4.7
Source: Ref. 28.
tain most of the lipids. In wellpolished rice grains, which contain only a fraction of the lipids, this phenomenon is less important (49,50).
Free fatty acids and other lipid degradation products increase during storage (10,12,15,27,32,50–59) (Table 13). Phospholipids decomposed during storage of rice
mostly to phosphatidic acid, which consequently changed the properties of pherosome membranes (37). Tocopherols, natural antioxidants, inhibit the lipid
deterioration in rice (60).
Because rice bran contains relatively large amounts of lipids and lipolytic enzymes, its deterioration during storage is very fast (37,85,103–105). Rice bran is usually
used for animal feed and/or rice oil extraction (85). Several methods have been proposed for reducing the storage deterioration of bran and/or rice oil. Most of these
are based on the heat or chemical denaturation of the enzymes present in the bran (59,102,103–116) (Table 14). With decreased moisture content, higher
temperatures must be used to inactivate the enzymes (117).
Page 58
Table 7 Interactions of Oryzenin with Starch Components from Rice
Ricea Keqb n m n:mc rd
Amylose + oryzenin
mediumgrain rice
control 0.041 0.265 0.107 2.48 0.997
longgrain rice
control 0.025 0.155 0.101 1.53 0.998
Amylopectin + oryzenin
mediumgrain rice
control 0.025 0.264 0.115 2.30 0.998
longgrain rice
control 0.013 0.150 0.103 1.45 0.997
Starch + oryzenin
mediumgrain rice
control 0.054 0.268 0.099 2.70 0.999
longgrain rice
control 0.035 0.150 0.098 1.53 0.997
Source: Ref. 4.
Rice oil is usually prepared by solvent extraction of bran, which produces higher yields than pressing alone (85,104,108,113) (see Chapter 16). Enzyme inactivation
by heating or cooking is often a part of the extraction process. The extracted oil is refined by a variety of different methods, such as alkali extraction of free fatty acids,
phospholipids, and some gums; filtering and centrifuging to remove waxes and gums; bleaching to improve color; steam deodorizing to improve flavor; and low
pressure distillation to
Page 59
Table 8 Peptide Subunits in Oryzenin from Postharvest and Stored Ricea
stored (S) rice.
cP is the Pstatistic for the probability that postharvest rice was different from stored rice.
dL(P) and L(S) are the average molecular weights of longgrain postharvest (P) and stored
(S) rice.
Source: Ref. 35.
remove free fatty acids. Refined oil is usually stable when stored because it contains only small quantities of unsaturated fatty acids and has a high content of
tocopherols (114).
F—
Vitamins
Rice grains contain several important vitamins (12) (see Table 4). Most of them are concentrated in outer layers (aleurone and/or bran). During storage some vitamins
are lost (13,19,27,60–62). The deterioration of vitamins depends on storage conditions. Under normal storage conditions the loss of, for example, riboflavin or niacin
does not exceed 5%. On the other hand, the loss of thiamine is usually much higher (up to 30%) (13,19,27,62).
III—
Changes in Quality Factors
A—
Storage Gases and Color
Replacing air by inert gases made little difference in the composition and physicochemical properties of rice during storage (63,64). The color of
Page 60
Table 9 Changes in the AlphaAmylase, BetaAmylase, and Proteolytic Activities of Milled Rice During Airtight Storage.
Comparison of Changes in Outer Layer, Nucleus, and Entire Kernel
Proteolytic activity
Alphaamylase activity (SKB Betaamylase activity (hemoglobin units/g rice,
Storage conditions units/g rice, d.b.) (mg maltose/g rice, d.b.) d.b.)
Moisture
content Temperature Outer Residual Entire Outer Residual Entire Outer Residual Entire
(%) (°C) layer nucleus kernel layer nucleus kernel layer nucleus kernel
13.0 +5 0.65 0.07 0.11 223.81 31.26 44.89 5.77 0.61 1.12
13.0 +25 0.47 0.08 0.13 216.00 32.13 42.17 5.36 0.57 1.08
13.0 +35 0.86 0.06 0.11 148.06 19.43 27.11 4.22 0.53 0.91
14.3 +5 — — — — — — — — —
14.3 +25 0.62 0.09 0.14 192.22 11.83 25.16 4.23 0.61 1.12
14.3 +35 0.38 0.03 0.06 88.20 15.88 20.34 3.89 0.44 0.77
Source: Ref. 12.
Page 61
Table 10 Kinetic Constantsa of Protease and Amylase from Stored Riceb
Protease Amylase
10 months 10 months
0 month 0 month
4°C 4°C 25°C 37°C 4°C 4°C 25°C 37°C
Long Grain
Pmax, A 0.247 0.217 0.192 0.170 0.240 0.230 0.220 0.185
Medium Grain
Pmax, A 0.150 0.130 0.125 0.115 0.230 0.175 0.160 0.120
Short Grain
Pmax, A 0.346 0.309 0.255 0.245 0.240 0.199 0.165 0.140
Source: Refs. 33, 34.
polished rice did not change significantly during lowtemperature storage but increased considerably at higher storage temperatures (3,17,55,63) (Table 15).
Petroleum ether extraction improved rice color during storage (22).
B—
Water Uptake and Solids Loss
Water uptake by cooked rice grains increased during storage (3,5,10–13,22–24,27,55,63,65–68), especially at higher storage temperatures (Table 15), but the loss
of solids during cooking decreased during storage (12,15,55,67) (Table 16).
Page 62
Table 11 Kinetic Constantsa of Peroxidase and Cytochrome c Reductase from Stored Riceb
Peroxidase Cyt c reductase
10 months 10 months
0 month 4° 0 month 4°
C 4°C 25°C 37°C C 4°C 25°C 37°C
Long Grain
Medium Grain
Short Grain
formed); k is the specific rate constant; V0 is the initial velocity; n is the heterogeneous diffusion resistance; and r
is the correlation coefficient.
bRice was cooled to 4°C, then stored for 10 months at 4, 25, and 37°C.
Source: Refs. 33, 34.
C—
Starch Properties
Gelatinization temperature of polished rice, determined by amylography as a 10% slurry, did not change (12,15,23,70,71), but the supercooling temperature of rice
starch or rice flour gels decreased during storage (72) (Table 17).
Page 63
Table 12 Kinetic Constantsa of Phosphatase and Phospholipase C from Stored Riceb
Phosphatase Phospholipase C
10 months 10 months
MediumGrain
ShortGrain
product formed); k is the specific rate constant; V0 is the initial velocity; n is the heterogeneous diffusion
resistance; and r is the correlation coefficient.
bRice was cooled to 4°C, then stored for 10 months at 4, 25 and 37°C.
Source: Refs. 33, 34.
D—
Kernel Hardness and Swelling
Tensile strength and the crushing or breaking hardness of rice grains increased during storage (19,69). Swelling of rice grains also increased during storage, especially
at higher storage temperatures (3,5) (Table 18).
Page 64
Table 13 Changes in Lipids and Lipid Fraction Content of Milled Rice During Airtight
Storage. Comparison of Changes in Outer Layer, Nucleus, and Entire Kernel
Total lipids
Storage conditions (%, d.b.)
Moisture
content Temperature Residual
(%) (°C) Outer layer nucleus Entire kernel
13.0 +5 4.43 0.47 0.67
Free fatty acids (%, d.b.)
Neutral fats (%, d.b.)
Phospholipids (%, d.b.)
13.0 +5 0.54 0.04 0.08
Source: Ref. 12.
The increased hardness during storage resulted in increased flour milling yields (22) and in changes in the particle size distribution after milling (3) (Table 19). Bulk
density of rice flours and water uptake by rice flours increased during storage, especially at higher storage temperatures (3) (Table 18).
Page 65
Table 14 Storage Characteristics of Rice Bran at 25°C After Various
Heat Treatments
Free faty acid content (%)
Treatment time Temperature (°
(hr) C) After 25 days After 50 days
None — 54 85
1 70 18 25
3 70 6 8
1 85 25 36
3 85 4 5
1 100 5 8
3 100 4 4
1 110 4 7
3 110 4 4
Source: Ref. 102.
Table 15 Color, Water Absorption, and Dough Leavening of Flours from Stored Ricea
Storage
temperature
Rice type (°C) Fresh Stored Fresh Stored Fresh Stored
Longgrain, brown 4 2.1 8.6 65 68 40 43
25 9.7 83 43
37 11.3 94 45
Longgrain, 4 1.5 5.4 62 67 26 28
polished 25 5.9 81 30
37 8.4 90 35
Mediumgrain, 4 2.9 9.0 64 68 36 39
brown 25 11.3 80 40
37 15.4 91 42
Mediumgrain, 4 1.4 6.0 73 78 43 47
polished 25 6.2 87 51
37 7.2 92 56
Shortgrain, brown 4 2.8 11.8 75 80 43 47
25 12.9 82 50
37 14.0 84 57
Shortgrain, 4 2.2 10.5 61 67 41 46
polished 25 11.2 75 52
37 12.0 81 57
aRice was cooled to 4°C, then stored for 10 months at the temperatures indicated.
bColor values are given as the Hunterlab ''b" value.
Source: Ref. 3.
Page 66
Table 16 Changes in Water Absorption and Total Solids in Residual Cooking Liquids During Airtight
Storage of Milled Rice
Storage conditions Water absorption Residual solids
(g water/100 g rice) (g/100 g rice)
Moisture
content Temper Feb Feb
(%) ature (°C) ruary April July October ruary April July October
13.0 +5 256 269 284 291 6.4 6.6 6.7 6.6
13.0 +25 256 277 317 291 6.4 6.4 5.8 5.3
13.0 +35 256 283 307 304 6.4 5.0 4.9 4.6
14.3 +5 258 272 284 273 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.2
14.3 +35 258 286 309 311 6.3 4.0 3.4 3.1
15.7 +5 262 270 291 287 6.1 5.8 6.3 6.4
15.7 +25 262 271 304 304 6.1 5.8 5.7 5.2
15.7 +35 262 288 302 288 6.1 3.4 2.9 2.6
Source: Ref. 12.
Table 17 Supercooling of Starch from Fresh and Storeda Rice Grains
Starch composition
Storage
Rice variety (months) Amylose (%) Amylopectin (%) Tb(°C)
Mercury 0 17.0 83.0 7.2
6 17.5 82.5 6.4
E—
Cooking Properties
Cooking time increased during storage (3,12,13,67,73–77) but the number of broken grains after cooking decreased (3,5,66) (Table 20). Stickiness of cooked rice
grains decreases during storage, especially at higher storage temperatures (2–6,22,68,73–75,78–85) (Table 20). The relative decrease in stickiness in different rice
varieties was proportional to the stickiness (3–6). As a result, there was a leveling trend observed in different varieties after sufficient storage time. The varietal
differences in stickiness observed in
Page 67
Table 18 Moisture Content and Swelling of Grains and Bulk Density of Flours from Stored a Rice
Bulk density
Moisture con Swelling of flour (g/
tent (%) (%) cm3)
Storage
temperature
Rice type (°C) Fresh Stored Fresh Stored Fresh Stored
Longgrain, brown 4 11.6 11.5 20.0 21.2 0.78 0.79
25 11.0 23.1 0.81
37 11.2 25.8 0.84
Longgrain, 4 10.2 10.2 22.6 24.1 0.92 0.94
polished 25 10.4 27.6 0.95
37 10.0 37.9 0.98
Mediumgrain, 4 12.2 12.2 22.7 24.2 0.80 0.82
brown 25 12.0 32.3 0.87
37 12.0 37.3 0.94
Mediumgrain, 4 12.4 12.1 33.6 35.9 1.01 1.03
polished 25 12.1 39.3 1.04
37 12.0 46.2 1.06
Shortgrain, brown 4 10.5 10.5 40.8 46.7 0.95 0.96
25 10.4 46.3 0.97
37 10.6 46.4 0.99
Shortgrain, 4 11.0 11.2 36.1 37.9 1.21 1.22
polished 25 11.4 41.4 1.23
37 11.9 46.7 1.23
aRice was cooled to 4°C (fresh), then stored for 10 months at the storage temperature indicated.
Source: Ref. 3.
rice before storage became low after storage in all varieties. Dough leavening of rice flours increased during storage, especially at higher storage temperatures (3–6)
(Table 15).
Other viscoelastic properties, as determined by amylography, changed significantly during storage of rice (12,15,22,23,55,57,68,71,86,87). The peak viscosity of an
amylogram was influenced by lipids and their degradation products (86–92). Lipid extraction by methanol, ethyl ether, hexane, or petroleum ether eliminated some
viscoelastic differences caused by storage (12,18,22,55,56,93,94), but defatting of aged rice did not change the viscoelastic properties (56). Thus, the role of lipids in
changes due to storage is not clear (84).
Curing resulted in accelerated aging of rice grains (75,95), but its effects were greatly diminished by lipid extraction with ether (12,15) (Table 21).
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Table 19 Particle Size Distribution of Flours from Storeda Rice Grains
Particle size ( m)b
Storage
temperature Average
Rice type (°C) 3 8 11 15 22 30 40 60 80 size ( m)
Longgrain, brown Control 7.0 43.0 14.1 7.0 18.3 8.7 1.4 0.5 0.1 13.5
4 7.1 42.9 14.3 7.1 18.4 8.4 1.2 0.5 0.1 13.7
25 7.2 43.2 14.5 7.2 19.1 7.0 0.8 0.5 0.1 13.4
37 7.4 44.1 14.7 7.4 10.2 5.9 0.6 0.7 0.1 11.2
Longgrain, polished Control 6.5 38.5 12.8 6.5 14.7 12.3 6.7 2.0 0.2 16.7
4 6.5 38.7 12.9 6.5 14.7 12.4 6.5 1.8 0.2 16.5
25 6.5 39.2 13.1 6.5 14.9 12.2 6.1 1.4 0.2 16.1
37 6.5 39.2 13.1 6.5 18.6 11.8 3.3 0.9 0.1 15.3
Mediumgrain, brown Control 6.5 39.2 13.0 6.6 21.3 11.1 1.5 0.4 0.1 14.8
4 6.6 39.3 13.1 6.6 21.5 11.2 1.4 0.4 0.04 14.7
25 6.5 39.3 13.2 6.6 21.0 11.7 1.4 0.3 0.1 14.7
37 7.0 43.0 14.0 7.4 18.0 8.8 1.2 0.5 0.1 13.8
Mediumgrain, Control 3.6 22.1 7.3 3.7 11.8 20.4 14.7 14.6 1.9 28.0
polished 4 3.7 22.2 7.4 3.7 11.7 20.5 14.6 14.6 1.6 27.9
25 3.5 22.0 7.8 3.9 11.5 20.0 15.1 14.0 2.2 28.0
37 4.1 24.6 8.2 4.1 12.9 17.2 12.9 14.6 1.6 26.8
Shortgrain, brown Control 7.4 42.9 14.9 7.1 18.9 7.3 0.9 0.5 0.1 13.4
4 7.3 43.0 14.8 7.2 19.3 6.8 0.9 0.4 0.1 13.3
25 7.8 49.2 15.1 7.5 15.0 4.2 0.6 0.5 0.1 12.1
37 7.6 49.4 15.0 7.7 15.2 4.2 0.4 0.5 0.1 12.1
Shortgrain, polished Control 4.8 27.8 9.4 4.6 10.4 14.6 10.4 16.0 2.0 26.1
4 4.7 28.0 9.3 4.7 10.5 14.7 10.1 16.1 1.8 26.0
25 4.8 27.8 9.4 4.5 10.7 14.5 10.6 16.0 2.0 26.2
37 5.3 27.8 10.6 5.3 8.0 14.0 9.8 13.5 1.5 23.9
aRice was cooled to 4°C (Control), then stored for 10 months at the storage temperature indicated.
bParticle size values are the weight percent of four fractions on top of the sieves of different particle sizes.
Source: Ref. 3.
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Table 20 Water Absorption, Breakdown, and Stickiness of Cooked Rice from Storeda Rice Grains
Storage
temperature
Rice type (°C) Fresh Stored Fresh Stored Fresh Stored Fresh Stored Stored
Longgrain, brown 4 120 126 23 25 16 14 0.7 0.5 0.1
25 134 26 12 0.5 0.1
37 138 30 8 0.4 0.1
Longgrain, polished 4 129 134 19 20 17 14 1.4 1.0 0.4
25 139 22 13 0.9 0.3
37 140 25 11 0.6 0.2
Mediumgrain, brown 4 117 123 18 20 2 1 0.4 0.3 0.2
25 124 20 1 0.3 0.1
37 126 25 0 0.2 0.1
Mediumgrain, 4 123 128 14 15 20 16 15.1 10.0 4.3
polished 25 130 17 16 8.0 2.8
37 135 20 14 5.0 0.8
Shortgrain, brown 4 120 125 25 30 15 11 1.3 1.0 0.3
25 128 31 9 0.8 0.2
37 135 35 6 0.6 0.1
Shortgrain, polished 4 125 131 20 25 17 14 5.2 4.0 0.8
25 134 25 10 3.0 0.4
37 138 30 3 2.0 0.2
aRice was cooled to 4°C (fresh), then stored for 10 months at the storage temperature indicated.
bStickiness was measured as
max , which is the frequency curve mode for clusters formed by cooking rice grains.
Source: Ref. 3.
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Table 21 Effects of Defatting Prior to Curing on the Amylogram Characteristics of Rice Flour and Rice Starch
Methanol ex
tracted ethyl
Ethyl ether ether defatted
Undefatted rice defatted rice rice
Characteristics Uncured Cured Uncured Cured Uncured Cured
Rice Flour amylogram
Gelatinization 87.0 83.0 86.0 82.0 77.0 76.5
temperature, °C
Rice starch amylogram
Gelatinization 69.0 69.0 69.0 70.0 — —
temperature, °C
Source: Ref. 12.
Accelerated aging was also accomplished by heating rice grains to 110°C in sealed containers (66,96).
Defatting polished rice by hexane, which removed most of the lipids, did not improve the cooking qualities (94) after storage, but improved the flavor.
F—
Odor and Flavor
Odor and flavor usually change during storage of rice even under airtight conditions (12,42) (Fig. 2). The presence of offflavor is more easily detected in cooked
samples, although the types of offflavor are better identified in uncooked samples. Aldehydes and ketones were identified as sources of offflavors (22,68,97–101).
The offflavor samples also contained methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide (102). During storage, hydrogen
sulfide, dimethyl sulfide, and sulfur dioxide decreased, but methyl mercaptan did not change. Most of these volatiles are lipid, amino acid, or vitamin decomposition
products. For example, it was found that the typical flavor of cooked
Page 71
Figure 2
Development of offodors during airtight storage of polished
rice. The strength of perception is shown by the degree to
which the square is filled; a blank square represents no
perceived odor and a completely filled square represents
the strongest perceived odor; a cross with a point means
no data obtained.
(From Ref. 12.)
rice could be developed from an aqueous solution of cysteine and cystine in the presence of riboflavin upon exposure to sunlight (102). Except for the aldehydes, this
flavor contained H2S and CO2.
Wellpolished rice has much better flavor than underpolished rice. This is understandable because the outer layers of rice grain contain many more offflavor
precursors. However, relatively small differences in polishing might result in significant differences in offflavor.
Eating qualities of cooked rice (appearance, cohesiveness, tenderness, palatability, and flavor) usually undergo significant changes during storage. Freshly harvested
rice becomes a paste on cooking, but after storage pasting is greatly reduced (7,66). Storage decreases cohesiveness, increases the volume of cooked rice, and results
in firmer texture (3,66,75,95,96).
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Most of these changes occur before perceptible flavor deterioration are desirable or undesirable depending on country and consumer preferences. For example, the
preservation of high cohesiveness by cold storage is a common practice in Japan. Palatability increases during storage, especially at higher storage temperatures (73).
IV—
Conclusions
Although there are significant differences between rice varieties in the storage changes described above (3,73) (see Tables 15–20), the trend (increasing or decreasing)
in all varieties is the same. Generally, storage conditions are more important than varietal differences.
Regardless of storage conditions, statistically significant correlations were found between the equilibrium binding of oryzenin to starch (n:m) and the following
physicochemical properties and quality factors: average molecular weights of extracted oryzenin, water intake by cooked grains, cooking time, stickiness of cooked
rice grains, and dough leavening (5) (Figs. 3–7). The interrelationships between these physicochemical and quality factors must also result in linear correlations. Thus,
for the prediction of one quality factor, another easily determined property may be chosen (5). These correlations do not tell us how or why these relationships occur,
but
Figure 3
Correlation between equilibrium binding ratio (n:m) of oryzenin with
starch and average molecular weight (MW) of oryzenin in different
varieties of rice. + = longgrain; * = mediumgrain; o = shortgrain.
Line was calculated by regression analysis. MW of oryzenin =
272508 57080.8 (n:m), where r = 0.996.
(From Refs. 2–6.)
Page 73
Figure 4
Correlation between equilibrium binding ratio (n:m) of oryzenin with
starch and water uptake by cooking. + = longgrain; * = mediumgrain;
o = shortgrain. Line was calculated by regression analysis. Water
intake by cooking = 145.69 7.446 (n:m), where r = 0.979.
(From Refs.–6).
Figure 5
Correlation between equilibrium binding ratio (n:m) of oryzenin with
starch and cooking time. + = longgrain; * = mediumgrain; o = short
grain. Line was calculated by regression analysis. Cooking time =
29.2 5.35 (n:m), where r = 0.984.
(From Refs. 2–6.)
Page 74
Figure 6
Correlation between equilibrium binding ratio (n:m) of oryzenin with
starch and stickiness. + = longgrain; * = mediumgrain; o = short
grain. Line was calculated by regression analysis. Stickiness =
10.406 + 8.283 (n:m), with r = 0.999.
(From Refs. 2–6.)
Figure 7
General correlation between equilibrium binding ratio (n:m) of oryzenin
with starch and dough leavening. + = longgrain; * = mediumgrain;
o = shortgrain. Line was calculated by regression analysis. Dough
leavening = 79.98 12.012 (n:m), where r = 0.977.
(From Refs. 2–6.)
Page 75
we may assume that the main determining factors for the abovementioned physicochemical properties and quality factors of rice are the molecular weight and structure
of oryzenin and consequently the equilibrium binding (n:m) or oryzenin to starch.
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95. Desikachar, H. S. R., and Subrahmanyan, V. (1957). The curing of freshly harvested paddy. I. Principles of curing. J. Sci. Ind. Res. (India), 16A:365.
96. Bhattacharya, K. R., Desikachar, H. S. R., and Subrahmanyan, V. (1964). Curing of freshly harvested rice by heat treatment. Indian J. Technol., 2:378.
97. Yasumatsu, K., Moritaka, S., and Wada, S., (1966). Studies on cereals. V. State flavor of stored rice. Agric, Biol. Chem. (Tokyo), 30:483.
98. Mitsuda, H., Yasumoto, K., and Kimikazu, I., (1968). Analysis of volatile components in rice bran. Agric. Biol. Chem. (Tokyo), 32:453.
99. Mitsuda, H., Kawai, F., and Yamamoto, A. (1972). Underwater and underground storage of cereal grains. Food Technol., 26:50.
100. Tsuzuki, E., Tanaka, K., and Shida, S. (1981). Studies on the characteristics of scented rice. VIII. Effect of storage conditions on some fatty acid compositions
and flavor components in rice grains. Kenkyu Hokoku Miyazaki Daigaku Nogakubu, 28:31.
101. Tani, C. Y., Ohta, T., and Kato, H. (1983). Cooking flavor and texture of rice stored under different conditions. Agric. Biol. Chem. (Tokyo), 47:543.
102. Obata, Y., and Tanaka, H. (1965). Studies on the photolysis of Lcysteine and Lcystine. Formation of the flavor of cooked rice from Lcysteine and Lcystine.
Agric. Biol. Chem. (Tokyo), 29:191.
103. Desikachar, H. S. R. (1977). Preservation of byproducts of rice milling, Proceedings of Rice ByProducts Utilization, Vol. 2 (S. Barber and E. Tortosa,
eds.), Inst. Agroquim. Tecnol. Aliment., Valencia, Spain, p. 1.
104. Yokochi, K. (1977). Rice bran processing for the production of rice bran oil and characteristics and uses of the oil and deoiled bran. Proceedings of Rice By
products Utilization, Vol. 3 (S. Barber and E. Tortosa, eds.), Inst. Agroquim. Tecnol. Aliment., Valencia, Spain, p. 1.
105. Ryu, C. H., and Cheigh, H. S. (1980). Fractionation of rice bran lipid and storage effects on bran lipid composition. Korean J. Food Sci. Technol., 12:278.
Page 81
106. Loeb, J. R., Morris, N. J., and Dollear, F. G. (1949). Rice bran oil. IV. Storage of bran as it affects hydrolysis of the oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 26:738.
107. Srimani, B. N., Chattopadnyay, P., and Bose, A. N. (1977). Stabilization of rice bran. I. Direct measurement of the lipase activity in rice bran and the methods
for the inactivation of the same. Proceedings of Rice Byproducts Utilization, Vol. 2 (S. Barber and E. Tortosa, eds.), Inst. Agroquim. Tecnol. Aliment., Valencia,
Spain, p. 1.
108. Yokochi, K. (1978). Efficiency test with a new type of stabilizer in Burma. Rice Report 1977 (S. Barber, H. Mitsuda, H. S. R. Desikachar, and E. Tortosa,
eds.). Inst. Agroquim. Tecnol. Aliment., Valencia, Spain, p. 1.
109. Hawkey, R., and Hawkey, T. (1978). Socioeconomic feasibility study of a rice bran stabilization unit for Thailand and the Philippines. United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, Vienna, Austria.
110. Sayre, R. N., Saunders, R. M., Enochian, R. V., Schultz, W. G., and Beagle, E. C. (1982). Review of rice bran stabilization systems with emphasis on extrusion
cooking. Cereal Foods World, 27:317.
111. Schultz, E. B., and Morgan, R. P. (1979). Appropriate technology for villagelevel rice bran processing and utilization in developing countries. Report CDT 79/1.
Center for Development Technology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, p. 1.
112. Barber, S., and Benedito de Barber, C. (1980). Rice bran: Chemistry and technology, Rice: Production and Utilization (B. S. Luh ed.), Avi Publishing Co.,
Inc., Westport, CT, p. 1.
113. Chang, S. C., Saunders, R. M., and Luh, B. S. (1980). Rice oil: Chemistry and technology, Rice: Production and Utilization (B. S. Luh ed.), Avi Publishing
Co., Inc., Westport, CT, p. 1.
114. Cornelius, J. A. (1980). Rice bran oil for edible purposes. A review. Trop. Sci., 22:1.
115. Barber, S., and Benedito de Barber, C. (1984). Rice bran: An underutilized raw material. United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Publ.
E.84.II.B.3. U.N., New York, p. 1.
116. Randall, J. M., Sayre, R. M., Schultz, W. G., Fong, R. Y., Mossman, A. P., Tribelhorn, R. E., and Saunders, R. M. (1985). Rice bran stabilization by extrusion
cooking for extraction of edible oil. J. Food Sci., 50:361.
117. Rothe, M. (1967). Inactivation of rice bran enzymes by heating and stabilization of brown rice, International Problems of Modern Cereal Processing and
Chemistry. Part I. Milling, Inst. Getreideverarbeitung, BergholzRehbrücke, Germany, p. 1.
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5—
Breeding for Rice Quality
Kent S. McKenzie
California Cooperative Rice Research Foundation, Biggs, California
I—
Introduction
The predominant cultivated species of rice (Oryza sativa L.) was probably first domesticated in Southeast Asia (1). Archeological evidence of rice cultivation in China
7000 years ago has been reported (2). Three ecogeographic races of O. sativa have evolved. Indica is the tropical race, Japonica is the temperate race, and Javanica,
believed to have evolved in Indonesia, is intermediate between Indica and Japonica (3). In addition to the partial sterility of Indica × Japonica hybrids, climatic
adaptation, and morphological characteristics, certain general quality characteristics have been associated with the Indica and Japonica races. Indica types generally
have long slender grains and cook dry and flaky, whereas Japonica types have short round grains and cook moist and sticky. Hybridization between types and
selection for certain grain shape and quality characteristics have made this classification of quality less definitive and useful. Genetic studies of isozyme polymorphisms
indicated that modern U.S. rice cultivars were grouped with the classical Japonica and Javanica types and were distinct from the classical Indicas (4,5). However, the
grain shape and cooking characteristics of U.S. longgrain cultivars, as will be discussed later, are not typical of classical Japonicas.
Rice was introduced to North America in the early 1600s, and by about 1690 commercial rice production was firmly established in South Carolina (6,7). In the late
1800s rice became an established crop in southwest Louisi
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Table 1 Average Annual Rice Production in the United States 1986–1990
Area Grain type (%)
Source: Compiled from annual crop summaries 1986–1990 crop Reporting Board, Statistical
Research Service, USDA.
ana and spread to Texas, Arkansas, and California by the early 1900s. Today, there are three major riceproducing regions in the United States: the Mississippi Delta
(Arkansas, Mississippi, northeast Louisiana, and southwest Missouri), the Gulf Coast (southwest Louisiana, and southeast Texas), and the Central Valleys of
California. A relatively small acreage of rice is also grown commercially in Florida. Table 1 summarizes some of the more recent rice production statistics for the
United States.
Rice is a semiaquatic crop and is adapted to growing in flooded soil conditions. It is grown under the more productive ''lowland" (versus "upland") conditions where
fields are under a shallow flood for most of the growing season. Rice is direct seeded in the United States (drilled, broadcast, or waterseeded) in contrast to
transplanting, which predominates in Asia. It is an annual crop, although plants can be maintained for many years by vegetative propagation. Rice is sensitive to cool
temperatures, which limit its production areas and growing season. Ratoon or second cropping is practiced in the Gulf Coast region, which involves fertilizing and
reflooding the rice stubble of earlymaturing varieties harvested in July or early August. Yields and quality of this second crop are generally low, but input costs are
reduced and ratooning is a popular practice in some areas.
II—
Breeding Objectives and Methods
A—
Breeding Programs
In 1899, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) introduced Kyushu rice from Japan and distributed it for onfarm testing in southwest Louisi
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ana and Texas and formally began rice improvement in the United States (8). Introduction of varieties from other parts of the world represented the first step in rice
improvement, and many of these introductions were used directly or selections were made from original introductions. These early varieties are the ancestors of our
modern U.S. cultivars, and they certainly had a major role in the evolution of U.S. rice grain quality. Dilday (9) recently examined the ancestral relationships of the rice
cultivars developed by the U.S. public ricebreeding programs. The report indicated that all parental germplasm can be traced back to 22 plant introductions in the
southern region and 23 plant introductions in California. Calculations also showed that current rice cultivars are closely related. This lack of genetic diversity is
considered undesirable because it increases the potential genetic vulnerability of the crop. However, it has allowed the continued development of improved cultivars
with required quality characteristics that are similar to and consistent with older cultivars and established market types. Considerable effort is made to introduce foreign
germplasm into riceimprovement programs. Breeding experience has shown that recovering desired rice quality characteristics is not always easy, especially when
using new introductions or a different germplasm base.
In 1951, an agronomically superior longgrain cultivar, Century Patna 231, was released but proved to be unacceptable for traditional longgrain cooking and
processing (10). To help deal with this problem, a rice quality research laboratory was established at Beaumont, Texas, to perform specific physicochemical tests to
guide rice breeders in developing new cultivars with desirable cooking and processing characteristics (11). This illustrates the importance of quality in U.S. rice
breeding programs and marketing.
Cooperative ricebreeding programs were established between the USDA and the state agricultural experiment stations starting in 1909. Breeders were established at
state agricultural experiment stations in Arkansas, California, Louisiana, and Texas by the USDAAgricultural Research Service (USDAARS). A state ricebreeding
program funded entirely by state rice growers was established in California in 1969. The agricultural experiment stations have assumed responsibility for state breeding
programs in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida in recent years. Ricebreeding programs and activities have increased markedly in the last 20 years. Over
50 new rice cultivars have been released since 1970, and they have played a primary role increasing U.S. rice yields. Public ricebreeding programs are located at
Rice Research & Extension Center, Stuttgart, AR; Rice Experiment Station, Biggs, CA; Rice Research Station, Crowley, LA; Texas Agricultural Research &
Extension Center, Beaumont, TX; Delta Branch Experiment Station, Stoneville, MS; and Everglades Research and Extension Center, Belle Glade,
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FL. Public cultivars have accounted for more than 90% of the U.S. acreage. Private breeding programs are present in several states, and some are relatively young
programs. The major private programs include Busch Agricultural Resources, Inc., Pleasant Grove, CA, and Jonesboro, AR; N. F. Davis Drier & Elevator, Inc.,
Firebaugh, CA; Rice Researchers, Inc., Glenn, CA, and RiceTec, Alvin, TX.
B—
Breeding Methods
Rice is a member of the grass family and has a panicle inflorescence with one floret per spikelet. It has a perfect flower (both male and female), which consists of two
interlocking glumes (hulls), six anthers, and a single ovary. Rice is naturally selfpollinating, and rice growers in the United States use pureline cultivars. Hybrid rice is
grown extensively in China and has been under experimental evaluation in the United States for several years.
Pedigree breeding is the predominant method used in rice improvement. It may include modifications including backcrossing and the bulk method. The first step
involves the selection of parents for artificial hybridization. The parents may be introductions, old cultivars, breeding lines, or mutations with certain desired
characteristics. The designated female parent is emasculated by removing the anthers and fertilized with pollen from the desired male (12,13). The resulting F1 seed is
grown to produce the F2 seed, which is usually planted at a low seeding rate for selection by the breeder. The latter is the first segregating generation, and individual
panicles are selected for advancement and reselection. The F2 population size may vary from 1,000 to 10,000 or more individuals. Selections are usually made on the
basis of visual characteristics. Selected panicles are grown in rows for advancement and reselection for several more generations. The rice continues to inbreed by
natural selfpollination. Genes become fixed (homozygous) for the many characters, genetic segregation decreases, and the progeny rows breed true. From about the
F4 generation on, promising selections are included in more advanced screening tests for agronomic and quality characteristics. The outstanding few lines that survive
this continuing screening, selection, purification, and advancement process are increased for release as pureline cultivars to growers through seedproduction
programs. Winter nurseries in Puerto Rico or Hawaii are used to hasten cultivar development by allowing the growing of two or more generations per year of the most
promising material. Development time from the initial cross to release to growers is often 10 years or more.
Induced mutation has made a major contribution to cultivar development in California (14). Adapted cultivars and germplasm were irradiated
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and selections made for desirable mutants for changes in plant height, maturity, and even grain characteristics. This technique had the advantage of being a relatively
rapid and simple method, which maintained the agronomic adaptation and quality characteristics of parental material. Calrose 76 (15) was a semidwarf version of
Calrose, the old established tall mediumgrain cultivar and conventional market type in California. Induced mutants were used directly, but their contribution as parents
in breeding new cultivars has been even more important. Mutation breeding techniques were also used to generate the semidwarf and early maturing cultivars M401
and M203 from the tall proprietary premium quality mediumgrain cultivar Terso (16,17). The proprietary cultivar KRM2 was developed using mutation breeding on
another tall proprietary premium quality mediumgrain cultivar, Kokuhorose, by Rice Researchers, Inc. Induced mutation also has been used to develop cultivars with
waxy endosperms and changes in kernel shape (18,19).
C—
Breeding Objectives
Each breeding program has its own riceimprovement objectives, and its project objectives reflect the needs of the production area. Factors that influence production,
grain quality, and market demands determine the profitability of rice production and are major considerations in establishing breeding objectives. Objectives will vary
among programs and growing regions, but some are common to riceimprovement programs.
Grain yield is one of the primary breeding objectives. Yield evaluation is one of the main activities in the later stages of screening breeding material, and many genetic
and environmental factors determine yield. Selection is done for numerous characters contributing to yield potential including panicle size, panicle number, grain size,
plant height, and straw strength. Yield is frequently negatively correlated with quality, and the breeder must compromise between those two important objectives. Very
high yielding lines often exhibit poor grain quality characteristics, making them unacceptable for release as cultivars. Conversely, materials with high or unique quality
characteristics usually are poorly adapted or agronomically inferior and therefore unacceptable.
Disease and insect resistance are other important characteristics, and considerable efforts are made by breeders, pathologists, and entomologists in screening,
selecting, and developing cultivars resistant to the diseases and insects that attack rice in the United States. Diseases and insect pests are a greater problem in the
southern riceproducing regions than in California. Diseases and insect pests usually have detrimental effects on quality as well as yield, thus pest resistance is a doubly
desirable feature. Unfortunately,
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sources of resistance usually have undesirable agronomic and quality characteristics. As in the case of yield, breeders must struggle to recover the desired resistance in
combination with acceptable quality characteristics.
Rice may face a number of environmental stresses that can adversely affect grain yield and quality. Cool temperatures at seeding and stand establishment stages are
often encountered in rice production. Improving seedling vigor is an objective in many breeding programs. Cool temperatures prior to flowering (during pollen
microsporogenesis) may induce sterility (blanking) in rice in California, hence resistance to blanking is a major breeding objective there. This is also the primary reason
cultivars grown in the southern United States are not grown commercially in California, i.e., cultivars from the southern United States are susceptible to cold. The
abiotic disease "straighthead," which causes the panicles to be sterile and distorted, is a problem in some areas of the southern rice region, and resistance to this
disease is desirable. Cultivars also must be tolerant to the herbicides needed to control weed pests.
"Every variety is a compromise" is a saying used by plant breeders regarding the end product of their labors, a new cultivar. Rice breeders set objectives, select
parents, hybridize, select, and test their material. The ultimate goal is to recover the desirable features or enhancements of the parents. Seldom is the ultimate goal
achieved because of the many limitations ranging from time and cost factors to genetic barriers. Balances are made between the traits of importance. If warranted, the
new cultivar is released and the recurrent breeding process continues. More indepth discussions of rice breeding in the United States and other countries are available
in the literature (12,13,20–23).
III—
Breeding for Quality Characteristics
Rice quality must certainly be considered one of the primary ricebreeding objectives in the United States. Kernel size, shape, and translucency and acceptable milling,
cooking, and processing characteristics are needed to satisfy the requirements for the export markets and the diverse and increasing domestic markets. Quality
characteristics are considered and evaluated by the breeders from the initial selection of parents through the final decision to release an experimental line as a new
cultivar. Quality evaluations begin with selection for simple visual characteristics and advance to physicochemical and milling tests. Quality information is collected on
breeding lines over many generations and several years of testing. Quality testing is typically done during the winter months when there is no crop in the field. Evaluation
and selection for kernel size and shape and milling are conducted by the breeding program with more sophisticated physicochemical
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tests typically performed as a service for the public breeding programs by the USDAARS Rice Quality Research Laboratory, Beaumont, TX. Advanced lines under
consideration for release as new cultivars may be provided to marketing organizations for evaluation. Information on the yield performance, physical, milling, cooking,
and processing characteristics of public cultivars is reported in registration articles in Crop Science.
A—
Market Types
Rice in the United States is classified and marketed by grain (kernel) size and shape. The three primary market classes are long, medium, and shortgrain types (Fig.
1). Table 2 contains the grain size and shape characteristics for the current market types. In addition to the traditional long, medium, and short grains, there is a general
category termed special purpose types. This would include aromatic, glutinous (waxy) rices, and rices developed for ethnic and industrial uses. This is a relatively small
portion of the U.S. production, however, interest and breeding efforts are increasing in this area. Historically, and through planned breeding, each of these market
types is associated with specific cooking, eating, and processing
Figure 1
U.S. long, medium, and shortgrain rices shown in the rough (paddy), brown, and
milled rice forms.
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Table 2 Grain Dimensions of Traditional U.S. Market Classes of Rice
Length/Width ratio
Brown rice length
Grain type (mm) Rough Brown Milled
Long 6.61–7.5 3.4:1 and more 3.1:1 and more 3.0:1 and more
Medium 5.51–6.6 2.3:1–3.3:1 2.1:1–3.0:1 2.0:1–2.9:1
Short 5.5 2.2:1 and less 2.0:1 and less 1.9:1 and less
Source: Refs. 24, 25.
characteristics and product uses (8,24). Several physicochemical tests are used by breeders to identify and select for the proper cooking characteristics in their
breeding programs. The tests include determination of apparent amylose content (26–28), alkali spreading value of whole kernel milled rice soaked in dilute alkali as an
indicator of gelatinization temperature (29), amylographic gelatinization temperature (30), amylographic gelatinization and paste viscosity characteristics (31), protein
content (32), and parboilcanning stability (33). Table 3 contains a summary of the physicochemical characteristics of U.S. rice cultivars and will be used in the
discussion of breeding for different market classes.
B—
Long Grains
The majority of ricebreeding activity in the United States has been directed toward the traditional longgrain market. These types occupy the majority of U.S. acreage
(see Table 1), and this market class is the major focus of the ricebreeding programs in the southern United States. California, with its need for coldtolerant cultivars,
has traditionally produced medium and shortgrain rices. Longgrain cultivars and germplasm from the southern United States generally perform poorly in California.
Recent breeding efforts have resulted in the release of an adapted longgrain cultivar, L202 (36), for that environment. Because of the importance and requirements
for this market class, breeding and screening work for longgrain quality has received major emphasis in the United States. Proper kernel size and shape are
requirements for long grains as well as the other types. Kernel length, width, and thickness are under quantitative genetic control and have high heritability, making
these characteristics relatively easy to select for by simple visual screening. A wide combination of kernel sizes and shapes will occur in segregating generations
depending on the parents involved in the cross. If there are large differences in kernel size and shape in the parents, recovery of the desired kernel size and shape may
be more difficult. In crosses between long grains and short grains, for example, the frequency of
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Table 3 Average Physicochemical, Cooking, and Processing Characteristics of U.S. Rice when Grown in Southern Locations 1985–1988
Amylographic viscosity (Brabender units)
Parboiling
Alkali canning
Quality Amylose spreading Gelatinization Hotpaste Coolpaste Break Portein stability (%
a
Cultivar type (%) score (avg) temp./type (°C)b Peak 15 min/95°C 50°C downc Setbackd (%)e loss)
Traditional 21.8 3.9 70.5/I 730 400 790 330 60 8.9 23
southern 22.7 3.4 70.3/I 750 390 780 360 20 8.6 24
longgrain 22.9 3.4 70.6/I 690 380 720 310 40 8.6 24
types 22.7 3.4 70.5/I 780 430 780 360 0 8.7 25
L202 California 26.5 3.3 71.6/I 460 310 790 150 340 9.4 23
Rexmont Newrex 26.0 3.7 70.7/I 810 500 1060 310 250 9.4 19
Mars Southern 15.2 6.2 64.0/I 800 380 650 410 150 6.9 37
Rico 1 Southern 16.7 6.3 64.3/I 760 380 650 380 110 7.5 35
M201 Calrose 14.2 6.7 /I 870 390 620 490 250 8.6 39
M202f Calrose 16.1 7.0 61.2/I 600 300 440 300 160 — —
M401 Premium 17.1 7.0 59.7/I 480 260 450 220 30 — —
Kokuhorose Premium 17.3 7.0 60.8/I 590 310 500 280 90 — —
S201 Short grain 16.7 6.0 64.8/I 760 360 640 410 120 7.5 37
Della Aromatic 22.5 3.6 69.2/I 690 380 730 310 40 9.5 27
A301 Aromatic 21.7 3.3 70.9/I 620 350 670 270 50 9.7 30
Jasmine 85 Aromatic 15.6 6.5 /L 850 410 760 440 90 8.9 —
Calmochi101 Waxy 0 5.9 61.7/L 320 200 270 130 30 8.8 46
TORO2 Toro 17.2 6.1 64.6/L 730 370 630 360 100 8.9 38
aMilled rice apparent amylose 12% moisture basis.
bI=intermediate, L=low.
cBreakdown viscosity=peak – hotpaste.
d
Setback viscosity=peak – coolpaste.
eBrown rice % N × 5.95 dry basis.
fM202, M401, and Kokuhorose samples from CA 1990 only.
Source: Refs, 34, 35.
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acceptable long grains or short grains in the offspring is very low. Intense selection, large populations, and backcrossing may be needed to achieve the desired kernel
size and shape. Because of these and other quality problems, the number of these types of crosses made in breeding programs may be limited. Visual selection for
kernel size and shape can begin in the early generations by making selections in the field or laboratory. As material becomes more advanced and promising, kernel
measurements may be taken to select among siblings. This is a slow and tedious task, typically done by hand. Image analysis systems have been developed to aid in
kernel size and shape determinations (37). Grain dimensions are affected by environmental factors such as temperature. Grain length may be reduced significantly in
lowtemperature environments. Table 4 contains milled rice kernel dimensions for some U.S. longgrain cultivars.
Other aspects of the size and shape of the kernel beside length and width are also important. Larger kernels are often desired by the market for appearance or
processing, however, increases in kernel length may increase breakage leading to reduced milling yields. Processing conditions for producing parboiled and quick
cooking rice products are also affected by kernel size, even within longgrain types, and must be adjusted. Curvature or distortion of the kernel as well as variability in
size among grains on the panicle are undesirable characteristics. Selection may be made for a straw
Table 4 Milled Rice Grain Dimensions of Some U.S. Long, Medium, and Shortgrain Rice Cultivars
Milled rice kernel
dimensions (mm)
Kernel
Length/ weight
Cultivar Origin Typea Length Width Thickness Width ration (mg)
Gulfmont Texas L 6.7 2.2 1.6 3.1 18
Lemont Texas L 6.8 2.2 1.7 3.0 19
Newbonnet Arkansas L 6.5 2.0 1.6 3.3 16
Tebonnet Arkansas L 6.6 2.0 1.6 3.2 17
L202 California L 7.2 2.2 1.7 3.5 20
Rexmont Texas L 6.7 2.1 1.6 3.2 17
M201 California M 5.8 2.6 1.8 2.3 21
Mars Arkansas M 5.8 2.5 1.8 2.3 19
Mercury Louisiana M 5.8 2.5 1.8 2.4 19
Rico 1 Texas M 5.4 2.6 1.8 2.1 19
S201 California S 5.3 3.0 2.0 1.8 23
aGrain type where L = longgrain, M = mediumgrain, and S = shortgrain.
Source: Refs. 35, 36.
Page 93
hull color in preference to gold or other colors, which might effect the final appearance of the rice. Colored bran types used in ethnic and gourmet markets (red,
purple, and amberpigmented aleurone layers) are unacceptable in all traditional U.S. market types. Selections are made for kernel translucency and freedom from
chalkiness or "white belly." High degree of whiteness of the milled kernel is desirable. Whiteness meters are used by the milling industry to measure color and may be
of use in screening for this characteristic. Cooking and processing characteristics are not determined by the size and shape of the kernel but through planned breeding
are associated with grain size and shape, i.e., long, medium, and shortgrain cooking types.
Traditional southern U.S. long grains cook dry and fluffy with the kernels remaining separate when steamed or boiled. The physicochemical (cooking quality)
characteristics of U.S. longgrain cultivars have been summarized by Webb et al. (24) and are presented in Table 3. They are characterized by (a) intermediate
amylose content (21–24%), (b) a moderate alkali spreading score (indicating intermediate gelatinization temperature), (c) intermediate to highamylographic
gelatinization temperature, (d) intermediate amylographic paste viscosity peak height, relatively high breakdown viscosity, and a slight positive set back, and (e)
relatively low parboilcanning stability solid loss with little splitting and fraying of edges and ends of canned kernels. The California longgrain cultivar L202 has similar
physicochemical characteristics, except it is 2% higher in amylose content than the traditional southern cultivars, gelatinization temperature is slightly lower, it has a
weaker amylographic viscosity profile, and cooking and processing do not exactly match the traditional U.S. long grains.
Amylose content is controlled by one or two major genes with modifiers (38,39). Selection for amylose content can be done in early generations, if necessary, as in the
case of widely different parents. If the parents are traditional longgrain types, tests for amylose content may be delayed until the advanced generations. Gelatinization
temperature is evaluated by alkali spreading scores, and this characteristic is controlled by a few genetic factors, is highly heritable, and screening can be done
effectively in the early generations (39,40). Amylose content and gelatinization temperature are influenced by environmental conditions, especially temperature.
Amylose content and gelatinization of the same rice grown in different regions will vary. For example, Californiagrown rice will typically have higher amylose content
and lower gelatinization temperature than the same rice cultivar grown in Texas. Differences in physicochemical reaction are also observed in rices planted at different
dates and also in first crops and ratoon crops.
The use of amylose content and alkali reaction score has generally been quite effective in selecting for the traditional longgrain market type in the
Page 94
breeding programs in the southern United States. This may have been in part due to the core germplasm pool used for cultivar development in that region. The
experience in California longgrain breeding has shown that selecting for amylose content and alkali reaction is not sufficient to recover adapted long grains with
traditional longgrain quality (41). Microcooking tests have been used at the Rice Experiment Station, Biggs, CA, to screen several thousand rows annually for
cooking quality. Amylographic viscosity testing is also being used to help in screening. L202 and related materials are being used extensively for their agronomic
characteristics by breeders in the southern region. Consequently, material with that parentage is being screened more intensively for longgrain quality including
measuring amylographic viscosity.
In the early 1980s a new type of longgrain rice that cooks drier and fluffier combined with an improved canning stability and low washout losses in processing became
available with the release of the cultivar Newrex (42). The ''Newrex quality" found in Newrex and Rexmont (43) differs from traditional southern longgrain types by
having (a) lower amylographic breakdown viscosity and higher setback viscosity, (b) significantly lower solids loss in processing, indicating less canned kernel splitting
and fraying, and with improved grain stability and integrity, (c) a 2–4% higher amylose content, and (d) a slightly firmer cooked kernel texture (44,24). This superior
longgrain quality is a quality objective in several longgrain ricebreeding programs. Several genetic factors are involved, and the inheritance of this quality type is
under investigation. Screening for high amylose content (25–28%), intermediate gelatinization temperature, and the Newrex amylographic viscosity profile is used in
selection for Newrex quality. Newrex and Rexmont are grown on a limited acreage. However, this improved processing type may become more common in future
longgrain cultivars as milling quality and field yields are improved.
C—
Medium and Short Grains
Mediumgrain cultivars occupy a much smaller part of the U.S. acreage than long grains, except in California, where medium grains account for about 90% of the
acreage (see Table 1). Shortgrain cultivars are essentially only grown in California, and the acreage has declined in recent years. Just as longgrain breeding and
quality have been emphasized in the southern United States, mediumgrain breeding and quality have been stressed in California. The southern U.S. longgrain types
are recognized in the market for their longgrain quality characteristics, and the Calrose medium grains grown in California are recognized for their particular quality
characteristics. Kernel size and shape for medium and short grains must fall in the
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defined range of dimensions for the market type (see Table 2). Kernel size and shape for medium and shortgrain cultivars do show notable differences. Calrosetype
medium grains like M201 (45) have larger kernels than Mars (46), the predominant medium grain grown in the southern United States. Rico 1 (47), a new southern
medium grain has a different mediumgrain kernel shape than Mars. S201 (48), the major California short grain, has a large round kernel with a distinctive white belly
on the kernel. Kernel dimensions of these cultivars are presented in Table 4.
Kernel translucency and freedom from chalkiness and white belly are very important characteristics in medium and short grains, and these grain types often show such
undesirable kernel characteristics. With increasing kernel size, there is often an increase in chalkiness and/or white belly. Screening for shape, translucency, and
freedom from white belly is initiated in the F2 generation in California (49). Brown rice samples from panicles selected from the field are examined each generation in
the laboratory during the winter. Translucency is also selected on the basis of milled samples in later generations. In addition to these characteristics, selections are
discarded for kernel distortion (notches, grooves, and twists), nonuniformity of kernels, and high frequencies of green and immature kernels. Recovering translucent
short grains with large kernel size similar to S201 has been particularly difficult. Selections for translucency have tended to give reduced kernel size and oblong shape
in comparison to S201. Short grain cultivars like S101 (50) with smaller, more translucent kernels have been released, however, a larger translucent kernel would be
desirable. Mutationbreeding techniques were used by Hu (18) to develop Valencia 87 from the proprietary cultivar Calpearl, which shows an improved shortgrain
kernel.
Traditional U.S. medium and short grains cook moist and sticky when steamed or boiled. These cultivars are characterized by (a) a low amylose content, (b) a high
alkali spreading score (indicating a low gelatinization temperature), (c) a low gelatinization temperature, (d) relatively low amylographic paste viscosity, and (e) high
solid loss in parboilcanning stability with extensive splitting and fraying of kernel edges and ends (24). Table 3 contains a summary of the physicochemical
characteristic of some U.S. mediumgrain cultivars.
The Calrose type of mediumgrain rice grown in California is preferred over the southern medium grains by some ethnic groups (Japanese and Korean) and for
manufactured products. In other uses both the southern and California types are acceptable. These ethnic groups can distinguish between these types in taste tests, and
the reasons for preferences in some manufactured products for Calrose types are not known. Unidentified quality characteristics found in the California germplasm are
probably a major
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contributing factor. Californiagrown rice usually shows slightly higher amylose content and lower gelatinization temperatures than rice grown in the southern United
States, suggesting that the growing environment may be important.
Quality selection in traditional medium and shortgrain breeding would usually focus on grain characteristics. Physicochemical tests are not performed in early
generations unless a different quality type is in the pedigree. Physicochemical tests are used in the later stages on advanced lines. Advanced experimental lines (of all
grain types) under consideration for release as a cultivar are often provided to marketing organizations, processors, or independent quality evaluators. Evaluation
sheets may be used to make comparisons with current cultivars in cooking, processing, and taste panel evaluations.
California also produces rices referred to as "premium quality medium grains." These are recognized for their cooking quality and are preferred by certain ethnic
groups, especially Japanese and Korean customers. The appearance, texture, and taste of this rice is judged to be superior to other medium grains by these groups.
Generally these rices are very glossy after cooking, sticky but have a smooth texture, and they remain soft as they cool. Aroma and taste are also cited as important
features. M401 (public) and Kokuhorose (proprietary) are the predominant cultivars used in this market. M401 and the early maturing M203 were mentioned
earlier as an example of the use of mutation breeding for rice improvement. Rice Researchers, Inc. has a major emphasis in this market type and has developed several
improved versions in its KR series of releases. Busch Agricultural Resources, Inc. has recently released a proprietary premium quality medium grain, SP411. There
has been considerable expansion in breeding for this premium quality market in both the public and private sector in recent years. Breeding efforts are also under way
to develop premium quality shortgrain cultivars. These types would be similar to premium quality medium grains and/or the high quality Japanese shortgrain cultivars,
like Koshihikari. The high quality Japanese types have cooking characteristics similar to premium quality medium grains.
Developing improved premium quality rice is a formidable breeding challenge. The cooking characteristics of these types are not identifiable with the physicochemical
tests used for rice mentioned earlier. Screening becomes a particular problem since the cooking tests used on breeding lines are laborious and variable. Expert taste
panels are needed to evaluate advanced materials. The premium quality characteristics are certainly controlled by a number of genetic factors, in addition to
environmental factors, making identification and transfer of these quality characteristics very difficult. The breeder is faced with the challenge of matching the cooking
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characteristics of a standard like Kokuhorose, where subtle differences in cooking quality may cause rejection by the marketing organization. If the quality is
satisfactory, a selection must then show some improved agronomic feature to justify its release. Thus, replacing a premium quality cultivar is difficult, and some market
standards like Kokuhorose in California and Koshihikari in Japan have been grown for several decades.
D—
Special Purpose Types
A small percentage of the U.S. rice area is planted with special purpose types that have quality characteristics that distinguish them from the traditional U.S. market
classes. They are often grown on a contract basis with a marketer and cannot be blended with the traditional market classes. Several are sold in specialty markets and
used in ethnic foods. The agronomic performance of these cultivars is usually below conventional cultivars. Interest in these specialty rices has increased recently and
many breeding programs include some work on these types, although this amounts to only a small portion of the total ricebreeding effort. Table 3 contains the result of
physicochemical tests on some of the special purpose cultivars. Aromatic rice is probably the most familiar of these types. This rice has a "popcornlike" aroma and is
marketed under various trade names. Della (51), a long grain from Louisiana, is grown commercially and is the donor parent for several of the newer cultivars like
Texmati (proprietary), A301 (52), and Dellmont (53). The physicochemical characteristics of these cultivars are generally similar to the traditional long grains with the
addition of the aromatic characteristic (Table 3). Jasmine 85 (54) is a low amylose longgrain aromatic introduction, which was released to fill an ethnic market using
imported Thai Jasmine. Its quality and market evaluations are in progress. A longgrain aromatic rice with colored bran, Wehanni, is marketed in the brown rice
specialty market by Lundberg Family Farms, Richvale, CA. Basmati rice is another major aromatic type, which is native to Pakistan, India, and the Middle East. This
is finegrained aromatic rice which cooks dry and fluffy and shows extreme kernel elongation during cooking. There are no true basmati rice cultivars in commercial
production in the United States, as they are poorly adapted and have low grain and milling yields. However, several breeding programs are working to develop
basmati types suitable for production in the United States.
The aromatic character is relatively easy to identify in breeding lines. The scent can be detected in leaf tissue (55–57), raw kernesl (58,59), and, of course, cooked
rice. The inheritance of the aromatic characteristics has been reported to be controlled by a single gene in crosses with Della (60) and as many as three genes in other
studies (59,61). Differences in intensity
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and aroma exist. Research has indicated that 2acetyllpyrroline is a major aroma component (62) in aromatic rice. Research on the aromatic characteristics of rice is
currently being investigated by researchers at Louisiana State University. Kernel elongation appears to be independent of aroma, is difficult to transfer, and is
controlled by several genetic factors (63). Studies on kernel elongation in some crosses indicate that relatively few genes may be involved (C. N. Bollich, personal
communication).
Another important special purpose rice is the glutinous or waxy type that is sometimes referred to as "sweet" or "mochi." Waxy rice starch is essentially all amylopectin,
making the kernels white and opaque. Waxy rice may be used as whole milled kernels or flour. It cooks very sticky and is used in a variety of ethnic foods including
mochi cake and crackers. Waxy rice flour is also used in processed foods because of its processing characteristics. Waxy rice flour is resistant to liquid separation
during freezing and thawing (64,65) and is used in frozen food sauces and gravies.
In the United States, waxy rice is commercially grown in California under a contract with a processor or marketer. The major public cultivar is Calmochi101 (66).
Mochigome is an old proprietary variety, introduced from Japan, that is preferred for traditional mochi cake. N.F. Davis Drier, Inc. has in production two recently
waxy cultivars, NFD108, and NFD109. These cultivars are all shortgrain types with low gelatinization temperatures. The waxy characteristic is not restricted to
short grains, and a number of waxy types with long or medium grains as well as differing quality characteristics can be found throughout the world. The waxy
characteristic is controlled by a single recessive gene. It is easy to visually identify a waxy kernel in brown or milled rice, and thus waxy types can be readily identified
in segregating breeding lines. The waxy endosperm can be verified by the distinctive brown (in contrast to blue) color produced when treated with an iodine solution.
Different waxy genes as well as modifying genetic factors are present in rice, and presence of a waxy endosperm does not guarantee the rice will meet market
requirements. This again indicates that rice quality is very complex and not well understood. Calmochi101 is used to produce mochi cake but is considered less
desirable than Mochigome. The preferred quality characteristics for waxy rices in their different uses is not known. Work has been carried out by Bean et al. (67)
characterizing the cooking behavior of different waxy varieties. Work on developing waxy cultivars is continuing in California and to a lesser extent elsewhere in the
United States. There is a small local market in southwest Louisiana that prefers a low amylose long grain that cooks soft and sticky similar to traditional medium and
short grains. The founding cultivar was Toro; a more recent cultivar is TORO2 (68). There is some breeding interest in this type of soft cooking long grain for certain
export and domestic markets.
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E—
Milling
Milling yield largely determines the economic value of rough rice, thus making this a very important rice quality characteristic. It is measured as a percent value for head
(whole kernel milled rice) and total (whole and broken kernel milled rice) on a given lot of rice. Head rice sells for a much higher price than broken kernels, and
achieving high head rice yields is a mutual goal in commercial production and cultivar development. Improved milling yields have been the primary improved feature of
some new cultivars (69). In some cases losses in head rice yield in improved higher yielding cultivars have occurred (70). U.S. ricebreeding programs invest
considerable effort in screening and selecting their breeding material for milling yield.
Milling yield is determined by both environmental and genetic factors and is a very complex characteristic. Many environmental factors are known to influence milling
quality. Harvest moisture (70–72), field drainage (73), fluctuations in relative humidity and temperature (74), nitrogen fertility, ripening, disease or other stresses,
combine adjustments (72), and grain processing can have major impact on milling yield. In screening breeding material, the breeder will try to control environmental
factors, including the use of replicated tests on advanced materials. Genetic differences in milling characteristics of cultivars are widely recognized, and there is
continuing interest in research on this rice quality characteristic. Screening for milling yield usually focuses on head rice. Rapid visual screening for percent broken
kernels in brown rice samples is used in California beginning in the F2 generation. A high correlation between whole kernel brown rice after shelling and head rice has
been reported (75). In evaluating brown rice samples for kernel and translucency, lines that show high or low percent broken kernels are easily identified. As breeding
lines advance, actual milling yields are determined on a small portion of the seed harvested from rows. Efforts are made to harvest each line within the optimum harvest
moisture range conducive to good milling yields. This would be 18–22% and 21–24% for the southern states and California, respectively. Harvest moisture on each
sample may be determined, and the samples are air dried to storage moisture (12–14%) for milling at a later time.
Standard milling procedures, used by public breeders, have been developed in coordination with the USDAARS Rice Quality Research Laboratory. A 125gram
sample is shelled and milled with a McGill No.2 sample mill for 30 seconds with a defined weight and arm length (depending on the grain type). Broken milled kernels
are graded out, and a head and total milled rice yield is determined. This general procedure is used for determining milling yields on more advanced lines in replicated
yield tests.
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In more advanced yield testing stages, individual rows of experimental entries may be grown in the breeding nurseries for milling determination. Duplicate rows may be
used to obtain replicate sampling or to allow harvest of an optimum and low harvest moisture in the hopes of identifying entries that maintain high milling yields at
suboptimal harvest moisture. On the most advanced breeding material, milling samples may be collected twice a week for several weeks. This allows milling yield
determinations over a range of harvest moistures and provides information on the milling performance of the line, including the optimum harvest moisture for head rice.
Figure 2 shows the results of harvest moisture milling studies on two very early mediumgrain cultivars. M103 shows higher and more stable head rice yields than M
101. Milling yield data are collected over several years and in different locations in the breeding and testing process. Gravois et al. (76) has recently published a study
of genotype and environment effects on head rice yields that focuses on this area of quality evaluation.
Because of the complexity of milling and the influence on it of both environmental and genetic factors, researchers are trying to identify major traits controlling milling
yield. Fissuring of the kernel has been studied extensively by Kunze (74) and others (77,78). Varietal differences in resistance to breakage exist, and screening
techniques to select for resistance to kernel fissuring as a head rice selection tool have been proposed and studied (74,78). Studies at the International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) Los Banos, The Philippines, have investigated the presence of grains in rice panicles which have a higher volume and weight. These high density grains
produce higher milling and head rice recovery (79). Varietal differences for
Figure 2
Effect of harvest moisture on head rice yields of M101 and
M103 in 1988 and 1989, Rice Experiment Station, Biggs, CA.
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the number of high density grains per panicle exist, and increasing the number of high density grains may improve head rice yields. Jongkaewwattana (80) conducted a
comprehensive study of the factors influencing ricemilling quality in some California cultivars. The study, which focused on panicle and kernel characteristics, indicated
that selection for uniformity in grain characteristics (such as grain size, weight, and density) should have positive impact on head rice yield. Heritability studies on panicle
length, panicle moisture content, grain length, width, weight, volume, and density are in progress (81). Preliminary results show these traits to have high heritability
estimates, while the heritability estimates for head yield, as expected, were lower. In another study of a cross involving the longgrain cultivars Lemont and Leah,
heritability of head rice yield was estimated to be 0.29 (82).
IV—
Future Directions
Research on rice is enjoying a relatively high level of interest in the United States. Ricebreeding programs have undergone considerable expansion in both the public
and private sectors in the past decade. The Rice Technical Working Group, a group of rice researchers that meets biennially, is continuing to grow in membership and
participation. Research in biotechnology has become extensive due to the successes using rice, international importance of the crop, and research funding. Rice
consumption has increased in the United States, and rice is being viewed as a nutritional, healthful food by the public. Some new products using rice are also moving
into the market place, all suggesting a very positive future for rice in the United States (see Chapter 19).
There also are a number of concerns to mention in looking to the future. Agriculture is under intense scrutiny in terms of its impact on the environment and government
support programs. Improved cultivars in combination with pesticides and chemical fertilizers have made possible the high quality and productivity found in modern U.S.
rice production. Their use is becoming tightly regulated and restricted, although the United States is fortunate not to have many of the important rice pests found
elsewhere. Several products have been eliminated due to environmental risks and concerns. Development and registration of new replacement chemicals is difficult and
expensive, especially for a relatively small crop like rice in the United States. Water is another area of concern—both the amount needed for the crop as well as the
fate of any residual materials in the water used in rice production. Price supports for rice and other crops are under continuing revision, and support for these programs
is declining. Rice growers have a good track record for funding rice research. However, budget restric
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tions faced by universities, the USDA, and the growers themselves will affect the extent of future research activities.
A—
New Techniques
Biotechnology is recognized as the major new area in agricultural research. Because of the new and theoretical potential of this field, some unrealistic or overly
optimistic expectations in terms of the quick and direct application of this technology to rice breeding have occurred. The technology, in its different forms, will
contribute to rice improvement in the short term and even more so in the long term. It will greatly increase our understanding of the plant, enhance riceimprovement
programs rather than replace them, and should not be viewed as a genetic panacea. An extensive amount of work using rice is continuing both nationally and
internationally. Biotechnology in the United States can be grouped as either direct support of a breeding program or more basic genetic research.
The Louisiana State University Rice Research Station (RRS) in Crowley, LA, has developed a large tissue culture program to support cultivar development at that
facility. Early in the program the focus was on developing useful somaclonal mutants for direct use or in crossbreeding. More recently the focus of direct breeding
support is in the area of anther culture. This is a technique that allows the regeneration of true breeding lines (doubled haploids) from anthers of rice. The primary
advantage of this method is to hasten the conventional breeding process, which requires several generations after a cross to have lines reach a true breeding stage
(homozygosity) for evaluation and testing. RRS is regenerating about 10,000 plants annually in their program. The USDAARS and Texas A&M University have
recently started an extensive biotechnology program at the Texas Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Beaumont, TX. Anther culture and genetic studies in
support of rice improvement are in progress there. Preceding this research expansion, a new rice cultivar Texmont (83), which was produced using anther culture
techniques, was released by Texas A&M and the USDAARS in 1990. Anther culture is also being used in other public and private programs. Anther culture may
become a common tool used for rice improvement, but some limitations exist. The process is labor intensive and requires at least some laboratory facilities and
technical support. Regeneration rates are typically low (<10%), and some germplasm, like Indica types, is very difficult to regenerate. Research advances that improve
these aspects of anther culture will expand its use in rice improvement.
More basic research is being conducted by many universities in U.S. production areas like Louisiana State University, Texas A&M University, and the University of
California, Davis. Because of international interest
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and grants, rice research is underway at other universities like Cornell, Wisconsin, Georgia, Purdue, Stanford, and the USDA Plant Gene Expression Center, Albany,
CA.
Rice has become a popular plant species for molecular genetic study and manipulation and is being used as a model system for monocots (V. Walbot, personal
communication). This is because rice is relatively easily transformed. Protoplasts can be regenerated into plants in a reliable fashion, and much of rice tissue is highly
embryogenic, lending itself to recovery of transgenic plants through "ballistic" methods of genetic insertion. Work by these laboratories is more basic in nature or may
focus on problems of somewhat less importance in the United States. In the future it will contribute to a much better understanding of rice, improvements in technology,
as well as cultivar development. This work in molecular biology is beyond the scope of this chapter. Research in this area is so extensive and evolving so rapidly that
The Rockefeller Foundation is publishing a quarterly report, Rice Biotechnology Quarterly, to hasten progress.
One particular area to note is the genetic research by the group at Cornell (Ithaca, NY) on mapping rice genome using restriction fragment length polymorphism
(RFLP) mapping. This technique is of particular interest to breeders and geneticists as a tool for identifying important genetic characters in segregating populations. This
would be very useful for characteristics that are currently difficult to identify allowing improved selection effectiveness and hastening cultivar improvement. Tanksley et
al. (84) have published a discussion of this subject. Other sophisticated mapping techniques are under investigation at the University of California, Davis, and
correlations of molecular markers and quality factors are being sought by researchers in Georgia and Texas.
Research using biotechnology methods to directly influence quality was conducted by Shaeffer and Sharpe (85) on rice protein and amino acid content. Endosperm
protein mutants in rice were recovered by biochemical selections with inhibitory levels of lysine and threonine from tissue culture. These mutants have been studied
extensively in regard to the nature of the protein and amino acid (lysine and methionine) increases and endosperm chalkiness. Their research indicated that improved
lysine types can be generated in a predictable manner using biochemical selection, some high lysine/high protein types with low chalkiness were recovered, and this
material can be used in riceimprovement programs for nutritional quality improvement (G. W. Shaeffer, personal communication). Rice plants can be successfully
regenerated from protoplasts (single cells), an important step for the use of genetic engineering in transferring genetic characters into rice. This has not been the case in
some other important crop species. Transfers may include genes from other species or new synthesized genes, which could enhance the
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quality, starch characteristics, or nutritional value of rice. Transgenic rice plants are being produced by a number of research groups. Such techniques may yield new or
improved quality types for future rice cultivars. It is also hoped that genetic engineering techniques will allow improvements of rice cultivars by increasing productivity,
tolerance to stress, and broader adaptation in material with desirable quality characteristics.
B—
Quality and New Types
Although breeders use a number of physical criteria and physicochemical tests to screen and identify desired rice grain quality, there is still much that is not understood.
Breeding for rice quality would benefit greatly from further research and the development of new techniques in this area. Physicochemical tests used to screen cooking
and processing behaviors of rice are not always indicative in breeding material with new or different germplasm bases, suggesting that other factors are controlling the
quality. The nature of rice starch, proteins, endosperm construction, and aromatic and flavor components are of interest in breeding for quality. In some quality types
(like the premium quality medium grains in California), no rapid accurate physicochemical criteria or methods exist to identify these types. A ''rice taste analyzer" has
been developed by Satake Engineering Co., which can quantitatively measure the taste of rice as a digital number from 1 to 100. The system is based on nearinfrared
reflectance (NIR) and is correlated with Japanese quality standards (amylose, protein, moisture, and fatty acids) and taste panels results. NIR techniques are being
studied by the USDA Western Research Laboratory, Albany, CA. The development of new tests and the use of new tools and machinery could be very beneficial to
rice improvement. A better understanding of rice quality and the role that environmental conditions play would also be helpful in rice improvement, processing, and
utilization.
Interest by breeders and marketing organizations has increased in recent years in new market types of rice. These types may be for specialty and ethnic markets or rice
designed for special processing uses. Brown rice is marketed by several organizations. The appearance of the brown rice is important, and the breeder selects for traits
such as color and the absence of immature or green seeds. Proprietary varieties of colored bran (red, purple) and aromatic brown rice are successfully marketed by
the Lundberg Family Farms. Large seeded medium and shortgrain European cultivars (with white belly or high degree of chalkiness) like Arborio demand premium
prices and are popular in dishes like risotto and paella. A limited amount of breeding for these markets is being conducted. Figure 3 shows some specialty types of
rice.
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Figure 3
Specialty types of rice with very large kernels (Arborio), waxy
endosperm, or colored bran in comparison to the premium quality
mediumgrain cultivar M401.
A large volume of broken rice is used in brewing and other processes where head rice yield is of minor importance. Busch Agriculture Resources, Inc. has identified
this as one of their breeding interests. Marketers frequently express interest in developing a very high yielding cultivar where quality characteristics are of minor
importance. LA 110 (86) was developed as an industrial purpose variety. However, it was never extensively grown. In practice, most breeders will keep, incorporate,
and use any exceptionally high yielding lines in their program. Thus, the question is whether the yield advantage is large enough to compete with a broken rice by
product at a much lower price. If demand for broken milled rice exceeds supply and a higher stable price develops, such high yielding, low milling cultivars may appear
in the future.
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Breeding programs at Arkansas and Texas are examining the potential for longgrain types with high amylose contents and low gelatinization temperatures
characteristic of some Asian or South American cultivars. Processors have expressed interest in these types for parboiling and other processed products. These types
have characteristically been discarded in the selection process but may appear as future special purpose cultivars.
Some breeding work has been initiated to develop very high amylose types. An amylose extender mutant developed by K. Okuno in Japan was used to develop a
very high amylose line ae (36M4) at the IRRI (87). This line was introduced to the United States and apparent amylose content of samples grown in the United States
and analyzed at the USDAARS Rice Quality Research Laboratory was 40% amylose, approximately 10% higher amylose than any other known rice (B. D. Webb,
personal communication). Analysis also showed that milled rice of ae (36M4) had a total dietary fiber (TDF) content of ca. 7.5% in comparison to 0.5% for
conventional U.S. rice cultivars (88). The high TDF makes this of interest for a natural, relatively high fiber, ricebased food for health and calorieconscious
consumers. Other uses of very high amylose types might include extruded noodles, food for diabetics (87), or use in amylose films for packaging or other industrial
processes.
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St. Paul, MN.
33. Webb, B. D., and Adair, C. R. (1970). Laboratory parboiling apparatus and methods of evaluating parboiled canning stability of rice. Cereal Chem., 47:708.
34. Webb, B. D., Bollich, C. N., Jackson, B. R., Kanter, D. G., Linscombe, S. D., Moldenhauer, K. A. K., Tseng, S. T., and Peterson, H. D. (1989). Evaluation of
rice quality compounds for named varieties grown in uniform performance tests in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and California (1986–1988). Cooperative
rice quality report 1981–1, Beaumont, TX.
35. Webb, B. D., Bollich, C. N., Jackson, B. R., Kanter, D. G., Linscombe, S. D., Moldenhauer, K. A. K., Tseng, S. T., and Peterson, H. D. (1988). Evaluation of
rice quality components for named varieties grown in uniform performance tests in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and California (1985–1987). Cooperative
rice quality report 1988–1, Beaumont, Texas.
36. Tseng, S. T., Carnahan, H. L., Johnson, C. W., Oster, J. J., Hill, J. E., and Scardaci, S. C. (1984). Registration of 'L202' rice. Crop Sci., 24:1213.
37. Paige, D., Geng, S., and Jongkaerwattana, S. (1991). Apparatus for automatic measurement of kernel weight, length, and thickness. Crop Sci., 31:1314.
38. Bollich, C. N., and Webb, B. D. (1973). Inheritance of amylose in two hybrid populations of rice. Cereal Chem., 50:631.
39. McKenzie, K. S., and Rutger, J. N. (1983). Genetic analysis of amylose content, alkali spreading score, and grain dimensions in rice. Crop Sci., 23:306.
40. Tseng, S. T., and Webb, B. D. (1984). A possible explanation for transgressive segregation for gelatinization temperature in certain rice crosses, Proc. 20th Rice
Tech. Work. Group, Lafayette, LA, June 25–27, 1984. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., College Station, p. 27.
41. Tseng, S. T., Webb, B. D., Bollich, C. N., and Brandon, D. M. (1988). Genetic and environmental influence on longgrain cooking quality, Proc. 22nd Rice
Tech. Work. Group, Davis, CA, June 26–29, 1988. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., College Station, p. 33.
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42. Bollich, C. N., Webb, B. D., Marchetti, M. A., and Scott, J. E. (1980). Registration of 'Newrex' rice. Crop Sci., 20:285.
43. Bollich, C. N., Webb, B. D., Marchetti, M. A., and Scott, J. B. (1990). Registration of 'Rexmont' rice. Crop Sci., 30:1160.
44. Webb, B. D., and Bollich, C. N. (1980). Cooking and processing quality characteristics of Newrex rice, Proc. 18th Rice Tech. Work. Group, Davis, CA, June
17–19, 1980. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., College Station, p. 61.
45. Carnahan, H. L., Johnson, C. W., Tseng, S. T., Oster, J. J., and Hill, J. E. (1982). Registration of 'M201' rice. Crop Sci., 22:1087.
46. Johnston, T. H., Wells, B. R., Marchetti, M. A., Lee, E. N., and Henry, S. E. (1979). Registration of 'Mars' rice. Crop Sci., 19:743.
47. Bollich, C. N., Webb, B. D., Marchetti, M. A., and Scott, J. B. (1990). Registration of 'Rico 1' rice. Crop Sci., 30:1161.
48. Carnahan, H. L., Johnson, C. W., Tseng, S. T., and Brandon, D. M. (1980). Registration of 'S201' rice. Crop Sci., 20:551.
49. Johnson, C. W. (1988). Procedures for breeding high quality shortand mediumgrain rices for California, Proc. 22nd Rice Tech. Work. Group Davis, CA, June
26–29, 1988. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., College Station, p. 34.
50. Johnson, C. W., Camahan, H. L., Tseng, S. T., Oster, J. J., Hill, J. E., Rutger, J. N., and Brandon, D. M. (1989). Registration of 'S101' rice. Crop Sci.,
29:1090.
51. Jodon, N. E., and Sonnier, E. A. (1973). Registration of 'Della' rice. Crop Sci., 13:773.
52. Tseng, S. T., Carnahan, H. L., Johnson, C. W., Oster, J. J., and Hill, J. E. (1987). Registration of 'A301' rice. Crop Sci., 27:1310.
53. Bollich, C. N., Hung, H. H., Webb, B. D., Scott, J. E., and Marchetti, M. A. (1992). Registration of 'Dellmont' rice. Crop Sci. (submitted).
54. Bollich, C. N., Jackson, B. R., Khush, G. S., Webb, B. D., Scott, J. E., and Marchetti, M. A. (1991). Registration of 'Jasmine 85' rice. Crop Sci. (submitted).
55. Choudhury, D., and Gosh, A. K. (1978). Evaluation of agronomic and physicochemical characteristics of fine and scented rice varieties. Indian J. Agric. Sci.,
48:573.
56. Ghose, R. L. M., and Butany, W. T. (1952). Studies on the inheritance of some characters in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Indian Genetics Plant Breed., 12:26.
57. Kadam, B. S., and Palankar, V. K. (1938). Inheritance of aroma. Chrom. Bot., 4:32.
58. Dhulappanavar, C. V. (1976). Inheritance of scent in rice. Euphytica, 25:659.
59. Reddy, P. R., and Sathyanarayanaiah, K. (1980). Inheritance of aroma in rice. Indian J. Plant Breed., 40:327.
60. Berner, D. K., and Hoff, B. J. (1986). Inheritance of scent in American longgrain rice. Crop Sci., 26:876.
61. Tomar, J. B., and Nanda, J. S. (1983). Inheritance of aroma in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Madras Agric. J., 70:491.
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62. Buttery, R. B., Ling, L. C., Juliano, B. O., and Tumbaugh, J. G. (1983). Cooked rice aroma and 2acetyllpyrroline. J. Agric. Food Chem., 30:826.
63. Khush, G. S., and Juliano, B. O. (1985). Breeding for highyielding rices of excellent cooking and eating qualities, Rice Grain Quality and Marketing, IRRI,
Manila, Philippines, p. 61.
64. Deobald, H. J. (1980). Rice flour, Rice Chemistry and Technology (D. F. Houston, ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, p. 264.
65. Luh, B. S., and Liu, Y. K. (1980). Rice flours in baking, Rice: Production and Utilization. AVI Westport, CT, p. 470.
66. Carnahan, H. L., Johnson, C. W., Tseng, S. T., Oster, J. J., and Hill, J. E. (1986). Registration of 'Calmochi101' rice. Crop Sci., 26:197.
67. Bean, M. M., Esser, C. A., and Nishita, K. D. (1984). Some physicochemical and food application characteristics of California waxy rice varieties. Cereal
Chem., 61:475.
68. McKenzie, K. S., Jodon, N. E., Brandon, D. M., Rush, M. C., Robinson, J. F., and Miller, M. F. (1984). Registration of 'TORO2' rice. Crop Sci., 24:1212.
69. Moldenhauer, K. A. K., Gravois, K. A., Norman, R. J., Lee, F. N., Helms, R. S., Wells, B. R., Dilday, R. H., and Rohman, P. C. (1991). Registration of 'Millie'
rice. Crop Sci., 31:229.
70. Geng, S., Williams, J. F., and Hill, J. E. (1984). Harvest moisture effects on rice milling quality. Calif. Agric., 38: 11.
71. Morse, M. D., Lindt, J. P. Oelke, E. A., Brandon, D. M., and Curley, R. G. (1967). The effect of grain moisture at time of harvest on yield and milling quality of
rice. Rice J., 70:16.
72. Dilday, R. H. (1989). Milling quality of rice: Cylinder speed vs. grainmoisture content at harvest. Crop Sci., 29:1532.
73. Tseng, S. T. (1986). Influences of grain type and field draining on grain moisture and milling yield, Proc. 21st Rice Tech. Work. Group, Houston, TX, Feb. 24–
26, 1986. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., College Station, p. 32.
74. Kunze, O. R. (1985). Effect of environment and variety of milling qualities of rice. Rice Grain Quality and Marketing, IRRI, Manila, Philippines.
75. McKenzie, K. S. (1990). Relation of whole kernel brown rice yields to head rice yields, Proc. 23rd Rice Tech. Work. Group, Biloxi, MS, Feb. 26–28, 1990.
Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., College Station, p. 39.
76. Gravois, K. A., Moldenhauer, K. A. K., and Rohman, P. C. (1991). Genetic and genotype x environment effects for rough rice and head rice yields. Crop Sci.,
31:907.
77. Velupillai, L., and Pandey, J. P. (1990). The impact of fissured rice on milling yield. Cereal Chem., 67:118.
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Philippines, p. 49.
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81. Geng, S., and MacGregor, R. (1991). Methods and technology development for head rice improvement in California—heritability investigation for three California
grain types, Annual Report: Comprehensive Rice Research. 1990. University of California, USDA, California Rice Res. Board, Davis, CA, p. 1.
82. JodariKarimi, F., and McKenzie, K. S. (1986). Milling performance of Lemont/Leah F3 lines, Proc. 21st Rice Tech. Work Group, Houston, Feb. 24–26,
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83. Bollich, C. N., MacGill, C., Webb, B. D., Marchetti, M. A., and Scott, J. E. (1991). Registration of 'Texmont' rice. Crop Sci. (submitted).
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6—
New Methods for the Evaluation of Rice Quality and Related Terminology
David E. Kohlwey
Riviana Foods, Inc., Houston, Texas
1—
Introduction
There are few methods in the cereal literature that are specific to rice. Methods used in the food industry are adapted from other cereal products. Some procedures,
such as moisture determinations, are taken directly from standard methods. Others, such as Kjeldahl protein determinations, have minor changes. For example, the
conversion factor for rice protein is 5.95 instead of 6.25, a value used for a variety of other proteins. This chapter gives an industrial view of the state of quality
evaluation, where it is going, and what is useful.
Rice is a unique grain. Unlike most other cereals, it is usually eaten as a cooked intact grain. As a result, the industry has evolved a set of tests that are specific for
examining intact grains. The visual appearance of the grains is the first quality characteristic that the consumer observes. The grades assigned by the United States
Department of Agriculture–Federal Grain Inspection Service (USDAFGIS) revolve around this first quality impression. Two additional quality profiles relate to
cooking performance. First, evaluations from breeding stations screen for traits, which relate to cooking quality and appearance. Second, processors test the suitability
of the material as an ingredient in their products. Another area of examination concerns the functional properties that make rice a good industrial ingredient.
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The final evaluation is done by consumers. When the product appeals to consumers, they select it with repeat purchases.
The segments of the riceproducing and processing industry tend to operate independently of each other. Many of the products and/or concepts of what good quality
products are have evolved along with the region or culture that consumes them. The definition of quality appears to be culturally related (1). The rice industry still has
much to understand and turn into a formal scientific system. Unfortunately, much of what is known is based on subjective evaluation. Subjective evaluation by trained
workers is often the fastest or best quality control method. The following sections will discuss what quality tests are currently used, areas of growth or change, new
tools for examining quality, and the vocabulary associated with these methods.
Today the United States is entering a period where personal computers and factorybased programmable controllers are found at all levels of the processing industry.
Many of the most important developments of the 1980s (and which are still evolving) are a response to having these new tools. They pay their way by increasing yield
and quality. Many of the developments in the future will revolve around online sensors and methods of analysis that permit the programmable controllers to do their
job. Control principles that survive will be reliable, userfriendly, and correlate to or actually be valid quality parameters.
II—
Existing Methods
A—
Breeder Tests
Rice breeders play an important role in producing quality rice. The farmers are the initial customer of the breeders. As a result, the first target of the breeding program
has been improving yield and disease resistance. The second target of the breeding program has been to maintain the cooking quality of the crop. Tests used in the
breeding program are aimed at evaluating small quantities of grain that have progressed past the initial selection process. Breeder tests evaluate appearance and texture
(2–5). Some specialpurpose tests exist for monitoring flavor. Flavor normally is compared to a reference sample by a trained panel or individual.
Examples of breeder tests are listed in Table 1. These procedures primarily screen secondary properties of the rice, which have been correlated to the acceptability of
the cooked product. There are cases where varieties have been developed only to find that the specific cross does not meet the textural, appearance, or processing
expectations of the targeted users. This problem has been minor in the United States since new variety releases tend to carry a significant portion of the genes of the
previous dominant
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Table 1 Typical U.S. Breeder Testsa
Test Purpose (information gained)
Alkali spreading value How thick a paste is—differentiates high amylose
types
Alkali value Ease of cooking (in alkali)—correlates to
gelatinization temperature
Amylograph or RVA Cooked texture and breakdown, gelatinization
temperature
Amylose Correlates to cooked rice firmness
Aromatic flavor Scented type relative to standard type
Cooking rate Optimum cooking time
Cooked grain length Elongation potential of the variety
Firmness Texture of the cooked product; eating quality
Gelatinization temperature Ease of cooking
Grain size Length, width, and height—cultural expectation
related to size and shape
Grain appearance Cosmetic acceptance
Parboil canning loss Suitability for canning
Protein Ease of cooking, nutrition
aThe equipment used and test needs of some foreign breeders are different.
Reference 2 contains details about special tests used in other breeding
programs.
variety. The breeders have done an excellent job of developing the varieties that farmers plant. The United States has a uniform and diseaseresistant source of rice
with which to work.
Processors have been remiss in identifying their needs and guiding breeding developments. This can create havoc in the system. In 1985, the dominant Gulf Coast
varieties of Lebonnet and Tebonnet were replaced by Lemont and Newbonnet in one crop year. The sharp transition had rice processors complaining when the new
crop was harvested. Processors didn't know how to use them. They claimed that Lemont was oily milling. Having worked with these varieties, we can now say that the
Lemont kernel is larger, which results in a longer cooking time. Lemont can be harder to cook (but not always) than Newbonnet since it has a higher gelatinization
temperature. Processors still have not written specifications for the crop that they purchase. They are not likely to. They are again waiting for the next surprise.
B—
Federal Grain Inspection Service Standards
To most processors in the United States, rice quality means compliance with USDAFGIS standards (6,7). The USDAFGIS grading system is the building block
upon which the rest of the U.S. marketing system is built.
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Table 2 Selected Grade Factors for The Federal Grain Inspection Service
Grading factora Purpose (information gained)
Broken kernels Cosmetic, indicates processing quality
Chalky kernels Cosmetic, related to nonuniform cooking
Damaged kernels Cosmetic, related to farm practices
Foreign material Indicates poor processing or storage
Heatdamaged kernels Related to poor storage or processing
Infestation Indicates poor sanitation
Moisture Indicates possible instability
Paddy kernels Indicates poor cleaning
Related material Indicates poor cleaning
Red rice Related to poor farming practices
Objectionable seeds Related to poor cleaning or farming practices
Objectionable odor Suggests poor consumer acceptance
Smutty kernels Indicates a milling loss
Undermilled kernels Cosmetic, sometimes intentionally done
Ungelatinized kernels Cosmetic, nonuniform cooking
aTraits graded for are not forbidden, only quantified.
Source: Refs. 5, 6.
USDAFGIS grades define the economic basis for transferring rice from one processor to the next. It eventually results in the apparent quality of the package that the
consumer will cook and hopefully enjoy. This is not to imply that the consumer considers this quality.
Several of the defects that are classified by USDAFGIS are listed in Table 2. They are appearance, health, and filthrelated. Most of the defects are visual and pose
no health threat. The purpose of USDAFGIS standards is not to eliminate these defects, but to aid in establishing a market value based on named class and defect
level.
The USDAFGIS grading system has worked reasonably well for several reasons: (a) the U.S. crop is quite uniform; (b) the top four varieties historically have been
70–80% of the U.S. crop; and (c) the dominant varieties have been selected such that they are compatible with the American textural expectation for the respective
grain shape. The USDAFGIS standards are aimed at properties that can be controlled with farming practices and/or mechanical processing. This basic level of quality
is sensible since it grades for quality parameters that can be controlled early in the production chain.
C—
Quality Tests for ValueAdded Table Rice
Besides breeder tests and USDAFGIS grades, rice is also evaluated by producers of valueadded table rice products. The United States has several
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processors who cook rice to make a consumer product. These companies cook rice by parboiling, canning, precooking (instantizing), or cooking and then freezing.
These processors have a set of tests that are used to control the quality of the cooked product. Frequently the quality requirements for valueadded table rice are
higher, than USDAFGIS grade minimums. Normally, a processor who sells valueadded table rice starts an evaluation sequence by preparing the product using a
labortory version of the package directions. Some of the extra tests are appearance, flavor, cooked product yield, firmness, color, density, and stability or sterility of
the product. A subjective evaluation frequently is used on hard to measure traits such as flavor. Some facilities establish secondary properties as quality control points.
For example, moisture is frequently used to evaluate stability of a dry product. In reality, stability is a function of water activity.
D—
Quality Tests for Ingredient Rice
Rice is also used as an ingredient in a variety of products other than table rice. The quality evaluation methods used with ingredient rice are as varied as the final
products that are produced. Frequently the form of the rice is modified. A few examples of such rice products are a highly puffable starch, a crispnessinducing agent
in batters, a fat substitute, a hypoallergenic starch and protein, and a fermentable substrate with a bland flavor. In each product, rice is used for a specific function. A
processor might look at free fatty acids in rice oil as a negative characteristic if they are concerned with flavor, yet consider them a positive characteristic if interested in
cooking stability (thickening power). A batter manufacturer may not want their starch to gelatinize, while an instant beverage producer may attempt to develop the
highest level of gelatinization possible.
The type of testing of interest to ingredient rice processors varies dramatically. The properties that are of importance are directly related to a specific rice product.
They are generally not related to the properties that are important for table rice quality. The tests used by rice ingredient manufacturers are normally borrowed from
methods used with other, nonrice ingredients. The focus of this chapter is on the evaluation of rice as intact kernels. Ingredient rice products and their evaluation is best
dealt with relative to the function they fill in a specific end product.
III—
New Methods
American tastes are becoming more diversified and convenience oriented. In the United States, we have seen the introduction of foreign rice products along with the
novel rices that are ingredients in these products. Many of
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these products do not fit traditional American crop goals. Much of the growth in rice consumption in the 1980s was in specialty rices (8,9). Examples of these are
scented, elongating, waxy, sticky, dry cooking, quick cooking, and instant types. The rice marketers, growers, and processors have endeavored to fill these new
needs. The U.S. rice industry needs to adapt and improve these nonU.S. varieties and the food products made from them.
The forces at work on the U.S. crop also exist in other countries. Many regional tastes exist. They are beginning to be blended. Scandinavians consider good rice to
be a breakfast porridge made by simmering round grain rice with milk. Germans prefer U.S. quality. Italians like an al dente (firm textured) risotto made with an
arborio (japonica) rice. However, Italians are increasingly planting long grain (indica) types. Asians also are trying different rice products. They traditionally prefer a
soft, more adhesive, yet nonstarchy rice. This preference is changing. In Japan, it is possible to find new products such as rice pilaf, which uses indica rice.
Asians have evolved a multitude of unique specialty nontable rice products. They range from sake to puffed rice to rice noodles. These products are making an entry
into other parts of the world. At some point U.S. processors will become interested in these products as they consider potentially lost sales revenues. They will need
the raw feed stock(s) for making these foreign products. They also need an understanding of good quality. In some cases the quality bias will be different. As an
example, Japanese consumers of rice crackers have a low tolerance for adhesiveness and gumminess traits. The American snack consumer, however, will not always
reject or even detect these traits. They are accustomed to eating several types of extruded cereals and snacks, which have enough adhesiveness to create tooth pack.
The need for improved understanding of foreign rice is increasing. The world's rice germplasm is becoming mixed to improve global crop yields. We are also looking at
the new world of biotechnology. Gene transfer will make it possible to put traits into the grain that do not exist now. We did not or could not tell the breeders how to
select for the varieties of the last decade. How will we tell the biotechnologists what traits we want in rice during the next decade?
A—
Cooking
Much of the quality of a rice product is dependent on the way the product is cooked. This is a key point since different methods of cooking will produce different
textures and appearances. A well cooked rice by U.S. standards is probably too soft for most Europeans and not sticky enough for most
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Orientals. Significant differences in what is considered good quality exist in other parts of the world. It is surprising that the U.S. melting pot of cultures has historically
been a relatively homogeneous market.
Two basic test cooking methods exist: (a) cooking in excess water and (b) cooking with measured amounts of rice and water. The rice may either be simmered in
water or with instantized and some precooked products, brought to a boil, and then removed from the heat. With either cook method, the length and type of cooking
test method should mirror the package directions for the product. Several products have made it to the U.S. market that specify microwave cooking or give it as an
alternative cooking method. Microwave energy for heating is not the preferred standard. A microwave cook test is hard to standardize and translate to a lab test.
Consumers have many sizes of ovens, and decreased output of microwave power occurs as an oven ages.
The dominant industrial test cooking method in the United States is excess water cooking. The excess water method is easy to reproduce and reflects instructions that
exist on a number of American and European products. The procedure can be performed on a stove top (preferably gas) or with an electric precision cooker. The
precision cooker is used to improve reproducibility among different users. In the precision cooker, time is held constant and the power input is adjusted (10). The
cooker can be calibrated by measuring the loss of water mass when a cooking cycle is run. The power source, a rheostat, is then adjusted to bring the cooker into a
standard power input range. This method of cooking reflects the rate at which the rice cooks.
The second test method, cooking with exact ratios of rice and water, is more popular in breeding labs. The method can be adapted to smaller samples and to recipes
used with local consumers. Exact ratio cooking is typically done in a Japanese rice cooker. In principal, a Japanese rice cooker inputs heat at rated power until the free
water is consumed. This is detected when a set temperature above boiling is reached (11,12). This means that time is variable. For this test method, it is assumed that
all the water is absorbed or used in steaming. As a result a target yield will be reproduced.
Rice quality depends upon the target against which one cooks. The target varies significantly in specialty rices by locality, product and the manufacturer's desire for
market uniformity or marketable difference. The product should be prepared using package directions. The acceptance/rejection criteria can be on a yield or firmness
basis. Breeders and processors need better methods that quantitate the possible differences. They also need to be able to evaluate causes of differences. Texture
analysis fills part of this need.
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B—
Texture
This section considers the measurement of rice texture and the types of textural properties that can be measured (13–17, L.J. Malcomson, personal communication).
Szczesniak (15) developed a series of basic textural terms that can be used to evaluate food texture. These basic food terms have been expanded to include ranges
and conditions that are applicable to rice (18) (Table 3). These textural properties or universal texture profile can be
Table 3 Texture Definitions Related to Cooked Rice
Firmness Force required to compress cooked rice between the molar teeth
on the first chew. The degree can range from soft (low), firm
(middle), to hard (high) degree of firmness. (Also called hardness
in texture literature.)
Adhesiveness Force required to remove cooked rice that adheres to the mouth
(during eating), itself, and serving utensils. The degree can vary
from flaky (low) to sticky (high).
Springiness Degree to which cooked rice returns to its original shape once it
has been compressed between the teeth. The degree can vary
from viscuous flow (low) to rubbery (high).
Cohesiveness Internal force holding a grain together before it breaks, when
compressed between the teeth. The degree can vary from mushy
(low), tender (middle), to leathery (high) or brittle in al dente
cooked rice (high).
Chewiness Length of time (in seconds) required to masticate cooked rice at a
constant rate of force application to reduce it to a consistency
suitable for swallowing.
Fracturability Force with which cooked rice crumbles. A high degree would be a
rice with a high degree of hardness and a low degree of
cohesiveness.
Gumminess Denseness that persists throughout mastication; the energy
required to disintegrate cooked rice to a state ready for
swallowing. This term is a composite of hardness and
cohesiveness. Degree would range from mealy (low) to gummy
(high).
Starchiness Describes the type of surface moistness. The condition can range
from dry and flaky (low) to wet and starchy (high). The center of
the grain will typically have a harder texture and contribute a raw
flavor.
Tooth pack Relates to bits of cooked rice sufficiently adhesive and gummy
that they lodge in the cusps of the molar teeth. This is primarily a
defect with extrusioncooked rice, but can be found in precooked
rice that is not fully cooked.
Source: Refs. 15, 17, 18, L. J. Malcomson, personal communication.
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measured by compressing and releasing a product in a cyclical chewing pattern. Initially, a Texturometer and later an Instron universal testing machine was used to
perform this procedure.
The complete universal texture profile has not been implemented in the rice industry. Mossman et al. (19) described a procedure specific for measuring rice
adhesiveness. This procedure contains lengthy instructions such as aging the cooked sample for one hour at room temperature. The aging step gives excellent
reproducibility. However, the texture of rice is time sensitive. The results change as the product ages. Does aging generate an artifact that does not reflect your
consumer's behavior? For U.S. consumers, it frequently does. One case where consumers might see aged rice is on the steam table. Steam tables can make the
product more firm and rubbery or adhesive and diminish the surface appearance. The goal of a test has to be to reflect what the consumer will find when he or she is
doing the final evaluation.
Several instruments can run a universal texture profile. The Texturometer is in use in Japan to generate a chewing cycle similar to the chewing cycle developed by
Szczesniak (20). Several vendors have introduced instruments capable of generating a universal texture profile. One such instrument, the universal testing machine, is
pictured in Figure 1.
Figure 2 is an example of two universal texture profiles of U.S. Lemont variety white rice. When cooked using package directions, the white rice has significant
adhesiveness, and the precooked parboiled rice does not. The firmness and other traits are similar. These profiles were generated with 2 g of freshly cooked rice. The
piston starts at 5.0 mm of clearance above the base. It is brought down toward the sample at a rate of 10 mm/min to a clearance of 0.5 mm. It is raised at a rate of 10
mm/min to 2.0 mm and then a repeat cycle is performed. The main points to note are the firmness (resistance to compression/flow), adhesiveness (force holding the
piston to the table as it is lifted), and springiness (the degree of symmetry of the compression strokes).
For reproducibility and convenience, the universal testing machine should be computer controlled with an automatic cycle. The scan can then be recorded, and finished
results can be automatically calculated. The main disadvantage to producing texture profiles is that they are timeconsuming to generate. The main advantages of a
texture profile are that a very small sample can be tested and several texture parameters can be calculated from the same test. A major source of error in texture profile
analysis is the accuracy of piston positioning.
If one is approaching textural choices from a breeder or researcher point of view, it is possible to see major changes in a texture profile. It is also possible to see major
differences when comparing rice (O. sativa, L.) to
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Figure 1
Instron Universal Testing Machine with piston and anvil compression fittings.
(Courtesy of Instron USA Inc., Canton, MA.)
other grains such as wild rice, pasta (wheat), or bulgur. U.S. rice processors adjust their product to give the consumer both consistent yield and degree of firmness
when the product is cooked using the package directions. Consumers who limit themselves to processed U.S. rice varieties will primarily see differences in firmness
(peak force). The product will normally not be excessively rubbery (high springiness) or adhesive. In contrast, the methods that come from Japan address adhesiveness
as one of the most important texture traits. Notable springiness and cohesiveness are found with some European rice products.
In the U.S. rice industry, the primary method used to measure firmness is the Kramer shear cell (21, P. Twigg, personal communication). Figure 3 shows a Kramer
shear cell on a Food Technology Corporation (FTC) shear press. The Kramer CS2 cell is a metal box and cover with 13 grooves and a matching set of blades. The
blades penetrate through the rice contained in the box part of the cell. The test can be run on a shear press, universal testing machine, or similar forcemeasuring
device. The procedure for the
Page 123
Figure 2
A texture profile of white and precooked, parboiled Lemont
variety rice developed with the Instron Universal Testing
Machine. Both rices were cooked following package directions.
(Courtesy of Riviana Foods, Houston, TX.)
test is as follows: One hundred grams of cooked rice are placed in the cell. The cell (box) is closed and slid into the blades, which hang from a load cell. The blades
are forced down through the sample and the peak force is recorded as the shear value. The test is sufficient for measuring firmness. Cooking time, holding time, and
sample size must be accurately controlled since they are major sources of error.
An alternate method to measure firmness is used in the U.S. breeding program: the Pabst texture tester (2, R. Pabst, personal communication). The Pabst cell is a
smaller version of the Kramer shear cell. The advantage of the Pabst instrument is that it consumes less rice than the Kramer shear cell (10 g cooked weight). This
increases the variability on single repetition tests. For industrial testers, the amount of rice is not a problem. They use the larger 100g sample to have an averaging
effect that reduces the error.
Recently the European Community (EC) (22) established definitions to be used for the evaluation of indica versus japonica varieties of rice. These are the first official
methods to use parts of the Szczesniak terminology (see Table 3). They use the adhesiveness term and call it ''glutinosity." The firmness character is measured as
"consistency." The adhesiveness test is run by compressing 2 g of cooked rice under a piston and then recording
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Figure 3
Texture press with a CS2 Kramer shear cell.
(Courtesy of Food Technology Corporation, Rockville, MD.)
Page 125
2
the work [force (g) × distance (mm)] required to pull the piston away from the sample. The EC procedure measures firmness with a modified 50mm Ottawa test cell.
This is an extrusiontype cell where a piston is forced down on a sample, pushing it through a perforated plate. The mean force during extrusion is used as the result.
The Kramer and Ottawa results relate to firmness. The cycle time per test is similar. The practical differences between the methods is that the Ottawa cell is a more
durable type of cell and cleaning is not as critical.
Not all textural terms are monitored. This reflects each culture's needs seen with locally available rice. The traits of cohesiveness, springiness, chewiness, and
gumminess exist, however, they are of concern primarily when radically different types of rice are introduced to a new area or with processing that changes these
textural characteristics. Normally the consumer is not exposed to variables in these areas. Fracturability is not a significant property with warm cooked rice. The
firmness measurements obtained with the Ottawa, Pabst, and Kramer cells and those obtained as a universal textural profile can be correlated with each other. The
relevant property producing firmness in cooked milled rice is resistance to flow (viscous flow). Changing the sample to cooked brown rice which has the bran layer
adds a true shear force. Flow and viscosity measurement will be discussed in the following section.
A final comment on the need for texture measurement needs to be made. For most processors and consumers, a simple subjective cook and taste test is all that is
done. Mechanical texture analysis attempts to quantify these subjective chewing (taste) impressions. Measuring firmness and other texture traits consistently is difficult.
Ask yourself, "What is possible to control?" and "How much do I need to measure?"
C—
Viscosity
The standard method to examine thickening ability and gelatinization of rice has been the Brabender ViscoAmylograph. Figure 4 shows a new tool that is taking over
this task. It is the Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) (23,24). With both instruments, the gelatinization temperature of rice starch can be measured. In addition, the cooking
quality of raw rice and the degree and/or type of cooking or processing of the grain can be estimated. These instruments operate by cooking a slurry of flour and
water. The temperature and corresponding viscosity are recorded as the slurry is heated.
Both instruments can measure viscosity versus temperature (time). When operated properly, either viscogram can accurately determine transition temperatures and find
steadystate viscosities of the flour slurry before it is heated, during cooking, and after the slurry is cooled. The flour used
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Figure 4
Rapid Visco Analyzer viscositymeasuring device.
(Courtesy of Foss Food Technology Corp., Eden Prairie, MN.)
Page 127
on either instrument needs to have a controlled particle size. Largeparticle flours shift viscosity profiles to higher temperatures. Minus fifty mesh material is suitable.
Both instruments should have the solids level in the cooked slurry adjusted to compensate for sample moisture. The RVA can scale its output as centipoise or to
approximate the arbitrary Brabender units. The RVA generates a higher shear than the amylograph. As a result, the stability of cooked pastes appears to be less.
The older amylograph has limited use with breeders. It uses 50 g of dry matter, versus 3–4 g used with the RVA. The RVA can produce a quick scan in 9 minutes. A
2° per minute scan produces accurate transition temperatures but takes 39 min. In contrast, a complete amylograph scan takes 75–90 min (2). Other advantages of
the RVA are: (a) the sample contact parts are disposable, (b) a computer analysis program exists to read the scan, and (c) the computercontrolled RVAC3 can be
programmed for multiple heating, holding, and/or cooling cycles. New models of both devices are available, which are adapted for computer control.
It should be mentioned that viscosity analysis is also used in some ingredient rice methods. Figure 5 shows RVA viscosity profiles, which are generated with several
rice flours at 11.67% dry solids (3.5 g of flour, dry basis, slurried with distilled water to make 30 g). The initial viscosity increases with the degree of gelatinization. A
raw flour will have a relatively flat profile until the gelatinization temperature is reached, at which time the viscosity will increase. The RVA paddle produces more shear
than an amylograph. As a result, the relative effect of poor cooking stability is reflected by a greater precentage decrease in the hot and cool paste viscosity.
One problem common to both devices is that a skilled operator is required to fully interpret a scan. There are multiple sample factors that can cause similar effects in a
scan (25–29). For routine quality control, measurement of the initial, peak, and cool paste viscosities are sufficient.
D—
Calorimetry
A new family of instruments that can determine starch gelatinization temperatures, the amount of energy required to gelatinize starch, and the extent of starch
gelatinization are the Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) and the Differential Thermal Analyzer (DTA). The DSC measures the rate of energy input required to
maintain a set rate of temperature increase. The DTA measures the difference in temperature relative to a standard mass being heated at the same time. Calorimetry
has potential usefulness early in the selection process of breeding programs to select differences in cooking properties between varieties (30–33). Normally, only a few
milligrams of rice flour/starch and water are needed to perform a
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Figure 5
Rapid Visco Analyzer viscosity profiles of RL100 raw flour, RP100 parboiled flour, L100 Rice Gel, and extrusioncooked,
highly gelatinized rice flour.
(Courtesy of Riviana Foods, Houston, TX.)
scan. The energy consumed in the gelatinization process is measured. Figure 6 shows DTA scans of three varieties of rice. Figure 7 shows the Brabender viscosity
profiles for the same rices. The low gelatinization temperature (GT), high amylose variety (Gui Chow) gelatinizes at 80°C (Figs. 6 and 7). The high GT, high amylose
variety (Century Patina 231) gelatinizes at 94°C (Figs. 6 and 7). The dominant U.S. varieties (such as Lemont) typically have intermediate GT and amylose contents
(Figs. 6 and 7). Potential problems, such as processing differences in new varieties, could be identified before variety release.
E—
Taste/NIR
An interesting new tool has been developed to give an index of taste in rice—the Satake Rice Taste Analyzer (34). It is a near infrared (NIR) analyzer that reads the
levels of carboyhydrate, protein, moisture, free fatty acids, and "unidentified other components" in rice. Work done at Riviana Foods suggests that the "unidentified
components" may include
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Figure 6
Differential thermal analysis energy scans of three different
cooking types of rice at approximately 9% solids. Gui Chow:
high amylose, low gelatinization temperature (GT); Century
Patina 231: high amylose, high GT; and Lemont: intermediate
amylose and intermediate GT.
(Courtesy of USDAARS, Beaumont, TX, and Riviana Foods,
Houston, TX.)
water activity. The test consists of grinding a small sample, approximately 40 g, tempering it for a hour, and then taking a reading in the NIR analyzer. The results are
computer analyzed and give a predicted taste value. At this time the device is available only in Japan.
The concept of good rice taste in Japan is different from much of the United States. The taste analyzer is an aid in blending old rice (poor quality) with fresh rice (good
quality). The American application of NIR is twofold. It could give a relative age index (new crop vs. old crop) for rice going to rice cakes or other applications that
require puffing. NIR could also give a relative age index, which would relate to the free grain trait that many American consumers expect. NIR is a rapid, excellent tool
for rice analysis. Care needs to be taken to assure that the sample analysis procedure is uniform. For example, wear on the grinding plate in the mill or tempering for
random time periods will change the reading.
F—
Vision System
Many defects in rice are appearance characteristics. For example, appearance defects account for 13 of the 15 USDAFGIS identified grading factors listed in Table
2. They are presently counted or enumerated manually
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Figure 7
Brabender viscosity profiles of three rice varieties at 9% solids.
Gui Chow: high amylose, low gelatinization temperature (GT);
Century Patina 231; high amylose, high GT; and Lemont:
intermediate amylose and intermediate GT.
(Courtesy of USDAARS, Beaumont, TX, and Riviana Foods,
Houston, TX.)
by graders who pick them by hand. The advent of inexpensive high speed computers and frame grabber (digitizing) boards makes it possible to automate routine
appearance analysis. The name of this type of computerbased package is a vision system. A vision system consists of a video camera or line scanner which feeds a
signal to a frame grabber board in a computer. The computer then runs the digitized image through a series of software filters to categorize the items that the camera
"sees." Figure 8 shows an example of such a system.
The frame grabber board is a recent development (R. Meyer, personal communication). The IBMcompatible black and white frame grabber board became available
in 1988. The color version became available in late 1990. The chief limit on present systems is that most cameras and frame grabbers are limited to 760 × 1040 pixels
of resolution. This limits the sample to 10 g or less. Sample size depends on the size of the trait being examined. To examine larger samples, multiple repetitions need to
be done. Also, the imaged sample should have all grains separated and not touching. A mechanical system for presenting the grain is not available as an offtheshelf
item. Camerabased vision systems have enough flexibility
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Figure 8
A vision system being used to examine rice.
(Courtesy of Meyer Instruments, Houston, TX.)
to analyze both cooked and dry rice. Several vendors who sell components and turnkey systems are listed in the appendix. Software is the heart of the system. It
determines what hardware is compatible, what can be counted or seen from an image, and how easy the system is to use. As a result, the vendors listed in the
appendix are mainly software producers.
A second type of vision system operates as a line scanner (similar to a facsimile machine). It views single grains as they travel on a belt or slide. Satake has developed
a line scanner based system in Japan (R. Bashiki, personal communication). It can identify defects ranging from peck to cracked grains. The U.S. prototype is
undergoing refinement to permit it to judge American quality factors. The Satake vision package includes a mechanical kicker to segregate different classes into
separate bins. The main limits with this system are: (a) it can only be used on dry rice, (b) it operates in black and white, and (c) the type of analysis performed cannot
be varied. The advantage of the line scanner is that it can check larger samples with greater resolution.
Features to look for in a vision system are: (a) ease of use, (b) ability to change or recalibrate selection criteria, (c) macros that permit repetitive
Page 132
analysis, (d) compatibility with other hardware, and (e) subpixel calculated resolution. Lighting is a critical factor in image analysis. It can produce artifacts or help to
visualize specific parts of the image. These systems are close to the point where they can automate visual analysis.
G—
Data Systems
In the introduction, computers and programmable controllers were mentioned. The tool that is having the greatest impact on the rice industry is the computer. The tools
described so far in this chapter generate new information. Most of them exist only because of computer drivers. Online sensors connected to programmable
controllers have reduced the need for labor to produce products. Personal and minicomputers permit handling of numerous data and deciding what is useful and real.
The ability to automate testing and data collection is even improving the efficiency of old testing methods. An industrial example of this is a computerdriven robot
which can perform, unattended, chromatographic vitamin analyses. Another example has been the automated determination of amylose in the U.S. breeding program.
One major problem with the current family of computers and computerdriven equipment is that data and software drivers are not always compatible. If a
computerized laboratory were set up with the instruments and methods described, there would be separate software drivers for each piece of equipment. This requires
operators who are skilled in multiple software systems as well as analytical devices. Some instruments are so userunfriendly that they need a computer programmer to
develop software to make the instrument compatible with a particular device driver. Any person or organization setting up and staffing a laboratory on a budget should
demand compatibility.
One area where compatibility of laboratory instruments is occurring is with multitasking software systems. It is desirable for lab equipment to be able to operate in a
multitasking environment. Singletask computers reduce the productivity of their operators. At this time, several software programs are multitasking compatible. Some
robotic chromatography, calorimetry, and vision systems use a multitasking environment. An alternate method for compiling results is to feed data to a separate
computerdriven Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS).
H—
Other New Methods
Methods are needed to explain the role that starch and its interaction with water plays during cooking. At present, published research is not available to answer the
question, "What happens, on a molecular level, during the
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cooking of rice?'' Since rice is eatean as a whole grain, the location and rate of movement of water is important. Multiple molecular and macromolecular events occur
during rice cooking (12,26). They need to be examined together to be understood. Also, water activity influences the cooking characteristics of the rice. Rice shifts to
a lower equilibrium moisture curve as the temperature is raised (35–37). This occurs with a decrease in adhesiveness. When growing rice in a cool climate, the
apparent amylose content increases. High amylose correlates with firm, flaky rice, yet a crop grown in a cool climate has less firmness and more adhesiveness. A
genetic component also exists. Rexmont and L202 both are high amylose types, yet L202 is significantly softer than Rexmont. Little is known about the fine structure
of starch. How do water, starch, lipid, and protein in rice interact to produce different textures after cooking?
Magnetic resonance imaging (38,39), electronic spin resonance (40, and gel permeation chromatography (41,42) are a few of the new methods that will help answer
the questions posed in the preceding paragraph. To be effective they need to help explain results generated by the other methods described in this chapter.
IV—
Conclusions
The rice industry has few methods that are specific to rice. Our understanding of our crop is primitive. Many of the things that we know from experience have yet to be
explained. We have tended to view quality in terms of how many pounds of clean rice we can sell to the consumer. The resulting variability in cooked quality may be a
major reason why per capita rice consumption in the United States is low.
The rice industry has new tools available that permit the examination of external and internal characteristics of the grain. Future research needs to develop predictive
models to explain quality. This will enable us to efficiently breed new varieties and effectively control processes for this unique grain.
Appendix A Partial List of Vendors of Quality Measurement Equipmenta
Equipment Vendor
Cooking
Precision Cooker Precision Engineered Products
Houston, TX
Thermal Analysis—Flow Properties
ViscoAmylograph C. W. Brabender Corp.
South Hackensack, NJ
(table continued on next page)
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Appendix Continued
Equipment Vendor
TMA (Thermal Mechanical Analyzer) DuPont Instrument Systems
Wilmington, DE
RVA (Rapid ViscoAnalyzer) Foss Food Technology Corp
Eden Prairie, MN
TMA (Thermal Mechanical Analyzer) Shimadzu Scientific Instruments
Columbia, MD
Thermal Analysis—Energy
DSCb DuPont Instrument Systems
Wilmington, DE
DSC and DTAc Mettler Instrument Corp.
Highstown, NJ
DSC PerkinElmer Corp.
Pomona, CA
DSC and DTA Shimadzu Scientific Instruments
Columbia, MD
Texture
Universal Testing Machine Instron Corporation U.S.A.
Canton, MS
Shear Press Food Technology Corporation
Rockville, MD
Universal Testing Machine Lloyd Instruments
King of Prussia, PA
Texturometer Seiben Hiko Ltd.
Tokyo, Japan
Pabst Texture Tester Precision Engineered Products
Houston, TX
Universal Texture Analyzer Texture Technologies
Scarsdale, NY
Taste/Cooked Character (NIR)
Rice Taste Analyzer Satake U.S.A. Inc.
Houston, TX
Color
Colorimeter Hunter Lab Inc.
Reston, VA
Milling Degree Meter Satake U.S.A. Inc.
Houston, TX
Vision Systems/Components
Software American Inovision
San Diego, CA
Software Automatix Inc.
Billerica, MA
(table continued on next page)
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Appendix Continued
Equipment Vendor
Software BioScan Inc.
Edmonds, WA
Software Jandel Scientific
Corte Madera, CA
System Olympus
Lake Success, NY
System Zeiss
Thornywood, NY
Camera Photometrics
Tucson, AZ
aA reference to a company or product name does not imply approval or
recommendation of the product to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. The list
of vendors is intended to only be a starting point in equipment sourcing.
bDSC = Differential Scanning Calorimeter.
cDTA = Differential Thermal Analyzer.
References
1. Efferson, J. N. (1985). Rice quality in world markets, Proceedings of The Workshop on Rice Grain Quality and Marketing, International Rice Research Institute,
Los Banos, Philippines, p. 1.
2. Juliano, B. O. (1982). An international survey of methods used for evaluation of the cooking and eating qualities of milled rice, IRRI Research paper No. 77.
3. Juliano, B. O., et al. (1981). International cooperative comparison of instrument methods for cooked rice texture. J. Texture Stud., 12:17.
4. Webb, B. D. (1980). Rice quality and grades, Rice Production and Utilization (B. S. Luh, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, p. 543.
5. Juliano, B. O. (1985). Criteria and tests for rice grain qualities, Rice Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN, p. 443.
6. Federal Grain Inspection Service. (1989). United States standards for rice, Federal Grain Inspection Service.
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8. Dziezak, J. D. (1991). Romancing the kernel: A salute to rice varieties. Food Technol., 45:74.
9. Cramer, G. L., Taylor, E. L., and Wailes, E. J. (1990). Growth in U.S. aromatic rice consumption. Arkansas Farm Res., (January):
10. Pabst, R. (1977). Precision Cooker Instruction Manual. PEP Inc., Houston, TX.
11. Onishi, M., Ito, K., and Asahi, M. (1987). Method for cooking rice. U.S. Patent 4,670,282.
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12. Onishi, M., Ito, K., and Asahi, M. (1987). Apparatus for cooking rice substantially under atmospheric pressure. U.S. Patent 4,672,179.
13. Friedman, H. H., Whitney, J. E., and Szczesniak, A. S. (1963). The texturometer—a new instrument for objective texture measurement. J. Food Sci., 28:390.
14. Szczesniak, A. S. (1963). Objective measurements of food texture. J. Food Sci., 28:410.
15. Szczesniak, A. S. (1963). Classification of textural characteristics. J. Food Sci., 28:385.
16. Larmond, E. (1976). The texture profile, Rheology and Texture in Food Quality (De Man, Voisey, Rasper, and Stanley, eds.), AVI, Westport, CT, p. 546.
17. Mioche, L., Auroy, P., Lepetit, J., and Compagnon, D. (1991). Oral perception of hardness in viscoelastic products. J. Texture Stud., 22:333.
18. Kohlwey, D. E., Sharp, R. L., McCaskill, D. and James C. (1989). Proposed rice quality terminology and definitions. Presented before the Rice Milling and
Quality Committee, 1989 American Association of Cereal Chemists Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C.
19. Mossmann, A. P., Fellers, D. A., and Suzuki, H. (1983). Rice stickiness: I. Determination of rice stickiness with an instron tester. Cereal Chem., 60:286.
20. Tsuji, S. (1981). Texture measurement of cooked rice kernels using the multiplepoint menstration method. J. Texture Stud., 12:93.
21. Abraham T. E., Malfait, J. L., and White, A. J. (1990). Process for producing instantized parboiled rice. U.S. Patent 4,952,416.
22. (1988). Methods of analysis, II. Qualitative characteristics; IIa. Glutinosity; IIb. Consistency. Off. J. Eur. Communities, No. L 230/10 Annex I.
23. Welsh, L. A., Blakeney, A. B., and Bannon, D. R. (1983). Modified R. V. A. for rice flour viscometry. Unpublished method, Yanco Agricultural Institute, Yanco,
N.S.W., Australia.
24. Deffenbaugh, L. B., and Walker, C. E. (1989). Comparison of starch pasting properties in the brabender viscoamylograph and the rapid viscoanalyzer. Cereal
Chem., 66:493.
25. Dolan, K. D. and Steffe, J. F. (1990). Modeling rheological behavior of gelatinizing starch solutions using viscometry data. J. Texture Stud., 21:265.
26. Kohlwey, D. E. (1992). Rice viscograms: What traits are we breeding for? Presented at the 25th Rice Technical Working Group, Little Rock, AR.
27. Rasper, V. (1982). Theoretical aspects of amylography. The Amylograph Handbook (W. C. Shuey and K. H. Tipples, eds.), American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN, p. 1.
28. Sandhya Rani, M. R., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1989). Rheology of riceflour pastes: Effect of variety, concentration, and temperature and time of cooking. J.
Texture Stud., 20:127.
29. Sandhya Rani, M. R., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1989). Slurry viscosity as a possible indicator of rice quality. J. Texture Stud., 20:139.
30. Nakazawa, F., et al. (1984). Thermal equilibrium state of starchwater mixture studied by differential scanning calorimetry. Agric. Biol. Chem., 48:2647.
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31. Biliaderis, C. G., Page, C. M., Maurice, T. J., and Juliano, B. O. (1986). Thermal characterization of rice starches: A polymeric approach to phase transitions of
granular starch. J. Agric. Food Chem., 34:6.
32. Normand, F. L., and Marshall, W. E. (1989). Differential scanning calorimetry of whole grain milled rice and milled rice flour. Cereal Chem., 66:317.
33. Wirakartakusumah, M. (1981). Kinetics of starch gelatinization and water absorption in rice, Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
34. (1990). Rice taste analyzer (Satake sales literature), Satake Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.
35. Fellers, D. A., Mossmann, A. P., and Suzuki, H. (1983). Rice stickiness. II. Application of an instron method to make varietal comparisons and to study
modification of milled rice by hotair treatment. Cereal Chem., 60:292.
36. Gras, P. W., et al. (1989). A quantitative study of the influences of temperature, water activity and storage atmosphere on the yellowing of milled rice. J. Cereal
Sci., 9:77.
37. Kohlwey, D. E. (1991). How milling occurs in rice—A physical chemistry model. Presented at the 76th annual meeting of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists, Seattle, WA.
38. Hyesook, L., Sobczynska, D., and Setser, C. (1989). O17 NMR studies on wheat starchsucrosewater interactions with increasing temperature. Presented at the
Institute of Food Technologists 1989 annual meeting, Dallas TX.
39. Song, H., and Litchfield, J. B. (1990). Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging of transient threedimensional moisture distribution in an ear of corn during drying.
Cereal Chem., 67:580.
40. Johnson, J. M., Davis, E. A., and Gordon, J. (1990). Lipid binding of modified corn starches studied by electron spin resonance. Cereal Chem., 67:236.
41. Mahanta, C. L., and Bhattacharya, K. R., (1989). Thermal degredation of starch in parboiled rice. Starch/Stärke, 41:91.
42. Griffin, V. K., Hamaker, B. R., Russell, J., and Anderson, A., (1992). Influence of protein on rice starch gelatinization. Presented at the 25th Rice Technical
Working Group, Little Rock, AR.
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7—
Degree of Milling
James I. Wadsworth
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
The purpose of rice milling is to produce an edible polished or white rice product from harvested, dried rough rice. In the rice industry, milling can refer to either the
overall operations of a rice processing plant—cleaning, shelling, bran removal, size separation, etc.—or simply to the one operation concerned with the removal of the
bran or outer layers from brown rice to produce a whole grain white rice product. For this discussion, we are using the term rice milling to describe the latter process.
The brown rice kernel (caryopsis) consists of bran (several histologically identifiable soft layers and the soft embryo, or germ) surrounding the hard starchy endosperm
(milled rice kernel). Three distinct layers make up the caryopsis coat: the pericarp (consisting of epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp), the seed coat or tegmen
(consisting of spermoderm and perisperm), and the aleurone layer, which encloses both the starchy endosperm and the embryo. The weight distribution of the various
parts of the rice caryopsis is as follows: pericarp (1–2%), seed coat and aleurone (5%), embryo (2–3%), and endosperm (89–91%) (1). The starchy endosperm is
the whitest portion of the caryopsis. Generally, the whiter the milled rice, the more value it has in the market place. Consequently, the ultimate objective of milling is to
leave the starchy endosperm free of its coverings, including the embryo.
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The term "degree of milling" refers to the quantity of bran and polish removed from the brown rice during the rice milling operation. The degree of milling is usually
expressed quantitatively as a percentage of the rice kernel or qualitatively by various descriptive terms such as "wellmilled." Degree of milling is an important factor
related to the quality and nutritional value of the milled rice and to the economic return to the rice processor. A practical and reliable method for determining and
controlling the degree of milling of rice has long been wanted by the rice industry and trade and research communities. This chapter will discuss the importance of
degree of milling in rice processing, review the literature for techniques that have been used to assess rice degree of milling, and discuss in detail a method using near
infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy that is suitable for online determination and control of degree of milling.
II—
Economic Aspects
A—
Grading
In the United States, the degree of milling is one of the grading factors that determine the overall quality grade assigned by the USDA to milled rice (2). For each grade
level there are set maximum limits for objectional factors such as broken kernels, weed seeds, damaged kernels, chalky kernels, etc. The maximum allowable limits of
the objectionable factors increase with decrease in degree of milling so that the less wellmilled rices are of generally lower quality and bring a lower price on the
market. From an economic standpoint, the more bran removed during milling, the less milled product the miller has left to sell. The rice miller does not want to remove
more bran than is necessary to achieve the maximum quality grade for each rice lot. Thus, it is very important that the miller is able to measure and control the degree
of milling during processing.
B—
Head Yield
Head rice (unbroken kernel) yield is another very important economic factor for marketing rice; broken rice sells for approximately one half the price of whole kernel
rice. The degree of milling achieved in a rice mill can be adjusted by changing either the milling time or the milling pressure. As a general rule, head rice yields decrease
as degree of milling increases (3). Autrey et al. (4), Rhind (5), Hogan (6), and Bajaj and Sidhu (7) all have reported results showing that both degree of milling and
breakage increased as milling time was extended. Matthews and Spadaro (8) investigated the effects of mill settings in a frictiontype rice mill on breakage and degree
of milling. They reported that any changes in mill settings that
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increased degree of milling also increased breakage. Consequently, the rice miller should adjust the degree of milling for each rice lot in order to balance quality grade
and head rice yield to maximize profit.
C—
Rice Moisture Content
Rice moisture content, head rice yield, and degree of milling are intimately related. Webb and Calderwood (9) investigated the effect of moisture content of rice on the
degree of milling and head rice yields obtained with standard milling conditions. They also determined head yields for rice samples with different moisture contents that
were milled to the same degree of milling by adjusting milling conditions. Several long and mediumgrain rice varieties were evaluated at moisture contents ranging
from 6 to 18%. Representative samples of each variety at each moisture level were milled using different mill pressure settings regulated to produce rice of four (under
to overmilled) degrees of milling. Degree of milling was determined on each sample by several methods.
The degree of milling obtained showed that low moisture rice (6–10%) was considerably more resistant to milling at each mill setting than were samples of high
moisture rice (14–16%). Furthermore, compared to high moisture rice, low moisture rice required markedly greater milling pressure settings to obtain a comparable
"wellmilled" sample. Head rice yield from the low moisture rice milled at standard mill settings was higher than that from high moisture rice. However, at this mill setting
the low moisture samples were grossly undermilled in contrast to the wellmilled rice obtained with the high moisture samples. When milling pressures were increased
to obtain an equivalent degree of milling in the low moisture rice, the head yields obtained were lower than those of the high moisture samples. The highest head rice
yields were obtained in the high moisture samples, and this occurred at the lightest milling pressure setting required to obtain a wellmilled degree of milling. At
comparable degrees of milling, head rice yields from the high moisture rice ranged from one to three percentage points greater than the head yields from the low
moisture rice. For more detailed information on the effects of rice moisture content and mill settings on milling results, see Chapter 15.
III—
Quality and Nutritional Aspects
A—
Composition
The outer layers of the caryopsis and embryo differ substantially from the starchy endosperm in chemical composition and nutritive value. Table 1 shows the proximate
composition of brown rice and the various milling
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Table 1 Range of Proximate Composition of Brown Rice, WellMilled
Rice, Rice Bran, and Rice Germ (percent dry basis)
Constituent Brown Milled Bran Germ
Protein 8.3–9.6 7.3–8.3 13.2–17.3 17.7–23.9
Crude fat 2.1–3.3 0.4–0.6 17.0–22.9 19.3–23.8
Crude fiber 0.7–1.2 0.3–0.6 9.5–13.2 2.8–4.1
Crude ash 1.2–1.8 0.4–0.9 9.2–11.5 6.8–10.1
Starch 77.2 90.2 16.1 2.4
Dietary fiber 19.1 4.5 27.6–33.3
Source: Ref. 10.
fractions (10). A typical brown rice contains 8% protein, 66% starch, 1% crude fiber, 4% neutral detergent fiber, 3% fat and 1% ash (wet basis, 14% moisture).
During production of wellmilled rice, approximately 22% of the kernel's protein, 5% of its starch, 89% of its crude fiber, 80% of its neutral detergent fiber, 83% of its
fat, and 68% of its ash end up in the bran byproducts (11).
Table 2 shows the amounts of various minerals and vitamins that are removed from brown rice during milling to produce a wellmilled white rice (12). A large
percentage of these nutrients are lost. Of particular importance is the 87% reduction in thiamine content; thiamine deficiency has been the cause of outbreaks of the
disease beriberi in some developing countries where rice is a major food (13).
B—
Quality Aspects
The majority of rice consumers prefer wellmilled rice. Brown rice, even though it contains more protein, vitamins, minerals, and lipids than white rice, is the choice of a
relatively small percentage of the consumers. Part of the reluctance by consumers to eat brown rice is due to the chewier texture and strong flavor associated with the
bran. Brown rice also requires a cooking time of about 45 minutes compared with approximately 20 minutes for white rice.
Between the extremes of brown rice and wellmilled rice is rice that has been lightly milled or undermilled, thus retaining part of the nutrition in the bran. In developing
nations where rice is the staple food, the governments, for public health reasons, have encouraged the production and consumption of undermilled rice to improve the
nutritional value of rice and make the maximum possible use of their rice resources (14). Three to four percent degree of milling disrupts the bran sufficiently for rapid
water penetration and a cooking time comparable to wellmilled rice. These fig
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Table 2 Nutrient Content and Losses During Milling for Seven Rice
Varietiesa from the International Rice Research Institute
Property Brown rice Milled rice Loss (%)
Weight (% of brown rice) 100 89.9 10
Crude ash (%) 1.56 0.66 62
P (%) 0.38 0.21 50
K (%) 0.26 0.14 52
Mg (%) 0.13 0.058 60
Al (%) 0.006 0.006 10
Ca (%) 0.010 0.006 46
S (%) 0.15 0.14 16
Si (%) 0.041 0.015 67
Cl (%) 0.034 0.031 18
Mn ( g/g) 16.6 8.4 55
Fe ( g/g) 12.4 9.0 35
Cu ( g/g) 5.7 4.7 19
Zn ( g/g) 22.4 16.4 34
Thiamine ( g/g) 3.2 0.46 87
Riboflavin ( g/g) 0.98 0.50 54
aIR65, IR24, IR64, IR8, IR36, and IR72.
Source: Ref. 12.
ures contrast with the 8–10% degree of milling for wellmilled rice that is consumed in most Western countries.
A serious disadvantage of lightly or undermilled milled rice is its tendency to become rancid during storage. Noticeable rancid flavors will have developed after only 2
months of storage in hot and humid climates. While this would be a serious problem for Western marketing practices, in most developing countries the rice is
consumed within 2 months of milling, so that there are no practical difficulties encountered. Piggott et al. (15) investigated the effects of undermilling and subsequent
storage on eating and cooking qualities of rice using both chemical and sensory evaluation methods. Changes in sensory properties were related to chemical changes
taking place. Kwon and Jeon (16) reported on the effects of degree of milling and longterm storage on chemical and eating quality changes in Korean rices. Pehu and
Siddiq (17) evaluated 110 varieties of Indian rice with respect to the natural variability for quantitative and qualitative losses related to degree of milling.
Srinivas and Dasikachar (18) studied the removal of bran and aleurone layers at different locations on the surface of an Indian rice variety (Bangara Sanna) during
progressive polishing. The peripheral bran layers
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were removed before the aleurone at all stages of degree of milling. Histological data revealed that at all stages of degree of milling studied (1–6%), the abrasion is
more severe on the protruding ridges than on the grooves and greater on the ventral region than on the dorsal. Similarly, bran (pericarp and tegmen) and aleurone
removal were greater in the median portion than in the corresponding portions at the tapering distal end of the grain. Residual bran and aleurone layers are present in
the grooves and dorsal pit even at 6% degree of milling.
McGaughey (19), as a result of severe insect infestations that occurred in rice in export marketing channels, evaluated the effect of degree of milling on insect
development in stored milled rice. The results suggest that degree of milling affects insect development in stored rice. This is in general agreement with observations by
Pingale et al. (20) that insects prefer brown and lightly milled rices over wellmilled and rough rices.
C—
Deep Milling
The removal of additional peripheral layers from wellmilled rice (endosperm) is termed deep milling or overmilling. Because of the hardness of the rice endosperm,
deep milling must be accomplished with abrasive type mills. Research on deep milling (6) has shown that: (a) there is a heterogeneous distribution of protein and other
major noncarbohydrate nutritional constituents in the milled rice kernel; (b) below the bran coat and aleurone cells, which are removed during conventional milling,
there exists a peripheral layer unusually high in protein, minerals, lipids and vitamins; (c) the high protein and naturally enriched layer may be removed by presently
available commercial machinery in the form of a finely divided rice flour, which may be considered an extension of the regular milling operation; and (d) the intact
residual kernels, although reduced slightly in the nonstarch nutrients, are essentially an attractive white and wellmilled rice suitable for regular table and food uses.
Normand et al. (21) determined the quantities of nutrients and the protein amino acid patterns in various high protein rice flours produced by deep milling (Tables 3 and
4). They reported that the deepmilled flours, which were removed as 12 fractions by successively milling layers off of commercially milled rices, consisted of
approximately 18% of the original kernel weight as finely divided flour with a 22 to 12% protein content. Fat, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, phosphorus, and calcium
similarly decreased progressively from outside layers towards the center of the kernel. Starch and amylose, by contrast, progressively increased towards the center of
the rice kernel. The increase (approximately 19%) in amylose content of the rice starch from outer to inner layers reflects a significant difference in rice
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starch composition. The data indicated no essential differences in amino acids content of the rice protein except for a decrease in tryptophan toward the center of the
kernel.
Sensory evaluation of the residual kernels remaining after different degrees of deep milling showed an increase in cooking quality preference with increasing degrees of
milling up to a maximum, after which further milling gave a loss of quality (6). Cooked rice samples were evaluated for cohesiveness (i.e., lack of tackiness), integrity of
the kernels (i.e., degree of fragmentation), color, flavor, and texture by a taste panel. An optimum preference was expressed by the panelists for those residual kernels
resulting from between approximately 4 and 9% weight removal by overmilling.
Kennedy et al (22) and Kennedy and Schelstraete (23) evaluated the biological value of deepmilled rice flour using rat feeding trials. The protein efficiency ratios
determined on 20 fractions of rice were found to be 2.03 ± 0.20 adjusted to 2.5 for casein. The results show that the deepmilled flours, in addition to containing more
protein, had a balance of amino acids as good as that of the original rice. Bajaj and Suhid (7,24) and Bajaj et al. (25) reported on the effects of extending milling on
quality characteristics and nutrient composition for several varieties of Indian rice.
IV—
Methods to Estimate Degree of Milling
Rice millers must be able to determine degree of milling in order to precisely control it. A number of investigators have been concerned with the development of
methods for evaluating degree of bran removal. These methods may generally be classified into two main groups: a) those estimating the quantity of either removed
bran or residual bran; and b) those measuring the effects of the removal of the outer layers of the rice caryopsis on either the chemical composition or the physical
characteristics of the final milled product (26).
A—
Methods Estimating Removed or Residual Bran
1—
Removed Bran
Determination of degree of milling as the percentage by weight of brown rice removed as bran during milling is a common technique in the research laboratory where
small samples are milled on a batch basis in a single mill. This technique would be difficult to implement at a commercial rice mill where the equipment operates
continuously.
Estimating degree of milling by measuring removed bran is suitable when precisely controlled and repeatable milling conditions are available. From a scientific
standpoint, this method gives very reproducible results,
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Table 3 Weight and Nutrient Content of Successively Removed Fractions of Conventionally Milled Rice
(dry weight basis)
Successive fraction removed
Component 1 2 3 4 5 6
% of rice in fraction 2.07 2.33 1.94 1.65 1.43 1.38
Cumulative % removed 4.40 6.34 7.99 9.42 10.8
Successive fraction removed
Amino Acid 1 2 3 4 5 6
Lysine 3.24 3.16 2.98 3.01 2.90 2.86
Histidine 2.75 2.62 2.42 2.43 2.28 2.43
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Successive fraction removed
Whole Residual
Component 7 8 9 10 11 12 kernel kernel
% of rice in fraction 1.27 1.28 1.37 1.49 1.68 0.98
Cumulative % removed 12.07 13.35 14.72 16.21 17.89 18.87
% N in fraction 2.77 2.54 2.36 2.17 2.03 2.00 1.33 0.86
% protein in fraction 16.48 15.11 14.04 12.91 12.08 11.90 7.91 5.12
% starch in fraction 81.35 82.14 85.49 88.17 89.83 90.10 90.68 94.29
% amylose in starch 34.01 35.88 32.07 30.44 35.08 32.26 31.24
% lipids in fraction 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.11 0.22 0.17 0.23 0.00
Thiamine (mg/lb) 0.390 0.352 0.213 0.172 0.098 0.368 0.065
Riboflavin (mg/lb) 0.163 0.106 0.092 0.074 0.065 0.053 0.099 0.000
Niacin (mg/lb) 6.97 4.90 3.10 3.00 3.00 5.73 2.94
Successive fraction removed
Whole Residual
Amino Acid 7 8 9 10 11 12 kernel kernel
Lysine 2.76 2.96 2.87 3.05 3.11 2.92 3.52 3.71
Histidine 2.09 2.28 2.18 2.26 2.35 2.13 2.62 2.64
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since it is based on weighing which is extremely precise. However, if the samples are processed in different mills or with different conditions, even with equal amounts
of bran removed, they will generally contain different proportions of pericarp, tegmen, aleurone, and starchy endosperm. The milled samples may not be comparable
with regard to their whiteness or nutritive value. This is a serious limitation of great concern to those interested in duplicating a given milling process or in comparing the
effects of various milling conditions.
2—
Residual Bran
Direct visual estimation by the naked eye or with magnification, and by comparison with standard samples, is the method most frequently used throughout the world.
This is the official method used by the USDA Federal Grain Inspectors Service (2), which assigns qualitative descriptors for degree of milling by observation and
handpicking and by comparison with interpretive line samples. The qualitative degree of milling categories assigned by the USDA are:
1. Well milled
2. Reasonably well milled
3. Lightly milled
4. Undermilled
Although qualitative evaluation can be performed with experience and skill, this practice provides much chance for subjective error. The need for interpretive standards
and their preservation is another disadvantage.
Visual estimation of bran is facilitated by qualitative differential dye staining. Several dyestaining techniques have been proposed: congo red and methylene blue (27),
Sudan III (28), eosin and methylene blue (29), and alkaline alcohol (27,30). Treatment of rice kernels with appropriate reagents accentuates the presence of residual
bran, which stains differently than the endosperm. Nonetheless, some degree of subjectivity is used in interpreting the results.
Quantitative tests have been developed by extracting bound stains with appropriate solvents followed by colormetric determination of color intensity (27,30). One
related method uses alkaline alcohol bran pigment extraction followed by spectrometric measurement of absorbance (30). Knowing the absorbance value of the brown
rice and of an unknown sample, the degree of milling of the latter can be read from a single graph. The method would be applicable only for rice varieties that have a
common absorbance curve.
An iodine test can also be used. Kernels of rice are immersed in an iodine solution, and the residual bran on a kernel stands out against a blue
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background, thus revealing its approximate degree of milling. Bran, which becomes yellow, protects the underlying amylose from becoming blue. Final judgment is still
subjective. Objective evaluation of results has been attempted using color meters. However, the amylose content varies widely among rice varieties, and this will affect
the intensity of the iodine color reaction (31).
If the degree of milling is defined in terms of the FAO model system (32), reliable discrimination between the inner and outer bran layers is necessary. The outer and
inner layers differ substantially in their chemical composition. The outermost layers are fibrous, whereas the inner ones and the germ are rich in proteins and lipids. The
New MayGrunwald (NMG) selective dyestaining method (29) can be applied. It uses a mixture of eosin yellow and methylene blue dissolved in methyl alcohol.
Each part of the rice grain stains a different color: outer bran layer stains green; inner bran layer and germ stain blue; and endosperm stains pink. The degree of milling
is judged subjectively by comparing the colors of the test sample with a standard that has been stained simultaneously in the NMG solution (Fig. 1). The main
disadvantages are the need for standards and the subjective evalutation of results.
NMG differential dye staining has been developed into an objective procedure by Barber and Benedito de Barber (26), who defined a colored bran balance (CBB)
index. The CBB is defined as the proportion of kernel surface covered by bran. After NMG staining, magnified plane images of the stained kernels are produced using
either a projected image or photography. A photograph of the stained kernels has the additional advantage of recording and storing of the data. Both the area
occupied by the bran (blue
Figure 1
Photograph of samples from one rice lot that had been milled to various degrees
of milling and stained with New MayGrunwald reagent. Line A is the brown rice
control (DOM = 0.0%) and Line E is very well milled (DOM = 11.8%).
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and green portions) and the total kernel area are measured by planimetry. CBB values range from 100 for brown rice, which is assumed to be completely covered
with bran, to 0 for completely milled rice, which is assumed free of bran. The actual CBB values obtained with commercial samples of rice that had been well milled
ranged from 3.0 to 5.5.
For undermilled or lightly milled rice, the bran layers from every kernel and from every surface of a given kernel are not removed uniformly. Comparison of the CBB
values from a number of individual kernels gives an accurate evaluation of the homogeneity of milling for the rice. Using a computerized color image analyzer to process
either the stained kernels or a color photograph would greatly reduce the time required to measure the colored areas, to calculate the CBB, and to estimate the milling
homogeneity.
Webb (33) evaluated the NMG technique for estimating degree and uniformity of milling for the U.S. Varietal Improvement Program. Some applications of the test in
the rice breeding program were: (a) to accurately judge degree of milling in order to arrive at the correct settings for laboratory mills; (b) to identify varietal differences
in milling response among varieties milled under constant conditions as this would aid the breeder in developing cultivars least resistant to milling and in eliminating those
types that are most resistant to milling; (c) to provide rice breeders a means of identifying selections and varieties with minimal lateral and dorsal grooves in the kernel
as these kernels require harder milling (resulting in increased breakage) to remove the bran streaks; (d) to investigate the effect of overdrying of rice on degree of
milling and on milling yields (overdried rice appears to be more resistant to milling) and to determine the laboratory mill settings needed to effect the same degree of
milling in overdried rice as in normal moisture rice; and (e) to estimate the extent of brown rice bran damage from the laboratory shelling operation so that sheller
settings can be adjusted to minimize this damage.
B—
Methods Estimating Chemical or Physical Properties
1—
Chemical Composition
As discussed above, bran layers differ in their chemical composition. Most of the constituents show a decreasing concentration gradient toward the inner regions of the
kernel. Methods based on the determination of a constituent that progressively decreases with milling have been developed. Measurements of the degree of milling
through analysis of constituents that occur predominantly in the bran include assays for surface lipid (4,34–36), ash and protein (35), thiamine (37–39), and
phosphorous (39).
These methods generally require carefully controlled and timeconsuming procedures to obtain reproducible results and are not suitable for on
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line control. For them to be universally applicable, the contents of the constituents analyzed or the relationship between brown rice and milled rice composition should
be fairly constant. In actuality, there is considerable variation among rice varieties and even among rice lots of the same variety depending upon growing location,
environmental conditions, and agronomic methods employed during the growing season. Also, processing techniques such as parboiling, which bring about migration of
constituents within the kernel, can cause unsatisfactory results.
2—
Physical Characteristics
Physical methods for determining the degree of milling have generally utilized the optical characteristics of the kernel. These methods depend upon the reflection of light
from and the transmission of light through the milled rice at selected wavelengths. Kik (40), Angladette (41), Stermer et al. (42), and Johnson (43) have developed
optical devices for measuring the degree of milling.
Although these methods are quite accurate for a single variety grown in a particular area, they fail in wide use because color influences the measurements. Another
difficulty encountered in the use of optical devices is the presence of chalky kernels in the rice to be measured. The chalky kernels are not optically translucent and thus
interfere with accurate measurements. This drawback can be remedied by removing the chalky kernels by photoelectric sorting machines before making the
measurement of degree of milling. However, this extra, timeconsuming step would not be suitable for online use. A method developed by Stermer (44) used the far
red (660 nm) and the near infrared (850 nm), which reduced some of the problems caused by color. Another physical method is based on the total lipid content of the
rice measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (45). However, the samples had to be dried to 5% moisture content before the NMR measurements could be taken.
Velupillai and Pandey (46) measured the color of the rice with a tristimulus colorimeter system and correlated the color measurements with the degree of milling.
In general, with the above techniques, the correlations within a given rice lot are excellent. However, the application of these methods to different rice lots has not been
acceptable due to the variability in composition and color among the rice lots. Other practical difficulties (measurements are affected by broken kernels, abnormal
kernels, and moisture content) have prevented the wide acceptance of these devices by the ricemilling industry. The industry needs a fast, reliable technique for
measuring degree of milling that is not affected by normal variations in the composition of various rice lots and that can be employed for online control of the rice
milling machinery.
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V—
Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy
NIR spectroscopy has proven to be a rapid method for analyzing the major chemical constituents of many grains and oilseeds. Not much has been published on the
use of NIR with rice. Iwomoto et al. (47) reported on using NIR to analyze rice for protein and amino acids. Their procedure used rice samples that had been ground
into a powder, which is the traditional method for NIR sample preparation. Hopkins and Keneaster (48) measured surface lipids content of rice with NIR and
correlated these values with degree of milling. Kao (49,50) reported on the use of NIR for estimating degree of milling as a grading tool for the Federal Grain
Inspection Service. Kao also used ground samples in his research. His results indicated that the NIR technique was not completely satisfactory for this purpose. This
was probably due to two reasons: the variability in composition of brown rice from which the milled rice was produced and the subjective method of rice grading with
which the NIR results were being compared. Also, the technique used ground rice samples, which would make it less than ideal for online application.
Wadsworth et al [51] reported on a method for measuring the degree of milling of rice using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy that compensated for lottolot
variations in the rice and that would be suitable for online use in a rice mill. This study utilized a slightly different approach from Kao's to the problem of estimating rice
degree of milling with NIR. Whole kernel as well as ground rice samples were evaluated. The degree of milling values used to calibrate the NIR instrument in this study
were calculated from the actual weight of bran removed during milling rather than subjective evaluations. And, the NIR spectrum of the brown rice entering the rice
milling machine and the spectrum of the milled rice leaving the mill were both used in developing the calibration.
A—
Experimental
1—
Rice Degree of Milling Samples
Five lots of longgrain rice (two lots of Labelle variety and one each of Tebonnet, Newbonnet, and Lemont varieties) and one lot of mediumgrain rice (Mars variety)
were used. One of the Labelle lots was microwavevacuum dried and is referred to as LabelleMV. The moisture contents of the rice lots ranged from 11.4 to 15.9%
(wet basis).
The six lots of rough rice were cleaned and shelled. The brown rice from the sheller was handsorted to remove unshelled kernels. The pure brown rice was then
milled for periods of time ranging from 0 seconds (brown rice control) to 60 seconds to produce milled rice having various degree of
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milling treatments. The degree of milling (DOM) was calculated as 1.0 minus the ratio of WM (weight of the milled rice) divided by WB (weight of the brown rice). The
DOMs ranged from 0 to 16%. The standard error for degree of milling determination was 0.527. The milled rice samples were also analyzed for total lipids content.
2—
Near Infrared Spectrometer
The NIR spectra were measured with a gratingtype monochromator scanning from 1100 to 2500 nm in 2nm intervals. The spectra were collected from both ground
rice and whole kernel rice in the reflectance mode. The rice sample (either ground or whole) was spinning while the NIR spectrum was collected.
3—
NIR Software
Near infrared spectral analysis (NSAS) software version 3.14 was used to analyze the NIR results (52). NIR data acquisition, calibration, prediction, and file utilities
are all contained in one package.
The utility of the NIR method depends on developing a good calibration. NIR calibration equations are developed by regressing the NIR spectral data on known
values of a parameter (in this case DOM) for a set of samples that covers the range of interest for that parameter. The calibration equation is then validated with
samples not included in the calibration set.
This study used a crossvalidation procedure, recommended by K. H. Norris (personal communication), based on the six rice lots. A calibration equation based on the
data from only five of the six rice lots was developed and used to predict the DOM values for the sixth rice lot. This procedure was repeated until each rice lot had
been used as the prediction set. Then the predicted DOM values and the laboratory measured DOM values of the six prediction sets were combined into one
validation set that was used to estimate the standard error of prediction for the NIR method.
Two regression techniques were used in developing the calibration equations—multiple linear regression (MLR) and partial least squares (PLS) regression. MLR uses
the values in the spectrum at each wavelength to select the wavelengths that best correlate with the DOM. While only a few pieces of information (usually less than six)
from the 700 available in each spectrum are used in the MLR calibration, this approach has the advantage that the selected wavelengths can be compared with known
absorption bands that have a physical or chemical relationship with the parameter being evaluated. Thus, for rice degree of milling, one would expect bands associated
with lipid, protein, fiber, and starch to be selected.
PLS regression first computes a principle component analysis on the spectra. The principle components, which are vectors derived solely from
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the spectral data, are independent variables in multidimensional space that utilize information contained in the entire spectrum. PLS then calculates a linear regression of
the major principal components (usually less than 15) on the known DOM values. This method has the advantage of using all of the information contained in the
spectra of the calibration sample set. For a detailed discussion of the mathematics used in NIR calibration, see Hruschka (53) and Martens and Naes (54).
The NSAS software can perform several mathematical transformations on the individual spectra before developing the calibration equations. These math
transformations are performed to eliminate unwanted information from the spectra such as noise or particle size effects and to enhance the separation of absorbance
peaks and shoulders. The transformations used on the rice spectra included npoint smoothing and first and second derivatives.
4—
Normalization
An additional mathematical transformation (normalization of the spectra to compensate for variation among rice lots) was performed on the rice spectra. The smoothed
NIR spectrum of each milled rice sample was divided by the smoothed spectrum of the brown rice control for that sample, wavelength by corresponding wavelength.
These normalized spectra were then further modified by first and second derivative transformations and used to develop calibration equations.
B—
Results
1—
Milling
The results of the milling experiments are shown in Figure 2. The microwaved dried rice lot (LabelleMV) was milled with two weight settings on the McGill. As
expected for rice milled in a frictiontype mill, the degree of milling increased rapidly to the 8–10% level as the soft tissue was removed, and then more slowly as the
more resistant outer layers of the endosperm were removed. It is obvious that the rice lots did not all mill the same, which demonstrates one of the problems facing rice
mill operators.
The differences in milling response can be related to several factors including varietal differences, growing conditions, and moisture content of the rice (9). In this case,
the Tebonnet, which had the greatest DOM values, was milled at an unusually high moisture content (15.5% w.b.). The Mars lot had a higher moisture content than the
Newbonnet lot but milled to a lesser degree, demonstrating varietal differences. To maintain consistent quality, the rice mill operator must adjust mill settings when the
rice entering the mill changes. Present practice is for the operator to make these adjustments manually, based on the visual appearance of the rice.
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Figure 2
Effects of milling time on degree of milling for six different rice lots.
The microwavedvacuum dried Labelle lot was milled with the weight located
at two positions on the pressure arm of the McGill rice mill.
The DOM vs. milling time data in Figure 2 were not linear. Since the NSAS software uses linear regression as one technique for developing an NIR calibration
equation, the DOM data were linearized using a log transformation similar to that for a first order rate process: log(1DOM/100). A graph of the transformed DOM
vs. milling time is shown in Figure 3. One phenomenon immediately obvious by examining the data in this form is the change in rate constant (slope) during the milling
process. The data from 0 to 15 seconds can be fit to one straight line, while the data from 20 to 60 seconds fit another line with a lesser slope. This transition occurs at
a DOM level of approximately 8–9% and is probably related to the significant change in hardness of the outer layers of the rice kernel as they are removed. Figure 3
also indicates that the different rice lots have different milling rates. The values of these slopes might be good parameters for characterizing the milling performance of
various rice lots.
2—
Math Transformations
Figure 4 illustrates the three mathematical transformations that were applied to the reflectance data during the development of calibration equations. The upper curve is
the optical density data, log(1/R), that have been smoothed to eliminate noise. With NIR spectroscopy, the baseline slopes upward as wavelength increases. Particle
size effects can cause an
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Figure 3
Degree of milling data (linearized by a log transformation) vs. milling time.
The changes of slope in the linear regression lines demonstrate a change
in the rate of bran removal as milling time and degree of milling increase.
offset in the baseline (finer particles reflect and scatter more light). The middle curve is a first derivative transformation of the upper curve. A first derivative
transformation eliminates the offset due to particle size. With the first derivative transformation, the points of maximum absorbance in the upper curve are zero values in
the middle curve (i.e., slope = 0). Thus, a calibration made with a first derivation transformation will not utilize information contained at absorbance maxima
wavelengths. The maxima are restored and highlighted using a second derivative transformation (lower curve). Not only are the maxima more sharply defined (now as
negative peaks), but shoulders and inflections not even visible in the upper curve can be easily seen because they also appear as peaks in the second derivative curve.
The second derivative transformation also eliminates particle size offset and any linear effects from a shift in baseline slope. Thus, with the derivative transformations
you lose information that is hopefully of no value while you enhance resolution of the absorbance information.
3—
Sample Preparation Effects
The two log(1/R) spectra in the upper portion of Figure 5 were taken from a ground rice sample and a whole kernel sample. As indicated by the relative positions of
the spectra on the graph, the whole kernel sample
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Figure 4
Illustration of the three mathematical transformations used for
developing NIR calibration equations. This spectrum was measured
with a sample of Tebonnet brown rice.
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Figure 5
Comparison of rice spectra measured with a whole kernel rice sample and a sample
that had been ground into a powder. These spectra were measured with a sample of
Mars variety brown rice.
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absorbed more light than the ground sample. This was expected, since it is known that smaller particles scatter more light.
The second derivative transformations of these spectra show essentially identical peaks in both spectra, indicating that they contain the same information. The
magnitudes of the peaks at the low wavelength end of the spectrum are slightly higher for the whole kernel sample. At the high end of the spectrum (>1800 nm), the
ground sample has significantly greater peak intensities.
Figure 6 shows spectra measured from a ground sample of brown rice and a ground sample of very wellmilled (DOM = 13.17%) rice. As expected, since the
chemical composition of the bran layers that are removed during milling are very different from the composition of the starchy endosperm, NIR can detect differences
related to milling. Figure 7 shows similar results for whole kernel samples. The upper half of this figure shows log(1/R) spectra measured with samples of whole kernel
rice that had been milled to different degrees. With the whole kernel samples at wavelengths less than 1800 nm, the changes in the spectra with degree of milling are
relatively greater than they were with the ground samples.
Figure 6
Comparison of spectra taken from a ground sample of brown rice and from a ground
sample of wellmilled rice (DOM = 13.17%).
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Figure 7
Comparison of spectra taken from whole kernel samples of Labelle variety rice
that were milled to varying degrees of milling. The upper graph compares
smoothed optical density (log 1/R) spectra. The lower graph compares second
derivatives of these spectra over a reduced wavelength range.
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Calibration equations were developed from both ground rice and whole kernel rice samples that had DOMs ranging from 0 to 13.2%. Multiple linear regression was
used to develop the calibration equations. These results are summarized in Table 5. For both ground rice and whole kernel rice, the derivation transformations gave
significantly better calibration equations than the log(1/R). There was not much difference between the regression results for ground and whole kernel samples. All of
the calibration equations were based on wavelengths known to be associated with light absorption by oil. The wavelengths selected by the MLR procedure for the
ground sample calibrations came from the higher end of the NIR wavelength range, while those for the whole kernel calibrations came from the lower end. It appears
that spectral measurements made with whole kernel rice, which would be more practical for online control application, are as useful for predicting degree of milling as
those made with the traditional approach to reflectancemode NIR, ground samples.
4—
Normalized Spectra
Lipid content is one method for estimating degree of milling. One of the problems is that there is considerable variation in the lipid content of different lots of brown
rice. This variation could be due to variety, cultural practices, growing location, etc. Thus, with the same degree of milling, two rice lots might have different lipid
contents. The same problem exists with other methods of measuing DOM such as rice color. A relative change in the parameter being measured can be more
important than the absolute value of that parameter for estimating degree of milling.
For online control of degree of milling using NIR in a riceprocessing plant, it would be possible to measure the NIR spectra of the brown rice entering the rice milling
machine, as well as the milled rice leaving the milling machine. The before and after spectra of the rice might be more
Table 5 Regression Statistics for TwoWavelength DegreeofMilling Calibration
Equations Developed from NIR Measurements Made with Whole Kernel and Ground
Rice Samples
Ground sample Whole kernel sample
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effective in estimating degree of milling than the after spectrum alone. To test this hypothesis, the spectrum of each milled rice sample was divided by the spectrum of
the brown rice from which the milled rice was produced. Several normalized spectra with various DOMs are shown in Figure 8. The second derivative transformations
of the normalized spectra from Figure 8 are shown in Figure 9. More peaks appeared in the normalized spectra than in the original.
5—
Multiple Linear Regression Analysis
Table 6 summarizes the calibration and validation results obtained by MLR analyses of NIR spectra measured with whole kernel rice. Both the original spectra and the
normalized spectra were used to develop the calibration equations.
All of the calibration equations adequately estimated degree of milling. In general, the derivative transformations gave slightly better results than
Figure 8
Normalized spectra for different degrees of milling. The normalized spectra are
smoothed optical density spectra of milled rice that have been divided by the
smoothed optical density spectrum of the brown rice from which the milled rice
samples were produced.
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Figure 9
Second derivative transformations of the normalized spectra shown in Figure 8.
The second derivative spectra were calculated from the normalized log(1/R)
spectra.
Table 6 Summary of Multiple Linear Regression Results Using Five Wavelength Calibration
Equations
Calibration Validation
Spectra Math
set treatment Ra SECb R SEPc Biasd Slope adj.e
Original lot(1/R) 0.959 0.898
Original 1st der. 0.981 0.779
Original 2nd der. 0.982 0.758 0.968 0.972 0.596 1.11
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the log(1/R) spectra. The crossvalidation results are shown for the second derivative calibration equations. The standard error of prediction (SEP) was slightly higher
than the standard error of calibration (SEC). The validation regression lines had a bias that deviated less than one SEC from zero. The slope adjustments were all close
to one. Normalized spectra gave better results than the original spectra.
The wavelengths and coefficients for the MLR calibration equations derived from second derivative transformations of the original and normalized spectra are given in
Table 7. Two wavelengths (1200 and 1720 nm) were selected by MLR for both calibration equations. Others researchers have established that oil is a very strong
absorber at 1722 nm and that starch absorbs at 1198 nm (55). The other wavelengths in the original spectra calibration equation are 1180 nm (a very strong protein
band), 1760 nm (another strong oil band), and 1220 nm (a strong cellulose band). The normalized spectra calibration equation contained a very strong protein band
(2060 nm) and another oil band (2120 nm). The other wavelength in this calibration equation (1640 nm) is not close to any known strong absorbers in rice.
Figures 10 and 11 show plots of the NIRpredicted DOM values vs. the measured DOM values for the second derivative calibrations derived from the original
spectra and the normalized spectra, respectively. The calibrations appear to fit the data quite well except for the very high DOM samples (DOM > 14%). These very
high DOM samples all came from the Tebonnet variety rice lot, which was milled at a high moisture content. It is unlikely that a commercial rice processor would mill
rice at greater than 14% moisture content. Also, the DOM for commercial rice processing would usually not exceed 10–12%. The calibration equations fit the labora
Table 7 Calibration Equations Developed with Multiple Linear Regression and Second
Derivative Spectra Transformations Using Both Original and Normalized Spectra
Original spectra Normalized spectra
Wave Wave
length Coefficient Fvalue length Coefficient Fvalue
— 3.3 — 1.8
1180 697.3 203 1220 73.9 248
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Figure 10
Calibration data set. NIRpredicted DOM values vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Multiple liner regression calibration equation developed from second derivative
transformation of the original spectra.
Figure 11
Calibration data set. NIRpredicted DOM value vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Multiple linear regression calibration equation developed from second derivative
transformation of the normalized spectra.
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tory results linearly over an acceptable range of DOM (0–14%). When the high DOM Tebonnet samples were omitted from the calibration set, the SEC decreased
significantly.
Figures 12 and 13 show plots (predicted vs. measured) of the crossvalidation results for the second derivative calibrations derived from the original and normalized
spectra, respectively. The trends in the validation plots were very similar to the calibration plots. The calibration equation based on the original spectra underestimated
the degree of milling at DOM levels greater than 14%. The calibration equation from normalized spectra predicted the high DOM samples better.
6—
Partial Least Squares Analysis
Table 8 summarizes the calibration and crossvalidation statistics obtained by the PLS analyses of the original and normalized spectra. The calibration and validation
data sets were the same ones used for the MLR analyses discussed above. The PLS results were similar to those obtained by MLR. All of the calibration equations
yielded satisfactory estimates of degree of milling. The SEC, SEP, bias, and slope adjustment were within acceptable limits. The derivative transformations gave slightly
better re
Figure 12
Crossvalidation data set. NIRpredicted DOM values vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Multiple linear regression calibration equations for crossvalidation developed
from second derivative transformation of the original spectra.
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Figure 13
Crossvalidation data set. NIRpredicted DOM values vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Multiple linear regression calibration equations for crossvalidation developed
from second derivative transformation of the normalized spectra.
Table 8 Summary of Partial Least Squares Calibration and Validation Results
Validation
Calibration
No. of
Spectra Math PLS Slope
set treatment factors Ra SECb R SEPc Biasd adj.e
Original log(1/R) 6 0.983 0.752
Original 2nd der. 7 0.986 0.648 0.962 1.08 0.647 0.943
Normalized log(1/R) 6 0.991 0.564
Normalized 2nd der. 8 0.992 0.511 0.965 1.07 .102 1.04
aMultiple correlation coefficient.
bStandard error of calibration.
cStandard error of prediction.
dCorrection for the intercept of the regression line.
eCorrection for the slope of the regression line.
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sults than the log(1/R) data. The calibrations derived from the normalized spectra were slightly better than those derived from the original spectra. The PLS analyses
yielded somewhat better calibration (SEC) results than the MLR approach.
Figures 14, 15, 16, and 17 show plots of NIRpredicted DOM values vs. the measured DOM values for the calibration and crossvalidation data sets using the PLS
calibration equations. These results correspond to the MLR results shown in Figures 10 through 13. As with the MLR calibrations, the PLS calibration's estimates of
DOM were low for DOM levels greater than 14%. However, it appears that the PLS estimates at high DOMs were slightly better than the MLR estimates.
The PLS technique produced NIR calibration equations that gave somewhat better estimates of degree of milling than the MLR analysis. However, for the application
of NIR to online control of degree of milling during rice processing, the PLS approach may not be as practical as MLR. To use PLS, a scanningtype monochrometer
would be required. The MLR approach could use a filtertype NIR instrument. The scanning instruments have a purchase cost about 10 times that of a filter
instrument. A large rice processor will have dozens of ricemilling machines, and the slightly better
Figure 14
Calibration data set. NIRpredicted DOM values vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Partial least squares calibration equation developed from second derivative
transformation of the original spectra.
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Figure 15
Calibration data set. NIRpredicted DOM values vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Partial least squares calibration equation developed from second derivative
transformation of the normalized spectra.
Figure 16
Crossvalidation data set. NIRpredicted DOM values vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Partial least squares calibration equations for crossvalidation developed from
second derivative transformation of the original spectra.
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Figure 17
Crossvalidation data set. NIRpredicted DOM values vs. labmeasured DOM values.
Partial least squares calibration equations for crossvalidation developed from
second derivative transformation of the normalized spectra.
precision obtained with a PLS calibration might not justify the extra cost of the scanningtype NIR systems.
7—
Lipid Analysis
Lipid analysis of milled rice is currently the objective method used most frequently to estimate DOM. In order to properly evaluate the NIR procedure, it must be
compared with the current methodology.
Figure 18 shows the variation of the lipid content with milling time. The initial lipid contents of the brown rice samples were different, and the lipid contents for a given
milling time were different for the different rice lots.
A plot of degree of milling vs. lipid content is shown in Figure 19. The linear regression equation for the data in this figure was:
DOM = 14.44 5.85L
where L is the lipid content of the rice. The standard error for this regression was 1.62, which is much larger than the standard error of calibration for the NIR
procedure (see Tables 6 and 7 for regression statistics). This indicates that the NIR procedure is better for estimating degree of milling in rice than
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Figure 18
Variation in rice total lipids content with time of milling for six rice lots.
Figure 19
Simple linear regression of degree of milling on rice lipids content. Regression
equation: DOM = 14.44 5.85 × LIPIDS.
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Figure 20
Predicted values for degree of milling using two methods (the lipid regression
method and the NIR analysis method) vs. the labmeasured degree of milling
values. Standard error of calibration for lipid regression method = 1.62.
Standard error of calibration for the NIR method = 0.57 (MLR using normalized
spectra).
the lipid regression procedure. This point is further illustrated in Figure 20, which shows NIRpredicted DOM values and lipid regressionpredicted DOM values, both
plotted against the measured DOM values. It is obvious that the scatter about the 45° line is much greater in the lipidderived values than in the NIRderived values.
C—
Conclusions
NIR degree of milling calibration equations developed using spectra measured with whole kernel rice samples were as effective for estimating DOM as calibration
equations developed using rice samples that had been ground into a powder.
NIR was a more effective method for estimating degree of milling in rice than the lipid regression method. NIR is also much faster than the lipid method.
Derivative transformations of the NIR spectra gave better calibration equations than the smoothed optical density (log 1/R) spectra.
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Normalization of spectra from the milled rice, by dividing the milled rice spectra by the spectrum of the brown rice from which the milled rice was produced, led to
improved calibration equations.
Partial least squares analysis produced better degree of milling calibration equations than multiple linear regression analysis. However, the use of PLS for online
control of ricemilling machines is probably not practical due to the higher cost of NIR scanning monochromators compared with filter instruments.
Near infrared spectroscopy appears to be a suitable (fast and precise) technique to use in developing an online control system for ricemilling machines. However, a
more comprehensive approach would be the development of a comprehensive expert system that uses both NIR and color measurements.
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8—
The Influence of Rice Protein on Rice Quality
Bruce R. Hamaker
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
I—
Introduction
Although cooking, eating, and processing qualities of rice are mainly attributed to the starch component of the grain, rice proteins appear also to play some part in
determining rice quality. Studies have shown that gross protein content in rices affects texture to some degree, particularly tenderness and cohesiveness of cooked rice
(1–3). Specific proteins have also been suggested to influence quality attributes (4,5).
The chemical basis of cooked rice texture is still not completely understood. It is generally thought that the amylose component, which leaches out of the starch granule
during gelatinization, has a principal affect on cooked texture due to its tendency to associate through hydrogen bonding. However, amylose, while usually good at
predicting texture for a wide range of contents, is not as accurate in discriminating among rices differing slightly in content. Also, occasionally rices appear that do not fit
the established inverse relationship between amylose and cooked rice stickiness. In studies related to these discrepancies, various other components of the rice kernel
have been suggested to influence quality, i.e., longchain linear portions of the amylopectin molecule (6,7), nonpolar and polar fatty acids (8), as well as protein.
The influence of protein on rice quality has not been well studied, although several papers have been published on the subject. This chapter
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reviews the literature and presents the author's recent research on the relationship between rice endosperm protein and texture.
II—
Protein in Rice
A—
Protein Content
The protein content of rice varies somewhat among cultivars. Studies conducted on rices grown in India (9), the Philippines (10), and the United States (5) showed
gross protein content of milled, debranned rice (dry weight basis) ranging from 6.0 to 9.0 (n = 18), 6.1 to 11.4 (n = 16), and 7.7 to 10.0 (n = 32) with means of 7.6,
9.4, and 8.4, respectively (N × 5.95). Protein content is affected by climate and agronomic conditions as evidenced in the higher protein contents of cultivars grown in
the midsection of the United States (Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi) compared to California (11). Textural properties of these rices also differ (the
former group are less sticky and tender), however, this has not been ascribed specifically to differences in protein content.
Protein is nonuniformly distributed in the rice grain. There are greater concentrations in the bran and periphery of the endosperm and smaller quantities towards the
center of the grain (12). Accordingly, milled, polished rice has a lower protein content than brown rice; about 82% is retained after milling (13).
The application of nitrogen fertilizer may increase the protein content of rice depending on when the fertilizer is applied and what type is used (15,16). Protein content
increased up to 4% (from 6 to 10%) when ammonium sulfate was topdressed at full heading time (16). Perez et al. (15) found only a slight increase in protein content
when urea was applied.
B—
Protein Classification
Rice proteins are in a broad sense classified by the Osborne scheme, which categorizes them on the basis fo their solubilities in specific solvents. Methods of extracting
proteins and their composition have been reported by various investigators (17–19). Cagampang et al. (17), using three rice varieties that were milled and polished
(protein contents of 6.8–8.5%), found watersoluble proteins, or albumins, to constitute 3.8–8.8% of the total protein, saltsoluble proteins, or globulins, 9.6–10.8%;
alcoholsoluble proteins, or prolamins, 2.6–3.3%; and alkalisoluble proteins, or glutelins, 66.1–78.0%. Glutelin is also commonly extracted using a detergent such as
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) with or without the addition of a reducing agent (18,20,21). Rice is unique among the cereals in that its storage protein is primarily
glutelin, while in most other cereals it is prolamin. Because
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glutelin has a more evenly balanced amino acid profile than prolamin, which is quite deficient in lysine and tryptophan, rice, though somewhat lower in protein content
than most other cereals, has protein of better quality than most other cereal protein.
C—
Protein Location within the Kernel
Glutelin proteins are thought to be found exclusively encapsulated in protein bodies distributed throughout the starchy endosperm of the grain (22–24). Three types of
protein bodies have been identified: crystalline, small spherical, and large spherical. Bechtel and Pomeranz (23) reported that the central region contains only large
spherical protein bodies, however, overall the small spherical bodies were most numerous and large bodies least numerous. The large spherical protein bodies, which
show concentric rings on transmission electron microscope observation, are a deposition site for prolamin as well as glutelin protein, while the small spherical bodies
are primarily glutelin (25).
The protein bodies remain intact during the cooking process, and large spherical protein bodies become more resistant to digestive enzymes, thus decreasing protein
digestibility (26). However, this has not been a problem nutritionally since the biological value of rice protein increases with lower protein digestibility and net protein
utilization becomes comparable to other cereal proteins due to the fact that the undigested protein is in part prolamin.
Little or no matrix protein has been found in the rice endosperm (22). This differentiates rice from other cereals, which contain large amounts of protein existing as an
intergranular matrix. It remains, however, a possibility that connecting protein fibrils between protein bodies may exist that could form a network in the rice endosperm
and would be difficult to detect even with an electron microscope.
A starch granuleassociated protein has been identified. The 60 kd protein, also termed the waxy gene product, was found to be embedded in the starch granule
(27,28). This protein is a starch synthetase and correlates with amylose content (29).
A comprehensive review of rice proteins and their distribution and locations can be found in Juliano (13).
III—
Methods and Terminology Involving Rice Quality
For purposes of this paper, ''quality" refers to the eating, cooking, and processing qualities of rice. Of principal concern is the texture of cooked
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rice, which is considered the most important factor in eating quality (14). Cooking quality, which is closely related to eating quality, refers to milled rice behavior during
cooking (i.e., water uptake, degree of cooking, and cooking time). Processing quality refers to the "processability" of rice in the manufacture of rice products such as
parboiled, quick cooking, canned, and frozen.
The texture of cooked rice contains many elements, and a rather large nomenclature has developed to describe them. However, in a broad sense, texture may be
divided into two aspects: 1) stickiness, also termed adhesiveness (and related to cohesiveness), and 2) firmness, also referred to as hardness or tenderness. These
parameters are negatively correlated (30).
Cooked rice texture can be measured by sensory analysis (31), direct instrumental methods (e.g., Instron Tester, General FoodsZenken Texturometer, Tensiometer,
Haake Consistometer) (30,32–36), or indirect methods (e.g., amylose content, gelatinization temperature, alkali spread test, gel consistency test, amylography,
viscometers) (10,37). In screening for quality in ricebreeding programs, amylose content, gelatinization temperature, and gel consistency are commonly used as
predictive tests.
IV—
Effect of Gross Protein Content on Texture
A report in 1960 (12) suggested that rice kernel components other than starch may influence the cohesiveness of the cooked grain. The authors noted that starch has
the capacity to swell up to 64 times its volume, though cooked rice does not swell nearly to this degree. Suppression of this swelling in the starchy endosperm was
postulated to be due to protein encasing the starch granules and to cell walls.
Primo et al. (2) found that protein content, especially in the peripheral part of the kernel, correlated with cooked rice texture. Cooked rice texture of rices high in
protein tended to be tougher and chewier than rices low in protein; the two factors weakly correlated. Oñate et al. (38) tested three varieties, each taken from two
different plots that produced grains markedly different in protein content. Significant differences related to protein content were observed in sensory ratings for flavor,
tenderness, and cohesiveness (Table 1). Rices with lower protein content were more flavorful, tender, and cohesive. Color, aroma, and amylose content were not
affected by protein content. Protein content did not, however, explain the texture differences among varieties, which were attributed to amylose content.
Juliano et al. (1), in a more extensive study, similarly reported that lowprotein samples of the same variety had more flavor and were more tender and cohesive than
highprotein samples cooked in the same amount of water. Amylose contents were essentially the same for samples within a
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Table 1 Composition and EatingQuality Characteristics of Cooked Rice of Three Varieties
of High and Low Protein Contents
Sensory ratingsa
Variety and Amylose
sample Protein (%) (%) Flavor Tenderness Cohesiveness
Taichung 1
#1 12.54 31.2 3.6 2.5 1.2
59–368
#1 11.12 32.2 4.8 3.6 2.4
Chianan 8
#1 9.27 23.2 6.0 6.7 5.3
Overall Mean
#1 Low 4.6 4.0 2.7
very tender1, very tough; cohesiveness: 9, pasty1, well separated.
Source: Ref. 38.
variety. Differences in texture among cultivars again could not be explained by protein levels. However, these researchers suggested that one variety, Taichung 65, with
high protein content and intermediate amylose content, may have had a low cohesiveness sensory score due to its protein content. Because U.S. rice cultivars do not
differ substantially in gross protein content, it is unlikely that texture could be ascribed to this parameter. On the other hand, cultivars grown in the south central United
States have higher protein content than the same cultivars grown in California and differ in texture measurements (11). Thus, protein content may partly explain this
phenomenon.
Cooking time was positively correlated to protein content (1,9). Highprotein samples also showed lower water absorption than lowprotein samples (1,3). The
suggestion was made (9) that more protein formed a thicker barrier around the starch granule, thus slowing water uptake by the granule.
A—
Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer
The application of nitrogen fertilizer at full heading time has been shown to effect protein content and cooked rice texture. Tamaki et al. (16) found waterinsoluble
protein, or storage protein, to increase by 3–4% (from
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about 6 to 10% protein) when ammonium sulfate (2 g N/pot) was topdressed at full heading time. Using the General FoodsZenken Texturometer they found that
cooked rice chewiness increased linearly from 6 to 10% protein (Fig. 1). Stickiness and the textural palatability index (value obtained by multiplying chewiness by
stickiness) increased from 6% to about 8.5% protein content and then decreased at higher levels up to 10%. Thus, they found cooked rice with high protein content to
be chewier and less sticky, and rice with low protein content to be softer and less sticky than intermediateprotein rice. They suggested that protein may play an
important role in regulation of starch swelling by restricting the expansion of the gelatinizing granule.
Yanase et al. (3) did texture measurements on 16 rices fertilized with nitrogen to different degrees, which resulted in protein contents from 6.0 to 10.3%. Rices with
high protein contents were generally less adhesive; correlation between brown rice protein contents and cooked rice adhesiveness was r = 0.561 (significant at 5%
level).
B—
Effect of Grain Development
Textural properties that change during development of the rice kernel may be related to changes in protein content. Tamaki et al. (39) found that cooked rice became
more sticky and less chewy as rice reaches maturity.
Figure 1
Relationship between the texture of cooked rice
and protein content ( =
chewiness, = stickiness,
= textural palatability index).
(From Ref. 16.)
Page 183
They found the percent protein in the grain to decrease approximately 0.75% from 15 to 50 days after heading and attributed changes in texture to differences in
restriction of starch expansion during cooking due to waterinsoluble protein, amylose, and starch lipids.
V—
StarchProtein Interaction and Texture
Recent work on starchprotein interactions in rice have centered on either molecular associations in an oryzenin (glutelin)starch model system or the relationship
between starch granuleassociated protein and starch gelatinization (4,5,40). These approaches are attempts to understand how protein may influence textural
properties of whole cooked rice or flour pastes.
A—
StarchOryzenin Model System
Chrastil (4) found stickiness of whole cooked rice to be positively correlated to the binding ratios of oryzenin to starch, amylose, and/or amylopectin. Molar binding
ratios of oryzenin/starch were measured in a model system using isolated starch, amylose, and starchfree oryzenin (Table 2). Binding was measured by noting changes
in the differential absorption spectra of oryzenin in the presence of starch compared to oryzenin alone. Whole rice (medium and long grain), as well as the separated
components, were used directly or stored at 4°C and 40°C for 12 months to produce cooked products differing in stickiness. Stickiness, measured using a method in
which clusters of cooked rice are counted and the distribution noted (41), was highest in postharvest mediumgrain rice followed by rice stored at 4°C and then 40°C.
These findings support a definite role for rice protein in influencing stickiness, and future endeavors in this area will help us understand the biochemical basis of rice
texture and give clues on how to control or modify it.
B—
Rice Proteins and Starch Gelatinization
It is known that protein in the endosperm may form a barrier to expansion of the gelatinizing starch granules (12). The barrier was at one time attributed to a continuous
protein matrix surrounding starch granules as is present in most other cereal grains. However, subsequent studies on endosperm microstructure showed protein in rice
to be almost entirely encapsulated in protein bodies with little or no matrix protein present (22,23). Since the glutelincontaninig protein bodies remain intact after
cooking (26), and probably contribute little to texture, there has been little interest in pursuing proteintexture relationships.
Another constraint to starch gelatinization during the cooking process may be the presence of proteins closely associated with the granule. It is
Page 184
Table 2 Interaction of Oryzenin with Starch Components from Ricea
Rice nb mb n:mb
Amylose + oryzenin
mediumgrain rice
longgrain rice
Amylopectin + oryzenin
mediumgrain rice
longgrain rice
Starch + oryzenin
mediumgrain rice
longgrain rice
Control is freshly harvested rice.
bn is moles of oryzenin, m is moles of starch, n:m is molar binding
ratio.
Source: Ref. 4.
conceivable that starch granuleassociated protein could affect the manner in which the starch in the granule gelatinizes and the manner in which the granule maintains its
shape even when swollen. This protein could be found either in the form of a sparse matrix closely associated with the granule, a protein associated with the periphery
of the granule such as the 15 kd protein identified in wheat by Greenwell and Schofield (42), or a protein embedded inside the granule such as the 60 kd protein
identified by Sano (27) and others (28).
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Swelling potential of starch granules and dispersibility of the swollen, gelatinized granule have been hypothesized as factors that may influence cooked rice texture
(7,40,43). Bhattacharya et al. (44) divided rices into eight types based on differences in texture and found that certain paste viscosity parameters, such as Brabender
amylograph "relative breakdown" viscosity, correlated with texture of the whole cooked grain. Other viscometers were also used to differentiate the eight rice types
(37,45). Sandhya Rani and Bhattacharya (43) reported a peculiar phenomenon where at low slurry concentration (5%) in the presence of shear, hot paste viscosity of
lowamylose rice flour was higher than for highamylose flour, whereas, at high slurry concentration (12%) the situation was reversed, with highamylose flour showing
higher viscosity (Fig. 2). They postulated that during the gelatinization process, lowamylose granules swell to a greater extent than the more rigid highamylose
granules and at low concentration levels produce a more viscous paste. In contrast, at high slurry concentration the greater fragility of the lowamylose granules cause a
breakdown of its swollen structure due to the shearing of the swollen granules as they move against each other, thereby resulting in a less viscous paste. This relative
fragility or rigidity of the gelatinized rice starch granule could relate directly to the textural attributes of stickiness and firmness of cooked rice.
Some studies have been done that might explain this relationship further.
Figure 2
Effect on apparent viscosity of rice flour
slurries held at 95°C in a Brabender
Amylograph for three time periods (shear rate 5.4
S1) (HA = high amylose, LA = low amylose).
(From Ref. 43.)
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Hamaker and Griffin (40) disrupted protein structure through cleaving disulfide bonds by adding reducing agents to the cooking water. Following this treatment,
cooked rice stickiness, as measured using the Instron Universal Tester, significantly increased in 7 of 9 commonly grown Arkansas rices (Table 3). For the lower
amylose, sticky rices, the increase in stickiness was substantial. Brabender amylograph curves were lower when a reducing agent was added to the flour:water slurry
(Fig. 3a) (peak viscosity was
Figure 3
Amylograms of rice flour at 10% solids in water; (a) with and
without dithiothreitol added, (b) incubated 2 hours before
analysis in water or a solution containing chymotrypsin,
pronase, or bovine serum albumin (BSA). BU = Brabender units.
(From Ref. 40.)
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Table 3 Stickiness Values for Rice Varieties Cooked in Water or Water
with Dithiothreitiol (DTT)a
Stickiness (gcm)
Variety No treatment +DTT Increase Sig.b
Short
S201 68.0 ac 91.0 23.0 *
Medium
M201 65.0 a 92.5 27.5 *
Long
Lemont 5.0 c 10.3 5.3 *
not significantly different; * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01.
cValues within the column that are followed by different letters are
significant at p < 0.05.
Source: Ref. 40.
significantly lower in 8 of 9 rices) and were likewise lower when treated with proteinases (Fig. 3b). The observed lower viscosity after protein disruption in the
presence of high shear was thought to be due to an increase in the fragility of the swollen granules. Starch granuleassociated protein may normally confer strength to
the gelatinized granule by reducing the leaching of amylose molecules or by physically "holding together" the granule.
Hamaker and Griffin (46) showed that degree of gelatinization increased when protein structure was disrupted with the reducing agent 2mercaptoethanol (Table 4).
Flour from longgrain nonsticky rices had a lower degree of gelatinization than flour from sticky rices; the former had the greatest increase when disulfide bonds were
cleaved. This may be related to the 60 kd protein, which is embedded in the starch granule (27,28) and is present in higher amounts in highamylose rices. Hamaker et
al. (5) found the correlation between this protein and stickiness (r = 0.85, p < 0.01) to be similar to that between amylose content and stickiness (r = 0.87, p <
0.01).
Studies relating viscosity measurements of unreduced and reduced rice flour pastes to breakdown of the swollen granule have been done that indi
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Table 4 Degree of Gelatinization in Rice Flours Before and
After Treatment with 2Mercaptoethanol (2ME)a,b
Variety NTc +2ME Change
% % %
Short
S201 92.9 a,b 96.8 a 3.9
Medium
M201 93.7 a 96.9 a 3.2
Long
Lemont 90.4 a,b,c 96.0 a,b 5.6*
significantly different (p < 0.05).
bTreated group significantly different from untreated (* = p
< 0.05, ** = p < 0.01).
c
NT = not treated.
Source: Ref. 46.
cate that protein does give the gelatinized granule a degree of strength or rigidity (46). As mentioned above, Brabender viscosity measurements decreased after protein
structure was disrupted. However, when previously gelatinized rice flour pastes were measured using the lower shear Brookfield Viscometer or Bostwick
Consistometer, paste viscosity increased in the presence of a reducing agent (Table 5). This suggested that, in the absence of the normal disulfidebound protein
network associated with the granule, the granule swelled to a greater degree and produced a more viscous paste. However, with the high amount of shear present in
Brabender amylography, the swollen, gelatinized granules broke down more easily, resulting in a less viscous paste. An experiment using a CarriMed Controlled
Stress Rheometer showed breakdown of structure of the gelatinized paste at a much lower degree of stress (dynes/cm2) when the reducing agent was present (Fig. 4).
These studies suggest that specific proteins may influence the gelatinization properties of rice starch granules and that this may be directly related to textural properties
of whole grain cooked rice. Identification of the exact proteinstarch relationships needs to be obtained. If specific proteins are responsible for the observed changes in
texture, rice texture might be manipulated through breeding or processing techniques.
Page 189
Table 5 Apparent Viscosities of Short, Medium, and LongGrain Rice Flour Treated with
or Without Dithiothreitol (DTT) Using the Brabender Visco/Amylograph, Brookfield
Viscometer, and Bostwick Consistometer
Brabender (BU)a Brookfield (cps ×
(peak viscosity) 103)a Bostwick (mm)b
Variety NTa +DTT NT +DTT NT +DTT
Source: Ref. 46.
Figure 4
Viscosity of an 8% gelatinized rice flour paste with
and without dithiothreitol subjected to incremental
increases of shear stress.
(From Ref. 46.)
VI—
Rice Aging, Protein, and Texture
Rice textural properties change significantly in the months following harvest (14). Freshly harvested rice is sticky and pasty when it is cooked. However, after a few
months of storage, it becomes less sticky and more flaky. These changes have been attributed to a number of physicochemical
Page 190
changes that occur in the grain, most of them being empirical relationships. The biochemical basis for aging is still not well established. A few researchers have explored
the role of proteins in aging and specifically have examined changes in sulfhydryl content and disulfide bonding (4,46).
Moritaka and Yasumatsu (47) found that rice flour consistency, using a Brabender farinograph, increasing when an oxidizing agent was added. Also, hydrogen sulfide,
a constituent of cooked rice aroma, was found in larger amounts in rice stored at 5°C than at 40°C. Lower temperatures retard the aging of rice. Disulfides form in an
oxidizing environment and hydrogen sulfide is released only from free sulfhydryls. They concluded that a decrease in free sulfhydryls (increase in disulfide bonds) during
storage may contribute to rice becoming less sticky and firmer by inhibiting the swelling of the starch granule.
Chrastil (4) also showed a decrease in free sulfhydryls and an increase in disulfide groups during aging. About 40% of total cysteine was in the oxidized (disulfide) form
after harvest compared to 60% after storage for 12 months at 40°C.
The formation of disulfidebound protein complexes either through oxidation of two cysteine groups or through sulfhydryldisulfide interchange reactions could
conceivably restrict the expansion of the starch granules during gelatinization and, thus, affect texture. As mentioned above, Hamaker and Griffin (40) found a decrease
in Brabender peak viscosity when a reducing agent was added to cleave disulfide bonds (see Fig. 3a). During the first months after harvest, Brabender viscosity
measurements increase (14,48). This could be due in part to disulfide bond formation.
VII—
Conclusions
The evidence presented in this chapter indicates that rice protein plays a role in influencing rice quality, especially texture. The mechanism by which protein can
influence texture is currently not clear but may involve regulation of water diffusion to the starch granule and control of granule swelling during cooking. Chemical
interactions between protein and starch may also influence rice quality. However, since protein bodies remain intact upon cooking, interaction between bulk (storage)
protein and starch, while shown to interact as isolated components, may be minimal in situ. This interaction could be of considerable importance in defining the
viscoelastic properties of rice flour pastes. This does not, however, diminish the possible interaction of granuleassociated protein with starch during cooking of whole
grain rice. At this point, no definitive conclusions can be made regarding the control of texture by proteins. If proteins do in fact regulate
Page 191
texture to a significant degree, then texture may be regulated through breeding for specific proteins or modifying them during aging or processing. In this regard, future
work in this area should stress the identification of the protein or proteins responsible for influencing rice texture.
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6. Juliano, B. O., Villareal, R. M., Perez, C. M., Villareal, C. P., Takeda, Y., and Hizukuri, S. (1987). Varietal differences in properties among high amylose rice
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8. Maniñgat, C. C., and Juliano, B. O. (1980). Starch lipids and their effect on rice starch properties. Starch/Stärke, 32:76.
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15. Perez, C. M., Juliano, B. O., De Datta, S. K., and Amarante, S. T. (1990). Effects of nitrogen fertilizer treatment and source and season on grain quality of IR64
rice. Plant Foods Human Nutr., 40:123.
16. Tamaki, M., Ebata, M., Tashiro, T., and Ishikawa, M. (1989). Physicochemical studies on quality formation of rice kernel. I. Effects of nitrogen topdressed at full
heading time and air temperature during ripening period on quality of rice kernel. Jap. J. Crop Sci., 58:653.
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18. Tecson, E. M. S., Esmama, B. V., Lontok, L. P., and Juliano, B. O. (1971). Studies on the extraction and composition of rice endosperm glutelin and prolamin.
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19. Padhye, V. W., and Salunkhe, D. K. (1979). Extraction and characterization of rice proteins. Cereal Chem., 56:389.
20. Juliano, B. O., and Boulter, D. (1976). Extraction and composition of rice endosperm glutelin. Phytochem., 15:1601.
21. Snow, S. D., and Brooks, J. R. (1989). Fractionation of rice glutelin polypeptides using gel filtration chromatography. J. Food Sci., 54:730.
22. Harris, N., and Juliano, B. O. (1977). Ultrastructure of endosperm protein bodies in developing rice grains differing in protein content. Ann. Bot., 41:1.
23. Bechtel, D. B., and Pomeranz, Y. (1978). Ultrastructure of the mature ungerminated rice (Oryza sativa) caryopsis. The starchy endosperm. Am. J. Bot., 65:684.
24. Bechtel, D. B., and Juliano, B. O. (1980). Formation of protein bodies in the starchy endosperm of rice (Oryza sativa L.): A reinvestigation. Ann. Bot., 45:503.
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26. Tanaka, Y., Resurreccion, A. P., Juliano, B. O., Bechtel, D. B. (1978). Properties of whole and undigested fraction of protein bodies of milled rice. Agric. Biol.
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27. Sano, Y. (1984). Differential regulation of waxy gene expression in rice endosperm. Theor. Appl. Genet., 68:467.
28. Villareal, C. P., and Juliano, B. O. (1986). Waxy gene factor and residual protein of rice starch granules. Starch/Stärke, 38:118.
29. Villareal, C. P., and Juliano, B. O. (1989). Comparative levels of waxy gene product of endosperm starch granules of different rice ecotypes. Starch/Stärke,
41:369.
30. Perez, C. M., and Juliano, B. O. (1979). Indicators of eating quality for nonwaxy rices. Food Chem., 4:185.
31. del Mundo, A. M. (1979). Sensory assessment of cooked milled rice, Proc. Workshop on Chemical Aspects of Rice Grain Quality, International Rice Research
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32. Okabe, M. (1979). Texture measurement of cooked rice and its relationship to the eating quality. J. Texture Stud., 10:131.
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34. Despande, S. S., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1982). The texture of cooked rice. J. Texture Stud., 13:31.
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37. Sandhya Rani, M. R., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1989). Slurry viscosity as a possible indicator of rice quality. J. Texture Stud., 20:139.
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41. Chrastil, J. (1990). Chemical and physicochemical changes of rice during storage at different temperatures. J. Cereal Sci., 11:71.
42. Greenwell, P., and Schofield, J. D. (1986). A starch granule protein associated with endosperm softness in wheat. Cereal Chem., 63:379.
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9—
Enrichment of Rice
Diane W. Hoffpauer
Gourmet Technologies, Inc., Crowley, Louisiana
Salmon L. Wright III
Wright Enrichment Inc., Crowley, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
Although in 1941 the Food and Drug Administration passed the first Enrichment Act of the Federal Food Code for bread and flour (1), few people other than those in
processing or research understood its implications. The statute was originally developed by government, academic, and private concerns so that the basic food staples
could provide thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin lost in the bran layer of milled grains. During World War II when food rations were required, fresh meat, poultry, and
eggs were also scarce, so the addition of iron was included in the Standard of Identity for Enrichment. During this era every year brought more amazing biotechnical
discoveries in the vitamin and mineral field. Food processors and scientists began to realize the positive impact of the fortification of various foods with the essential
vitamins and minerals (1).
Enrichment generally refers to the restoration of vitamins and minerals lost during processing. Fortification generally means adding vitamins and minerals to foods in
higher amounts than were present before processing. Before the standards of identity were adopted to define enriched foods, the term fortification was used when any
vitamins and minerals were added to foods.
Page 196
II—
Food Enrichment and Fortification
A—
General
Niacin deficiency or ''black tongue" was first reported in the United States in 1902, but the vitamin niacin was not determined to be the cure until 1937. Many dreaded
diseases such as goiter, rickets, and blindness in children were shown to be results of the lack of the intrinsic dietary factors iodine, vitamin D, and vitamin A,
respectively (1). As the research gained momentum, more vitamins and minerals were added to stored foods. Even today, dried milk and margarine are fortified with
vitamin A and breakfast cereals have a variety of vitamins and minerals added to give a more complete meal. Although it has been disputed that the current diet of the
American people provides adequate supplies of the 12 vitamins and 7 minerals in the National Academy of Sciences Recommended Dietary Allowances, we must
wonder what effect lowfat/lowcalorie diets, twoincome "fast food" families, microwavable foods, and unfortified foods are having on the nutrition of the general
population. Groups with special dietary needs such as diabetics, heart disease patients, the elderly, and infants all pose challenges to the traditional "basic four food
groups" and to the presentday food scientist.
B—
Health Implications
In the world today concern for population health is low because our food supply is more than adequate. Nutrition requirements in the animal and poultry industry are
taken very seriously, however, because of the commercial value of the products. If animals and poultry do not gain weight correctly and quickly or the animal becomes
ill, serious financial losses can result. When the above conditions exist it is readily detected. In the population, if there are marginal deficiencies, it is very hard to detect
the symptoms, and physicians do not routinely run the tests required to detect the preclinical problems associated with such deficiencies. In countries where it is known
that food supplies are low, it is expected that these deficiencies of calories, protein, vitamins, and minerals will cause illness, and supplemental doses of all the required
nutrients are administered.
Preclinical symptoms of vitamin A deficiency include increased susceptibility to infection. Vitamin D and vitamin Cdeficient infants are restless and sleep poorly.
Preclinical symptoms of deficiencies of vitamin E, riboflavin (vitamin B2), and niacin include some type of mild skin disorder such as flaky dermititis and skin lesions.
Deficiencies of several vitamins and minerals cause symptoms common to many illnesses such as fatigue, headaches, irritation, sleep disturbances, poor appetite, and
abdominal discomfort. The requirement for the vitamins thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and folic
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acid is increased in the case of alcoholism. Vitamin B12 should be increased in tobacco smokers due to the presence of cyanide in the smoke (2).
In Japan there were many thousands of deaths from beriberi or thiamine deficiency in the 1940s. After a major government effort to enrich rice with thiamine, deaths
from beriberi were eliminated by 1965 (3). Enrichment of rice by consumers and housewives is encouraged to this day in Japan and is readily available in the grocery
stores.
Before World War II many people in Mississippi died from niacin deficiency from eating a diet consisting mainly of corn meal. During World War II, as a defense
effort, enrichment laws or fortification laws, as they were known then, were enacted. After World War II in 1948, an experiment on the island of Bataan in the
Philippines was conducted to dramatize the cause and cure for beriberi. Highly milled or polished rice was being consumed as the main diet of the people. Since most
of the thiamine was being removed with the bran layer, the disease was causing a high mortality rate on the island. One half of the island was fed rice that had been
enriched with thiamine, niacin, and iron, resulting in no deaths and reduced symptoms of the disease. The other half of the island had no decrease in the death and
disease rate (4). Armed with this information, vitamin manufacturers helped get a fortification regulation enacted in Puerto Rico and initiated a "golden grain" campaign
in Cuba. In the United States, some states passed enrichment laws for rice as well as for other grains and grain products. As of 1991, the United States provides
enrichment laws and standards of identity for flour, bread, cornmeal, corn grits, macaroni and noodle products, and rice.
III—
Enrichment Standards
The original standard of identity and definition for enriched rice was adopted by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs in the Code of the Federal Register (CFR) on
February 28, 1958. The current regulations covered under Title 21 CFR 137.350 Enriched Rice (April 1, 1990 edition) gives the definitions and standard of identity
for forms of milled rice to which nutrients have been added for each pound of rice. The levels and nutrients are:
1. Not less than 2.0 mg and not more than 4.0 mg of thiamine; not less than 1.2 mg and not more than 2.4 mg of riboflavin; not less than 16 mg and not more than 32
mg of niacine or niacinamide; and not less than 13 mg and not more than 26 mg of iron (Fe).
2. Each pound of rice may contain not less than 250 U.S.P. units and not more than 1000 U.S.P. units of vitamin D.
3. Each pound of rice may contain not less than 500 mg and not more than 1000 mg of calcium (Ca).
4. In the case of enriched parboiled rice, butylated hydroxytoluene
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Table 1 Rice Enrichment Requirements and Standards of Identitya
Standard of
State or territory Enrichment mandatory identity
Alabama No Federal
Alaska No Federal
Arizonab No Federal
Arkansas No Federal
California c — —
Colorado No Federal
Connecticut Yes Federal
Delawareb No Federal
Maryland No Federal
Massachusettsc — —
Michigan No Federal
Minnesotab No Federal
Mississippi No Federal
Missouri No Federal
Montana No Federal
Nebraska No Federal
Nevada No Federal
New Hampshirec — —
New Jerseyb No Federal
New Mexico No Federal
New Yorkd — —
North Carolina No Federal
North Dakota No Federal
Ohio No Federal
Oklahoma No Federal
Oregon No Federal
Pennsylvania No Federal
Rhode Island No Federal
South Carolina Yes State
South Dakota No Federal
(table continued on next page)
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Table 1 Continued
Enrichment mandatory Standard of
State or territory identity
Tennessee No Federal
Texas No Federal
Utah No Federal
Vermont No Federal
Virginia No Federal
Washington No Federal
West Virginia No Federal
Wisconsinb No Federal
Wyoming No Federal
American Samoad No —
Guamd No —
Puerto Ricoc — —
Virgin Islandsc — —
aTable 1 is a result of compilation of responses to inquiries directed to
the state or territory governments. It is provided for illustrative
purposes and should not be relied on as legal authority.
b
Information based on 1986 response from state or territory, no
response to 1991 inquiry.
cNo information provided, state or territory did not respond to 1986 or
1991 inquiry.
dPartial reponse received, addressing information provided only.
(BHT), an antioxidant, may be added as an optional ingredient in an amount not to exceed 0.0033% by weight of the finished food.
As of the April 1, 1990, edition of the CFR law, the regulations in 137.350 (formerly 15.525) are stayed insofar as they require each pound of the rice to contain not
less than 1.2 mg and not more than 2.4 mg of riboflavin. This stay shall continue until final action is taken disposing of the objections, after public hearing thereon (5).
The levels of enrichment in the standard of identity for rice are designed according to the levels for flour, cornmeal and pasta enrichment. Some states require
enrichment for flour, cornmeal, pasta and rice. Some states require the enrichment of one or a combination of two or more of the products. If the enrichment is optional
a state is not required to enrich, but if the term "Enriched" is added to the label, vitamins and minerals must be added according to the Federal Standard of Identity as
outlined above [5]. At least one state, South Carolina, adopted a state wide standard of identity for rice enrichment for sales within the state and adopts the federal
standard of identity for interstate shipment of the product (Table 1). In
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Table 1, the 50 states and 4 United States territories are listed along with their enrichment requirement if any, and the standard of identity used for conformity.
IV—
RiceEnrichment Processes
A—
Powder Enrichment
Currently two forms of enrichment are used by packagers and processors of rice. The first form is a preblended powder mixture (Table 2) of U.S.P. thiamine,
riboflavin (if requested), niacin or niacinamide, and ferric ortho phosphate (white iron), ferrous sulfate (yellow iron), or reduced iron. Riboflavin and ferrous sulfate give
the powder and the rice a slight offwhite to yellow color, which is undesirable to some consumers. Reduced iron has the potential to turn the rice gray to black. Ferric
ortho phosphate is the most requested form of iron used in the industry due to its white color and blending ability with the white rice. When ferric ortho phosphate is
oxidized or contains excessive moisture, it can turn tan, yellow, purple, and/or black. When powder enrichment is used in the packaged product, the statement "To
retain vitamins do not rinse before or drain after cooking" is required according to 21 CFR 137.350 4(c) (5). One of the disadvantages of powder enrichment in rice is
that 20–100% of the enrichment will wash off of the rice depending on the amount of water used in rinsing and the application time. Other disadvantages of powder
enrichment are that the vitamins and minerals are less stable, they are difficult to detect and/or assay in the final product, and they can easily react with food
components.
Table 2 Forms of Enrichment Showing Preblended Levels
Vitamin/
Form of enrichment Mineral Level (g/lb) Addition ratea
Vitamin/Mineral powder Thiamine 3.2 1 oz/100 lb rice
Niacin 25.6
Iron 33.6
Filler 391.2
Vitamin/Mineralcoated kernel Thiamine 0.4 1 lb/199 lb rice
Niacin 3.2
Iron 2.6
Filler 447.4
a
When vitamin/mineral enrichment is added at this rate, the final product will
contain the Federal Standard of Identity for thiamine, niacin, and iron.
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The advantages of powder enrichment are that the blend is less expensive than other forms of enrichment and it is easy to prepare.
B—
Coated Kernel Enrichment
The second form of enrichment available in the industry is a premixed and treated kerneltype enrichment. This "premix" as it is known in the rice industry, is a powder
blended enrichment, which is applied to the milled rice grains and coated with a waterinsoluble surface (see Table 2) so as to retain the vitamins and minerals during
rinsing. The enrichment of the rice grains is concentrated so that when added to milled rice at 0.5%, all of the enrichment required per pound of rice is provided
according to the standard of identity and can be rinsed without losing 85% of the vitamins and minerals. The grains are not noticeable in the rice as they are the same
color as the rice. Parboiled, precooked, and regular rice can all be enriched in this manner. Enrichmentcoated grain is especially useful in instant and precooked rice,
which is cooked in an excessive amount of water. The insoluble foodgrade grain coating is broken down with the release of the vitamins and minerals when it reaches
the acid environment of the stomach. 21 CFR 137.350 4(c) states in part that
unless the label of the food bears the statement, "To retain vitamins do not rinse before or drain after cooking" immediately preceding or following the name of the food and in
letters not less than onefourth the point size of type used for printing the name of the food (but in no case less than 8 point type) and the label bears no cooking directions calling
for washing and draining or unless the food is precooked and it is packaged in consumer packages which are conspicuolously and prominently labeled with directions for
preparation which, if followed, will avoid washing away or draining off enriching ingredients, the vitamins and minerals, (optional and otherwise) named in paragraphs (a) (1), (2),
and (3) of this section shall be present in such quantity or in such form that when the enriched rice is washed as prescribed in paragraph (e) of this section, the washed rice
contains not less than 85% of the minimum quantity of the substances.
One of the advantages of the "premix" or kerneltype enrichment method is that washing instructions may be placed on the package and the product will conform with
the 85% clause in the above law. Other advantages are that the vitamins and minerals are stable and will not react with other food components and they are easy to
detect and assay in the final product. The disadvantage is that the product is slightly more expensive than powder enrichment.
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C—
Other Enrichment Processes
A number of kerneltype premix processes have been attempted, with or without success. They can be described as a) coating grains with active and inactive
ingredients, b) infusing active ingredients into the grains and crosslinking the starches, c) making simulated grains containing the ingredients, and d) combinations of the
above processes. The coating of the active and inactive ingredients onto the surface of the grains has been the most successful and inexpensive as a whole. When
infusing ingredients into the grains, a soaking and drying phase is usually employed, which is complicated and expensive because of the extra drying step. Much hope
has been given to the simulated grain experiments, but drawbacks exist as to blending with the natural product and consistency after cooking.
V—
Application of Enrichment Material to Rice
Powdered vitamins and minerals are applied to rice at various points during the milling and packaging process. Powder enrichment mixtures are available for addition
rates of 1, 1/2, 1/4 ounce per 100 pounds of milled rice. The most effective application of powder enrichment is soon after milling with white and parboiled rice. The
powder adheres to the grain well at this point due to the heat and moisture on the grain surface. Kerneltype enrichment does not require adhesion consideration
because the grain is sealed and does not have to stick to the milled rice. This enrichment simply blends with the final product and is often added immediately prior to
packaging. It has been found in the industry that aspiration of rice will remove much of the powder enrichment if applied before this step in packaging. Powder does
not adhere well to precooked rice. In this case it is easier to apply 1 ounce to 100 pounds of rice (see Table 2) rather than 1/4 ounce of enrichment. Because brown
rice has more oil on its surface, vitamins and minerals adhere readily. Antioxidants can be added at the same time to prevent the common rancidity problem associated
with brown rice. Brown rice is not included in the Standard of Identity for Enriched Rice (5) and therefore can be enriched or fortified at any level desired.
Enriched kerneltype permix is added to rice at the rate of 1 pound of premix to 199 pounds of rice, or 0.5% (see Table 2). Products that are on the market with
instructions to rinse the rice on the package or with instructions to boil in excess water (such as boilinthebag) after which the water is discarded are usually enriched
with a cook and rinseresistant kerneltype enrichment.
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VI—
Rinse, Cook, and Wash Resistance of Enriched Rice
It is possible to attain rinse and cook resistance using any of the above methods with the selection of the best ingredients for the purpose. One consideration is that the
desired ingredients can be secured so completely within the grain that the vitamins and minerals will not be released for absorption in the digestive system and thus go
through the system without benefit to the individual. Incorporating ingredients that are digestible becomes very important when assimilation is considered.
Since humans discovered the undesirability of eating dirty food, they have been washing rice and other foods to remove actual or imagined dirt. Most food processors
and manufacturers take great efforts to ensure that their products are as clean and as sanitary as possible. In some parts of the world this is not the case. Some people
will always wash their rice whether it is necessary or not. A product can be processed and be very clean, only to be poorly packaged, handled, and stored and thus
need washing or even sterilizing. In the early days of rice packaging, much attention was given to the appearance of rice, and a clear, translucent grain was very
desirable in the market. The effect was accomplished by using glucose to make talc adhere to the grain. Talc, also known as "soapstone" or "stealite," consists of finely
powdered native hydrous magnesium silicate (6). Since talc was considered inedible, instructions were placed on the package to remove it by washing. Because of
universal washing of rice, early fortification (enrichment) efforts were made to utilize washresistant treated grains that were added to regular milled rice at the rate of 1
pound of enrichment to 199 pounds of rice (0.5%). One grain in every 200 was coated with enough thiamine, niacin, and iron to fortify to the desired levels. In the
1960s, a movement developed to stop the practice of adding talc to rice because its addition was considered cosmetic only and did not contribute any food value to
the rice. There has been no clinical evidence or research produced to substantiate the claim that talc is harmful to humans, however.
VII—
Conclusions
Much debate has been carried out as to the benefits of adding vitamins and minerals to foods (7). Other than the enrichment of the traditional cereal grains wheat, corn,
and rice, fortification has been added to a number of processed foods. Recently the powdered drink mixes used in weight reduction plans have enjoyed a positive
response from consumers. The drink mixes are fortified with a variety of vitamins and minerals. The longterm
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effect of such products has yet to be determined. Enrichment of rice has endured and is continuing to reach new populations worldwide as a basic way to combat
starvation and dietary deficiency. New research is being carried out to fortify grains with the missing factors of a particular population and not change their normal diet.
An example is the fortification of wheat for Africa with vitamin A. New challenges include stabilization and storage techniques for areas without facilities enjoyed in the
United States. The Food and Drug Administration has traditionally discouraged fortification of foods with extra ingredients for fear of "overvitaminization" of the
population (8). This fear may be justified in the case of the fatsoluble vitamins and some minerals, but the effects and need for other ingredients including watersoluble
vitamins will continue to be explored.
References
1. Erdman Jr., J. W. (1989). Nutrition: Past, present and future. Food Technol., 43:220.
2. Berkow, R. (ed.) (1977). The Merck Manual, 13th ed. Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, p. 1160.
3. Mitsuda, H. (1969). New approaches to amino acid and vitamin enrichment in Japan, ProteinEnriched Cereal Foods For World Needs (Dr. Max Milner, ed.),
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, p. 215.
4. Salcedo, J., et al. (1950). Artificial enrichment of white rice as a solution to endemic beriberi. Report of field trials in Bataan. J. Nutr., 42:501.
5. Title 21 Code of the Federal Register, Chapter 1, Part 137.350—Enriched Rice, April 1, 1990 edition and as amended in 1977, 1982, 1984, and 1989.
6. Windholz, M. (ed.). (1983). The Merck Index, 10th ed. Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, p. 1299.
7. Austin, J. E. (1978). Cereal fortification reconsidered. Cereal Foods World, 23:233.
8. "Minimum Daily Requirement." Chemical Business (Jan. 1990), p. 38.
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10—
Starch Gelatinization in Brown and Milled Rice:
A Study Using Differential Scanning Calorimetry
Wayne E. Marshall
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
The literature contains numerous references to gelatinization of starch from plant material from such diverse sources as cereal grains, tubers, and legumes. Starch
gelatinization has been most extensively examined in cereal grains, and there is a growing body of literature pertaining to the gelatinization of rice starch and, to a lesser
extent, rice flour. These studies have added considerable information about the gelatinization properties of starch from different rice varieties. They have examined
changes in gelatinization parameters when rice starch or flour has been exposed to other food components, such as different moisture levels (1–4), protein (5), lipid
(6), salt (3), and both salt and sugar (4).
Rice is unique among cereal grains in that it is primarily consumed in the cooked, whole grain form (7). Since milled rice (the most commonly eaten form) is 85%
starch, starch gelatinization during rice cooking is the most important determinant of texture in the cooked product. Starch must be gelatinized during cooking,
otherwise rice is often too firm to be eaten comfortably. The temperature at which starch gelatinizes is also important because this parameter is related to the cooking
time (8). Cooking time is an important variable in both household and commercial applications. Finally, the heat energy required to completely gelatinize starch in rice is
critical to the rice processor, who must optimize heat input,
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cooking time, and temperature and, at the same time, minimize the cost of the entire cooking process. Therefore, for such cooking applications, rice starch
gelatinization should be studied in situ, that is, directly in the whole grain, and gelatinization should be followed during the cooking process. Due to the lack of suitable
instrumentation, there has been little information generated about the thermal properties of rice starch during rice cooking.
An analytical instrument used extensively to determine gelatinization temperature, the heat energy input required for gelatinization, and the degree of starch gelatinization
is the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). Much of our quantification of rice starch gelatinization has been attributed to measurements made with this instrument.
Since the DSC allows programmed heating of the sample at a constant rate and precise control of temperature, this instrument can simulate the ricecooking process
and yield valuable information to the rice processor. Until recently, most calorimeters could not analyze whole rice grains because of sample size limitations. The
introduction of newer calorimeters, with slow scan rates and large sample compartments, has made possible the gathering of information on starch gelatinization in situ
during simulated rice cooking. An advantage of measuring the thermal characteristics of whole grain rice is a more realistic representation of the gelatinization process
related to whole grain cooking.
The purpose of this chapter is to present a comprehensive review of recent research done in the author's laboratory on the in situ determination of starch gelatinization
in brown and milled rice using differential scanning calorimetry. The chapter will examine the effect of soaking and milling of rice and the effect of grain particle size on
starch gelatinization. The chapter will then discuss the results in terms of the role played by the maintenance of grain structure in influencing starch gelatinization and
conclude by describing future research directions where in situ DSC analysis can be extended to other foods.
II—
Differential Scanning Calorimetry
This section is devoted to a general description of the calorimetric method used to analyze both unmilled and milled rice along with rice flour. The first in situ description
of rice starch gelatinization was reported by Normand and Marshall (9). Subsequent studies have been reported (10–13). In all of these studies, a Hart Scientific
model 7708 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (Hart Scientific, Pleasant Grove, UT) with three 1ml capacity sample ampules and a reference ampule was used. The
ampules normally
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contained 13–14 brown or milled rice grains (260–270 mg) or about 260 mg of rice flour. The water:rice or water:flour ratio was 2.3:1, which produced a moisture
content of 70% (wet basis) in the rice or flour after heating in the calorimeter. Seventy percent is the usual moisture content of fully cooked rice (14). At this final
moisture level, the starch in the rice or flour was completely gelatinized. Inspection of the ampule contents at the end of the DSC run revealed that all of the water had
been absorbed by the samples. For rice, there was no evidence of hard centers, indicating the grains had been completely cooked in the calorimeter.
Milled rice was subjected to a presoak period of 45 minutes in order to reach an equilibrium moisture content of 38–40% (wet basis) at room temperature. Brown
rice was presoaked for 5 hours in order to equilibrate the moisture content. After the equilibration period, the samples were analyzed in the calorimeter.
Two successive heating and cooling cycles were run on all samples. Heating and cooling rates were normally 1.0°C/min but were altered depending upon the study
undertaken. The first cycle scanned the temperature range of 20–110°C and, after a brief 5 to 8minute hold time at 110°C, scanned back to 20°C. The second
cycle followed almost immediately and was identical to the first. The second heating established a baseline for each run since, in all cases, no thermal transitions
attributed to starch gelatinization appeared during the second heating due to the wellknown irreversibility of the gelatinization process. Baseline subtractions were
made on all thermal curves. By using the gelatinized starch to represent the baseline (reference) for the ungelatinized samples, differences in heat capacities between
sample and reference could be eliminated, thereby creating a horizontal baseline for ease and greater accuracy of measurement.
Thermal curves generated by the calorimeter depicting rice starch gelatinization were characterized by three temperatures—onset (To), peak (Tp), and conclusion
(Tc)—and by the gelatinization enthalpy ( H), which was expressed as J/g of rice or flour at 11% moisture. Values for these parameters were obtained from the
thermal curves employing a series of intersecting lines, as shown in Figure 1. Once the points of intersection were fixed, perpendicular lines were dropped from the
points and values for To, Tp, Tc were read on the temperature axis. H was obtained by integrating the area under the curve using a baseline as shown in Figure 1.
Placement of the lines in Figure 1 was based on a procedure by Lund (15).
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Figure 1
Determination of the thermal parameters To, Tp, Tc , and H from a thermal
curve depicting starch gelatinization in whole grain rice. Thermal curves
for rice flour are treated in a similar manner, except there is no low temperature
shoulder.
III—
Starch Gelatinization in Milled Rice and Milled Rice Flour
A—
Thermal Curves for Milled Rice and Milled Rice Flour
Thermal curves depicting starch gelatinization for four different varieties of milled rice are presented in Figure 2. The four varieties represent three different grain types:
Lemont (long), Mars (medium), and S201 and Calmochi (short). In addition, high (Lemont), medium (S201, Mars), and low (Calmochi) amylose varieties are also
represented (Table 1). All four varieties exhibited a bimodal starch gelatinization endotherm characterized by a low temperature shoulder followed by the main
endotherm. These thermal curves are in contrast to the thermal curves developed for flours from the same four varieties (Fig. 3). The flour samples yielded a unimodal
or single starch gelatinization endotherm followed by a small, higher temperature endotherm. For Calmochi, the small endotherm was absent. These endotherms were
attributed to melting of an amyloselipid complex formed during heating in the calorimeter or already present in the flour (6). Calmochi appar
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Table 1 Amylose Contenta and Thermal Curve Dataa of Whole Grain Milled Rice and Milled Rice Flourb
Whole grain milled rice Milled rice flour
Gelatinization temperatures (°C) Gelatinization temperatures (°C)
Amylose Enthalpy ( H) Enthalpy ( H)
Rice variety content (%) To Tp Tc (J/g) To Tp Tc (J/g)
Lemont 25.0 ± 0.1 72.7 ± 0.2 93.5 ± 0.5 NDc ND 70.3 ± 0.1 75.9 ± 0.0 83.8 ± 0.1 10.3 ± 0.1
Mars 15.8 ± 0.1 65.4 ± 0.4 86.4 ± 0.7 98.6 ± 0.2 15.8 ± 0.4 65.3 ± 0.4 72.9 ± 0.4 82.2 ± 0.2 10.5 ± 0.1
S201 20.6 ± 0.8 55.4 ± 0.7 82.6 ± 0.4 97.6 ± 0.8 13.3 ± 0.1 59.2 ± 0.2 66.6 ± 0.1 77.1 ± 0.1 9.5 ± 0.1
Calmochi 6.6 ± 0.0 60.5 ± 0.5 81.7 ± 0.3 93.5 ± 0.5 14.9 ± 0.4 61.0 ± 0.1 68.8 ± 0.1 78.8 ± 0.01 11.2 ± 0.4
aValues given are means ± SEM of triplicate determinations.
bMoisture content of all samples was 70%.
cNot determined due to absence of concluding baseline.
Source: Ref. 9.
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Figure 2
DSC thermal curves of different milled rice varieties. The
final moisture content of all samples was 70% (w/w) and the
heating rate of the calorimeter was 1.0°C/min.
(From Ref. 9.)
ently does not have sufficient lipidassociated amylose to produce a detectable endotherm. Melting of these complexes likely occurred in whole grain rice as well as in
the flour. The presence of these thermal curves was probably obscured by the much larger gelatinization endotherms or occurred at temperatures higher than could be
recorded by the calorimeter (12).
Table 1 gives the thermal parameters taken from the thermal curves in Figures 2 and 3. Milled rice for all varieties had Tp and Tc values about 13–20°C higher than
comparable flour samples, but To values were similar. H values were 4–5 J/g higher in the milled rice compared to the flour. The four varieties were characterized by
distinctly different gelatinization temperatures, which were variety specific.
B—
Models to Explain Rice Starch Gelatinization in Situ
The observed differences in thermal curves and differences in the thermal parameters for milled rice and milled rice flour could be attributed to one or more of the
following models: a) the existence of two populations of starch granules with their own unique gelatinization characteristics, b) the
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Figure 3
DSC thermal curves of different milled rice flour varieties.
The final moisture content of all samples was 70% (w/w) and
the heating rate of the calorimeter was 1.0°C/min.
(From Ref. 9.)
existence of temperature gradients in the grain (heat transfer effects) which would broaden the thermal curves thereby increasing the gelatinization time, or c) the
existence of water diffusion gradients in the grains, which are caused by structural barriers such as the interface between different cell types, e.g., cell walls between the
subalurone and central endosperm layers in milled rice (16).
1—
Two Different Starch Granule Populations
Rice has compound granules within each individual grain, which are relatively small compared to other cereal grains. If two different populations of starch granules exist
in rice, then they should exist in the flour samples. However, only one endotherm attributed to starch gelatinization was observed in the flour samples (see Fig. 3).
Therefore, the presence of granules that contain starch of distinctly different gelatinization profiles is unlikely.
2—
Heat Transfer Effects
Heat transfer effects can be studied by determining the effect of heating rate on the gelatinization temperatures and gelatinization enthalpy of the
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Figure 4
Changes in onset (To), peak (Tp), and conclusion (Tc ) temperature
of Lemont milled rice (WG) and flour (F) as a function of heating rate.
(From Ref. 9.)
starch. The resulting curves are then extrapolated to zero heating rate. At this value, heat transfer effects are eliminated. The effect of heating rate on starch
gelatinization temperatures was determined for Lemont longrain rice (Fig. 4). Onset temperatures were essentially unaffected by heating rate. There was a small (2°C)
difference in To between milled rice and flour at zero heating rate, with milled rice having the higher value. Decreases in Tp and Tc occurred with decreasing heating rate
for both milled rice and flour. This relationship was linear. At zero heating rate, the Tp for milled rice was still almost 9°C higher than for flour. The Tc for milled rice was
most affected by heating rate, as it showed the greatest rate of change (steepest slope). At zero heating rate, the Tc for milled rice was 4°C higher than for flour.
Gelatinization enthalpies showed a small but consistent increase with decreased heating rate (Fig. 5). At zero heating rate, enthalpies for milled rice were more than 3
J/g higher than for flour samples.
Extrapolated values for To, Tp, Tc, and H were larger in milled rice than flour at zero heating rate (see Figs. 4 and 5). If each of these extrapolated values had been
the same for both milled rice and flour, the the heat transfer model could completely account for the differences in gelatinization parameters. In our example, the heat
transfer model can, at most, only partially explain the differences in thermal curves between milled rice and flour.
3—
Barriers to Water Diffusion
Thus far, the first two models put forth to account for differences in starch gelatinization between milled rice and milled rice flour have not been
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Figure 5
Changes in enthalpy ( H) values as a function of heating
rate for Lemont milled rice (whole grain) and flour.
(From Ref. 9.)
satisfactory. The third model, the existence of barriers to water diffusion, would appear to be the most likely explanation simply by the process of elimination.
However, evidence needs to be presented to prove that this is the correct model. In this scenario, the rate of water diffusion within the grain dictates when starch
gelatinization occurs. If this model is correct, then disruption of diffusion barriers within the grain, such as removal of successive layers of rice tissue by milling or
destruction of the structural integrity of the rice grains by grinding or pulverization, should cause an observable reduction in gelatinization temperatures and gelatinization
enthalpies. The next section will describe how starch gelatinization is influenced by alterations to grain structure.
IV—
Grain Structure and Starch Gelatinization
A—
The Effect of Cracks and Fissures
The most obvious difference between rice and rice flour is that the structural integrity of the rice grain has been destroyed when the grains are reduced to small particle
sizes to form a flour. This situation represents an extreme example of rice grain modification. Actually, one of the most common modifications of intact grain structure is
the formation of surface cracks and the deeper fissures that can farm in milled rice through improper drying, milling, and exposure to aqueous and nonaqueous media.
Marshall et al. (10) examined starch gelatinization after soaking rice in
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water or treating rice with hexane and chloroformmethanol (C–M). Rice grains were soaked in an excess of distilled water for 30 minutes and then air dried for 24
hours in order to bring the moisture content of the grains back to their original value (11–12%). This simple method is known to cause transverse fissures to form in the
grains (17). Milled rice was also exposed to hexane or C–M, two solvents that remove rice surface lipids (18). Treatment with both aqueous and nonaqueous media
caused extensive cracking and fissuring in representative Lemont rice as seen in scanning electron micrographs (Fig. 6B–D). Note the virtual absence of surface
imperfections in the untreated (control) grain (Fig. 6A).
Thermal curves showing the starch gelatinization profiles of untreated and treated Lemont rice are shown in Figure 7. The thermal curve for the control (curve 1) was
considerably different than the thermal curves for soaked (curve 2) and CMtreated (curve 3) milled rice. Curves 2 and 3 were similar to each other. In separate
studies (10), the thermal profiles for untreated Mars, S201, and Calmochi varieties were found to be different from the corresponding treated rice within the same
variety. As with Lemont, the thermal profiles for soaked, hexane, and CMtreated samples were similar when compared to each other within the same variety.
Curves 2 and 3 are characterized by a shift in Tp and Tc to much lower values and an increase in the size of the low temperature shoulder compared to the main
gelatinization endotherm. Table 2 gives the thermal parameters for these curves. The data show To values were unaffected by either soaking or C–M treatment, but a
6–7°C decrease was observed in the Tp values of the treated grains when compared to the control. Comparisons between untreated and treated sam
Table 2 Thermal Parametersa of Lemont Whole Grain Milled Riceb Soaked in Water or
Treated with ChloroformMethanol (C–M)
Gelatinization temperaturesc (°C)
Enthalpy, H
Treatment To Tp Tc (J/g)
None 71.2 ± 0.2 93.0 ± 0.5 NDd ND
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Figure 6
Scanning electron micrographs of Lemont milled rice. (A) Untreated, (B)
hexanetreated, (C) chloroformmethanol treated, (D) soaked in water.
(From Ref. 10.)
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Figure 7
DSC thermal curves of Lemont milled rice: untreated (curve 1), soaked in water
(curve 2), and chloroformmethanoltreated (curve 3). The final moisture content
of all samples was 70% (w/w) and the heating rate of the calorimeter was
1.0°C/min.
(From Ref. 10.)
All measured thermal parameters were similar when watersoaked and C–Mtreated grains were compared to each other (see Table 2). This similarity was also found
in Mars, S201 and Calmochi [10]. Less than 5% of the nonstarch lipid was removed during soaking. Almost 80% of the nonstarch lipid was removed by C–M
treatment (10). Thus, the results displayed in Figure 7 suggest that the major determinant affecting starch gelatinization is the formation of cracks and fissures in the rice.
The removal of nonstach lipid appears to play only a minor role in influencing starch gelatinization.
B—
Effect of Milling
Milling of brown rice is another method of modifying grain integrity by removing successive layers of grain tissue. Milling does not destroy grain integ
Page 217
rity as would grinding or pulverizing the rice. Milling could modify starch gelatinization by removing potential barriers, such as the bran layer, to water transport
phenomena that are essential to the gelatinization process.
Champagne et al. (11) investigated the effect of bran removal on starch gelatinization in Lemont brown rice. They used abrasion milling to remove successive layers of
bran and polish in 1–2% degree of milling increments in order to obtain rice milled at 9.1% degree of milling. Table 3 presents the results of the milling study. To and Tp
tended toward lower values as the degree of milling increased. The greatest decline in gelatinization temperatures occurred after the outer 1.3% of the grain was
removed. At this degree of milling, To and Tp had decreased 1.6 and 4.8°C, respectively. Measurements of Tc and H in most cases could not be obtained due to the
inability of the calorimeter to measure conclusion temperatures beyond 110°C.
Marshall (13) expanded the milling study of Champagne et al. (11) to include rice milled to 66% degree of milling. The effect of deep milling on starch gelatinization
temperatures is given in Figure 8. To decreased until about 10% degree of milling was reached. This degree of milling removed the bran and polish layers from the
grain. Subsequent removal of layers of starchy endosperm had no further effect on this parameter. To decreased by 3°C over the entire milling range. Tp and Tc showed
the same general trend as To. A Tc value could not be obtained for brown rice due to the absence of
Table 3 The Effect of Degree of Milling on
Gelatinization Temperatures of Whole
Grain Ricea
Gelatinization temperatures
(°C)
% Milled To Tp
Values given are means ± standard error of
the mean of duplicate determinations.
Source: adapted from Ref. 11.
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Figure 8
The effect of degree of milling on the starch gelatinization temperatures
for Lemont unmilled (brown) and milled rice. Onset (To), peak (Tp), and
conclusion (T ) temperatures were obtained from thermal curves at the
c
degree of milling shown.
(From Ref. 13.)
a concluding baseline on the thermal curve. Therefore, the Tc for brown rice was >110°C. There was a steady decline in Tp and Tc until about 20% degree of milling
was reached. Further milling had little effect on either value. At 20% degree of milling, Tp had decreased about 10–11°C compared to brown rice.
C—
Effect of Particle Size
We have shown that the introduction of cracks and fissures compromises rice grain integrity and that both cracks/fissures and milling affect starch
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Figure 9
The effect of degree of milling on gelatinization enthalpy ( H) for Lemont
milled rice. H was calculated from endotherms at the degree of milling shown.
(From Ref. 13.)
gelatinization. However, in both cases grain structure remained largely intact. In this section, we examine the effect of incrementally disrupting the grain structure of
milled rice by sectioning or pulverizing to smaller particle size.
Figure 10 depicts the thermal curves generated by sectioning Lemont milled rice with a scalpel into pieces of roughly equivalent size. As the sections became shorter,
Tp and Tc decreased and the low temperature endotherm became more prominent. As particle size was further reduced by pulverizing milled rice in a mortar with a
pestle and the particles were partitioned into size ranges, the gelatinization endotherms underwent considerable change (Fig. 11). The most obvious change was
endotherm shape. Curves A through F show a progressive increase in the size of the low temperature shoulder and a progressive decrease and eventual disappearance
(Curve E) of the major starch gelatinization endotherm. A qualitative examination of Figures 10 and 11 reveal an inverse relationship between particle size and the
contribution of the low temperature shoulder to the entire gelatinization event. That is, a decrease in particle size results
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Figure 10
DSC thermal curves for Lemont milled rice and milled
rice sections. (A) Unsectioned (whole) grains, (B)
onehalf grains, (C) onequarter grains, (D) oneeighth
grains. The heating rate of the calorimeter was 1.0°C/min,
and the final moisture content of all samples was 70% (w/w).
(From Ref. 13.)
in an increase in the percentage of the gelatinization endotherm, which was originally the low temperature shoulder.
The effect of particle size on starch gelatinization parameters can be seen in Tables 4 and 5. For sectioned grains (Table 4), Tp and Tc progressively decreased as the
number of sections increased and particle size decreased. When intact grains were compared to kernels sectioned into eight parts, a decrease of 4–5°C and 5–6°C
was observed for Tp and Tc, respectively. There was no consistent trend for To and H values. Reducing the
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Figure 11
DSC thermal curves for Lemont rice grains pulverized
to particle sizes of 710–1400 m (A), 500–710 m (B),
355–500 m (C), 250–355 m (D), 180–250 m (E) and
125–180 m (F). The heating rate of the calorimeter
was 1.0°C/min, and the final moisture content of all
samples was 70% (w/w).
(From Ref. 13.)
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Table 4 Thermal Parametersa of Milled Lemont Riceb Sectioned to Pieces of
Equivalent Size
Gelatinization temperatures (°C)d
Number
of sections Enthalpy, H
(length in mc) To Tp Tc (J/g)
0(6,770 ± 37) 73.3 ± 0.2 93.4 ± 0.7 103.7 ± 0.4 14.1 ± 1.4
2(3,680 ± 36) 72.8 ± 0.2 92.1 ± 0.0 103.2 ± 0.5 14.8 ± 0.4
4(1840 ± 29) 73.4 ± 0.5 89.9 ± 0.1 102.0 ± 0.0 14.4 ± 0.4
8(1300 ± 25) 72.8 ± 0.4 88.8 ± 0.2 98.2 ± 0.1 15.1 ± 0.1
aValues are means ± standard errors of the means for duplicate determinations.
bMoisture content of calorimeter samples was 70%.
cMean length ± standard errors of the means of 30 sectioned kernels selected at
random. Section lengths determined by image analysis.
dT , T , and T = Onset, peak, and conclusion temperatures, respectively.
o p c
Source: Ref. 13.
change in Tc was observed. H continued to decline until a particle size range of 64–90 m was reached.
Starch gelatinization parameters of samples prepared with a mortar and pestle were compared with a flour sample prepared in a Udy cyclone mill (see Table 5). The
Udy cyclone mill was used in our laboratory to prepare the rice flour used to develop the data seen in Figure 3. The flour yielded a broad range of particle sizes, but
the single particle size range that had the highest percentage of flour particles was 180–250 m. When the samples, prepared by two different methods, were
compared for this size range, starch gelatinization parameters were similar. This result indicates that the method of sample preparation is less important than particle
size, at least for this particle size range and only if starch granule damage is minimal.
At larger particle sizes, the above statement may not be true. Grains sectioned into eight equivalent parts were about 1300 m thick (see Table 4) and are within the
particle size range (710–1400 m) of the largest particles prepared with mortar and pestle (see Table 5). However, their thermal parameters, except for To, were
considerably different. There was a 6–7°C differences in Tp and Tc and a 3.3 J/g difference in H. In this example, the amount of exposed, internal grain surface may
be important in defining starch gelatinization. For the sectioned grain, the top and bottom of a diskshaped section are internal surfaces and contain clusters of exposed
starch granules. The perimeter of the disk is the milled or polished surface and shows no morphologically distinct granules. For the pulverized grain, most of the surface
is internal surface with exposed starch granules.
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Table 5 Thermal Parametersa of Milled Lemont Riceb Reduced to Different Particle
Size Ranges
Gelatinization temperatures (°C)c
Particle size
range
( m) To Tp Tc Enthalpy, H (J/g)
710–1400 73.1 ± 0.1 82.0 ± 1.1 92.0 ± 0.1 11.8 ± 0.5
500–710 73.5 ± 0.1 80.8 ± 0.2 90.2 ± 0.1 11.8 ± 0.3
355–500 73.4 ± 0.1 77.8 ± 0.1 89.8 ± 0.1 11.4 ± 0.2
250–355 73.3 ± 0.1 77.7 ± 0.1 89.4 ± 0.1 10.6 ± 0.2
180–250 72.4 ± 0.1 77.2 ± 0.0 85.8 ± 0.0 9.5 ± 0.3
125–180 72.4 ± 0.1 77.2 ± 0.2 85.1 ± 0.1 9.3 ± 0.3
90–125 72.3 ± 0.3 77.0 ± 0.0 83.9 ± 0.1 8.2 ± 0.6
64–90 72.5 ± 0.3 77.2 ± 0.1 84.2 ± 0.1 6.4 ± 0.5
53–64 72.4 ± 0.1 77.2 ± 0.1 83.4 ± 0.0 6.4 ± 0.3
Sample prepared in Udy cyclone mill
53–710d 72.8 ± 0.0 77.4 ± 0.1 86.0 ± 0.2 10.0 ± 0.2
aValues are means ± standard errors of the means for duplicate determinations.
bMoisture content of calorimeter samples was 70%.
c
To, Tp, and Tc = Onset, peak, and conclusion temperatures, respectively.
dSeventynine percent of the sample was collected in the particle size range 125–
This section has described experimental evidence showing that modification of rice grain structure, either by milling, introduction of cracks/fissures, or pulverization,
considerably reduced Tp, Tc, and H. The only gelatinization parameter relatively unaffected by structural modification was To. To can be slightly altered by successive
removal of bran layers (see Table 3). To values are variety dependent (see Table 1). For a specific variety they are probably influenced more by the arrangement of
amylose and amylopectin (molecular architecture) within the starch granule than by modification of the grain. Tp, Tc and H were also variety dependent. However,
they were at least equally dependent on grain integrity. These observations have practical applications. If a rice processor specifies a set of starch gelatinization
parameters, then they can either find the rice variety that has those parameters or manipulate the physical structure of the grain for the variety at hand.
The effect of milling on rice starch gelatinization can be explained by considering the milling process as removing layers of different types of grain tissue. This eliminates
structural barriers that hinder the movement
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of water through the grain and create water diffusion gradients. Milling studies by Champagne et al. (11) and Marshall (13) serve as examples. The steepest decline in
To and Tp occurred after the inital 1.3% of brown rice surface was removed (see Table 3). In this outer layer is the pericarp and seed coat with its associated high wax
content (19). Removal of the pericarp and seed coat had the greatest impact on water penetration to the starch granules, most likely due to the presence of wax in
these layers. A smaller rate of decline in Tp and Tc was observed until approximately 20% degree of milling was reached (see Fig. 8). In this case, subalurone and
starchy endosperm layers may provide additional resistance to water penetration because of the heterogeneity of the tissue in these layers. The starchy endosperm
remaining after 20% degree of milling apparently provides a constant resistance to water diffusion as no changes were observed in starch gelatinization temperatures.
This part of the grain is probably homogeneous in its cellular makeup compared to outer layers (20).
The decrease in H at degree of milling values below 20% cannot be readily explained (see Fig. 9). The amount of heat input was expected to decline with improved
water penetration though the kernel. Milling initially reduced Tp. It also increased the size of the low temperature shoulder in relation to the main endotherm (13). For
milled rice, H may be more closely related to changes in the low temperature shoulder than Tp.
The size of the low temperature shoulder does not always appear dependent on the degree of milling. A low temperature shoulder was not observed in intact brown
rice but was prevalent in milled rice after the bran layer was removed (13). Cracked, fissured, or pulverized brown rice will display a prominent low temperature
shoulder during gelatinization (W. E. Marshall, unpublished observations). In milled rice, further milling provided a noticeable but small increase in the size of this
shoulder (13). Thus, the appearance and size of the shoulder can be assisted by milling, but large changes appear to depend on the degree to which the internal
surfaces of the grain are exposed by cracks/fissures or pulverization. Exposure of the internal surfaces to water could eliminate water diffusion gradients to the granules
closest to the granule/water interface. These granules would then gelatinize at the lowest possible temperature, creating a small endotherm. Lund (21) has noted that
water diffusion into isolated starch granules is not a ratelimiting step for gelatinization. The population of granules physically removed from the interface between water
and granule would still be under the control of diffusion gradients. This population of granules would gelatinize at higher temperatures. Thus, an important factor in
determining the size of the low temperature shoulder may be the ratio of exposed internal surface to total surface. Exposure of increasing amounts of internal surface
relative to total surface, as exemplified in the particle size study described
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in this section, would increase the population of starch granules not subjected to diffusion gradients. At a sufficiently small particle size, diffusion is no longer rate limiting
and gelatinization depends only on the gelatinization characteristics of the individual granules. Brown rice represents the other extreme, where starch gelatinization is
totally dependent on water diffusion gradients controlled by the unique structure of the grain.
V—
Conclusions
We have demonstrated that starch gelatinization in brown or milled rice is dependent upon grain structural integrity. Gelatinization can be varied over a wide range of
temperatures and a range of enthalpy values by modifying grain structure. Modification affects water diffusion gradients in the grain that allow the diffusion process to
be the ratelimiting step in gelatinization. Previous characterizations of rice starch gelatinization that have appeared in the literature have dealt with rice flour and isolated
starch granules. Under these conditions, diffusion is no longer the ratelimiting step in gelatinization. Results from the literature could not be used to accurately model
starch gelatinization in the intact rice grain because of the complex and critical role structure plays in the gelatinization process. Therefore, our results have opened a
new perspective on starch gelatinization in rice that could not have been quantified without in situ analysis.
What kind of practical value do our results have? Since use of a differential scanning calorimeter simulates the rice cooking process, our quantification of gelatinization
temperatures and gelatinization enthalpies can have practical application to the processing of rice. As noted earlier, starch gelatinization temperatures and cooking times
appear to be directly related (8). Lower gelatinization tempeatures and lower gelatinization enthalpies would be desirable to processors. Cooking time and the amount
of heat energy required to cook the rice would be reduced. Processors could use rice milled to different degrees to develop faster cooking products. To create a rice
product with substantially shorter cooking times, the internal structure of the grains must be exposed. Alexander (22) and Bardet and Giesse (23) described
commercial processes where brown rice was exposed to hot, dry air to produce fissures in the grain surface. The extensive fissuring reduced cooking time by allowing
rapid water penetration to the starch granules. The processes described in these patents are based on the principles discussed in this chapter. One product derived
from these patents is quick cooking, brown rice seen on U.S. grocery shelves. Preceeding further along these lines, if retention of grain structure is not a requirement,
cooking times can be substantially reduced by controlling the particle size of the broken grain.
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VI—
Future Research
Future research efforts need to be directed toward a quantitative description of the kinetics of water movement in whole grain rice. The kinetic studies would supply
time, temperature, and variety data needed by processors to minimize production costs yet obtain the desired end result. In addition, studies are needed to compare
the relationship between starch gelatinization and cooking times using the whole grain model versus a flour or starch model. After these questions have been answered,
rice processors will have a better understanding of the interrelationships among rice grain structure, starch gelatinization, and cooking.
Future research should also be directed toward using the whole grain model of rice starch gelatinization. It might be applied to quantify starch gelatinization in other
food products that are cooked before being consumed. These products would include legumes, such as beans and peas, and tuber crops, all of which have starch as
their major component.
References
1. Maurice, T. J., Slade L., Sirett, R. R., and Page, C. M. (1985). Polysaccharidewater interactionsthermal behavior of rice starch, Properties of Water in Foods
in Relation to Quality and Stability (D. Simatos and J. L. Multon, eds.), M. Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, p. 211.
2. Biliaderis, C. G., Page, C. M., Maurice, T. J., and Juliano, B. O. (1986). Thermal characterization of rice starches: A polymeric approach to phase transitions of
granular starch. J. Agric. Food Chem., 34:6.
3. Chungcharoen, A., and Lund, D. B. (1987). Influence of solutes and water on rice starch gelatinization. Cereal Chem., 64:240.
4. Chang, S.M., and Liu, L.C. (1988). Investigations on the gelatinization of rice starches with various amylose contents by differential scanning calorimetry. Bull.
Inst. Chem. Acad. Sin., 35:97.
5. Hamaker, B. R., and Griffin, V. K. (1993). Effect of protein on rice starch gelatinization. Starch/Stärke, in press.
6. Biliaderis, C. G., Page, C. M., and Maurice, T. J. (1986). On the multiple melting transitions of starch/monoglyceride systems. Food Chem., 22:279.
7. James, C., and McCaskill, D. (1983). Rice in the American diet. Cereal Foods World, 28:667.
8. Juliano, B. O., and Perez, C. M. (1983). Major factors affecting cooked milled rice hardness and cooking time. J. Texture Stud., 14:235.
9. Normand, F. L., and Marshall, W. E. (1989). Differential scanning calorimetry of whole grain milled rice and milled rice flour. Cereal Chem., 66:317.
10. Marshall, W. E., Normand, F. L., and Goynes, W. R. (1990). Effects of lipid and protein removal on starch gelatinization in whole grain milled rice. Cereal
Chem., 67:458.
Page 227
11. Champagne, E. T., Marshall, W. E., and Goynes, W. R. (1990). Effects of degree of milling and lipid removal on starch gelatinization in the brown rice kernel.
Cereal Chem., 67:570.
12. Marshall, W. E., and Normand, F. L. (1991). Exothermic transitions in whole grain milled rice and milled rice flour studied by differential scanning calorimetry.
Cereal Chem., 68:606.
13. Marshall, W. E. (1992). Effect of degree of milling of brown rice and particle size of milled rice on starch gelatinization. Cereal Chem., 69:632.
14. Juliano, B. O., Perez, C. M., Barber, S., Blakeney, A. B., Iwasaki, T., Shibuya, N., Keneaster, K. K., Tatsumi, K., and Webb, B. D. (1981). International
cooperative comparison of instrument methods for cooked rice texture, J. Texture Stud., 12:17.
15. Lund, D. B. (1983). Applications of differential scanning calorimetry in foods, Physical Properties of Foods (M. Peleg and E. B. Bagley, eds.), AVI Publishing
Co., Inc., Westport, CT, p. 125.
16. Bechtel, D. B., and Pomeranz, Y. (1978). Ultrastructure of the mature ungerminated rice (Oryza sativa) caryopsis. The starchy endosperm. Am. J. Bot., 65:684.
17. Desikachar, H. S. R., and Subrahmanyan, V. (1961). The formation of cracks in rice during wetting and its effect on the cooking characteristics of the cereal.
Cereal Chem., 38:356.
18. Hogan, J. T., and Deobald, H. J. (1961). Note on a method of determining the degree of milling of whole milled rice. Cereal Chem., 38:291.
19. Bechtel, D. B., and Pomeranz, Y. (1977). Ultrastructure of the mature ungerminated rice (Oryza sativa) caryopsis. The caryopsis coat and the aluerone cells. Am
J. Bot., 64:966.
20. He, G.C., and Suzuki, H. (1989). Properties of starches from the outer layer and central core of the rice endosperm. Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi, 63:981.
21. Lund, D. (1984). Influence of time, temperature, moisture, ingredients, and processing conditions on starch gelatinization. CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.,
20:249.
22. Alexander, W. P. (1954). Process of preparing quickcooking rice, U.S. patent 507,242, November 9.
23. Bardet, G. V., and Giesse, R. C. (1961). Processing of brown rice, U.S. patent 2,992,921, July 18.
Page 229
11—
New Methods and Equipment for Processing Rice
Robert S. Satake
Satake Corporation, Hiroshima, Japan
I—
Introduction
Since rice first became a staple food product, there has been a steady and consistent effort to increase and enhance the yield, food value, and quality aspects of
harvested rice as a food for human consumption. These efforts have led over the years to significant gains in all these areas. For example, improved breeding has led to
sizable harvested yield increases through more productive strains, improved resistance to plant diseases, optimum plant stature, and so on. Improvements in growing
and harvesting technology have resulted in better yields and quality by better insect control, efficient use of fertilizers, better harvesting techniques, and other new and
improved cropmanagement practices. Safe storage of the harvested grain has also significantly added to the availability of an abundant and high quality rice product.
In a similar fashion, the striving for higher yields and better quality has not gone unrecognized by rice processors.
This chapter will discuss recent and ongoing developments in methods and equipment for processing rice to improve yield, efficiency, and quality. This chapter will not
seek to provide basic information regarding rice processing itself, except where deemed necessary for better understanding, since the subject has been adequately
covered in several other publications (1–6). Instead, the focus will be on those new processing technologies that have only recently been developed and introduced
into the world's rice industries.
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Topics will include new equipment for the actual milling (i.e., debranning) of rice, machinery for improving quality factors, and processes for enhancing yields and
efficiencies. Since many of these new machines and processes have overlapping impacts on yields, processing efficiencies, and quality enhancement, the discussion will
be arranged by machine/process rather than by benefit area. With this in mind, ricemilling and polishing equipment such as the new highyield/highquality Vertical
Whitening System and the WaterMist Polisher will be discussed first. Next, the emerging technique of adjusting the moisture levels of rice for quality and economic
advantage through the use of ''rice conditioners" will be addressed. Finally, a newly developed process for "prewashed rice" will be examined.
II—
RiceWhitening Equipment
A—
Introduction
One of the primary steps in the preparation of rice grains for human consumption is the removal of the pericarp, or bran layer. The term "milling" is applied to this
process, although it may be more accurate to call this process "whitening" in order to distinguish it from the totality of processing steps (i.e., cleaning, hulling, whitening,
grading, etc.), which are also commonly termed "rice milling."
Rice whitening can be conceptualized as the partial destruction of the grain surface and its separation from the internal portion of the grain body. The rice grain
structure consists of a hard core of starch (endosperm) and soft bran layers covering the hard core, so that milling action is largely a matter of material strength. The
objective is to exert sufficient work against the outer bran layer to overcome its resistance to removal and yet avoid excessive work and pressure, which may crush or
otherwise damage the integrity of the harder endosperm. Several physical mechanisms are involved in mechanical whitening action, as illustrated in Figure 1. These
include friction (tearing), cutting, grinding, and impact, all of which may be present in varying degrees in an actual whitening system. Modern ricewhitening theory
recognizes that this ricewhitening action can be classified into two categories when discussing whitening equipment, namely at high pressure with low peripheral speed
(tearing and cutting action) and at low pressure with high peripheral speed (grinding and impact action).
B—
Milling Action at High Pressure with Low Peripheral Speed
This action removes the bran layer of the grain by effective friction force (tearing) and cutting force of grains being rubbed vigorously against other grains and against
the metal surfaces of the milling unit. The rice grains are
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Figure 1
Milling action on rice grains. Mechanical whitening action involves several
physical mechanisms including friction (tearing action), and cutting and
grinding (grinding action).
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
enclosed in a perforated metal enclosure or cylinder into which is inserted a rotating eccentric milling rotor that agitates the grains and provides the pressure and
movement to bring the friction forces into play.
Since friction is seen to be the major contributor to the whitening action, this type of milling is termed "friction type." A typical frictiontype whitening machine is shown
in Figure 2. To be effective, the frictiontype whitening unit requires a peripheral speed of the milling rotor of less than 600 m/min and an average milling pressure of
over 100 gf/cm2 (10,000 N/m2).
Figure 3 shows that average milling pressure falls within 200–300 gf/cm2 for two typical frictiontype whitening machines (models CP4A and CP6A) operating at
various horsepower loadings. Peripheral speed is between 200 and 300 m/min in the zone of average milling pressure.
C—
Milling Action at Low Pressure with High Peripheral Speed
This action removes the bran layer of the rice grains by a grinding action and an impact force when the grains come into contact with a rotating abrasive medium
mounted on a central shaft turning in a perforated metal enclosure or cylinder. Because it is abrasion that in this case provides the medium for milling, this type of milling
is termed "abrasive type." A typical highspeed, abrasivetype whitening machine is shown in Figure 4. Abrasive milling requires a peripheral speed of over 600 m/min
and an average milling pressure of less than 50 gf/cm2 (5000 N/m2). Figure 5 shows that for typical models of abrasivetype whitening machines (models CP2A,
CP4A, and CP6A), the abrasive rotor must operate above 600 rpm to achieve the minimum peripheral speed requirement of 600 m/min. Average milling pressure can
be seen to be inversely proportional to the RPM and for two models (CP4A and
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Figure 2
Typical lowspeed, frictiontype ricewhitening machine. Whitening action is
a result of friction forces applied to the rice grains in the frictiontype whitener.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
Figure 3
Peripheral speed and average milling pressure in frictiontype whiteners.
Average milling pressure falls with 200–300 gf/cm2 for two typical frictiontype
whitening machines (CP4A and CP6A) at various horsepower loadings.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
Page 233
Figure 4
Highspeed, abrasivetype ricewhitening machine. Grinding action against an
abrasive medium provides the whitening action in abrasivetype rice whiteners.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
Figure 5
Peripheral speed and average milling pressure in abrasivetype whiteners. For
typical abrasivetype whiteners (models CP2A, CP4A, and CP6A) at various
horsepower ratings, peripheral speed must exceed 600 m/min. Average milling
pressure will be less than 50 gf/cm2.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
Page 234
2
CP6A) at different horsepower ratings. And the average milling pressure remains well below the maximum average milling pressure of 50 gf/cm .
D—
Historical Development of Whitening Machines
In order to better understand later developments, it may be useful to briefly review the origins and developments of modern ricewhitening machines. Although there
had been some early crude mechanical devices for rice whitening, the first modern ricemilling machine can be said to have been an abrasivetype ricewhitening device
(Fig. 6a) invented by the Douglas and Grant Company of Kirkcaldy, Scotland, about 1860. Specifically, the Douglas and Grant machine was first developed for indica
rice grown in the British colony of Burma (now Myanmar). It became the most widely used whitening machine in the tropical rice zones prior to World War II. It
incorporated an inverted "coneshaped" abrasive roll constructed of natural emery, rotating inside a perforated steel plate of a similar shape. This was the first of the
vertical abrasive ricewhitening machines and represents the origin of the highspeed type rice whitener where the milling action is provided primarily by abrasive
(grinding) action.
Figure 6
Ricemilling machine by Douglas & Grant (a) and Engelbergtype ricemilling
machine (b). The Douglas & Grant machine utilized a cone of natural emery
abrasive rotating in a perforated steel plate screen to remove bran, and is
considered to be the first modern highspeed abrasivetype rice whitener. The
Engelberg machine removed bran through friction provided by a horizontally
arranged iron roll rotating within a chamber fitted with a perforated steel plate.
It is considered to be the first modern lowspeed frictiontype rice whitener.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
Page 235
Some years later in 1888, the first machine representative of the lowspeed type of rice whitener (Fig. 6b) was introduced by the Engelberg company of Syracuse,
New York. This was a horizontal unit incorporating an iron roll with a screw and stirring bar portion revolving within a milling cylinder, part of which was a perforated
steel plate. The Engelberg "hullermills" were utilized to not only whiten the rice but also to remove the hull, with each step usually being performed in a separate pass
through the machine. The milling action in the Engelberg came from friction and cutting action, and therefore this machine can be said to be the origin of the lowspeed
rice whiteners.
During the intervening years, different ricewhitening machines have appeared, varying in form and function but all falling into either the highspeed abrasivetype or
lowspeed frictiontype classifications. While all these machines could succeed to a greater or lesser extent, it could be seen that each type had its own strengths and
weaknesses. Specifically, the lowspeed frictiontype whiteners had the advantages of a better polished, smoother grain surface than could be provided by the high
speed abrasive types. On the other hand, the tremendous pressures needed in the lowspeed type to overcome the resistance and natural waxiness of the brown rice
bran layer create significant stresses on the grains and lead to the creation of broken rice. The highspeed abrasive type was much better for preserving milling yields,
but there were drawbacks in that the surface of the milled rice was very rough and unattractive. It seemed that neither type could achieve perfect results in and of itself.
It was only with the development of the combined high and lowspeed milling system in the 1960s that the goals of modern ricewhitening technology, namely high
milling efficiency together with high whole kernel yield, could be practically attained. This was accomplished by placing together in one system initial highspeed
abrasivetype whiteners with subsequent lowspeed frictiontype whiteners. Tests performed in Japan confirmed that the initial abrasive action of a combined system
abrades the rice grain surface and thereby effectively raises the coefficient of friction of the brown rice surface. With an increased friction coefficient, less milling
pressure is needed in the subsequent friction action, and less milling pressure results in a reduction in the generation of broken rice. As well as a whole grain yield
increase, there is also a benefit in finishing the whitening process with lowspeed friction action so that the rice grain surface is smooth and polished. Moreover,
because milling with friction almost ceases when the surface on the hard endosperm (aleurone layer) is reached, overmilling is thereby prevented.
Figure 7 shows the characteristics of a combined high and lowspeed whitening system. Note that at 0% milling by abrasion (bottom scale),
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Figure 7
The effect of combined high and lowspeed types. For this test on japonica rice, milling yield is maximum when
highspeed abrasive milling accounts for 20% of total milling.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
which of course indicates 100% milling by friction, generation of broken grains is highest. In this particular data set, which was derived from tests on japonica rice in
Japan, the optimum combination of abrasive and friction milling is found when the abrasive portion is at about 20% of the total milling load. At this point, milling yield is
highest, as shown on the graph. In general, the highspeed abrasive portion of milling should be limited so as to avoid milling into the endosperm yet be sufficient to
substantially increase the coefficient of friction on the surface of the rice grains.
The data in Table 1 and the corresponding figure (Fig. 8) also show the results of milling tests comparing the effect of milling first with abrasion versus milling only with
friction at low, medium, and high load level (represented by 0.315, 0.333, and 0.366 hp load). Again this shows that in each case efficiency has increased and that
broken rice generation and grain temperature have decreased due to the initial treatment of the rice grains with the highspeed abrasive action.
E—
New Vertical Whitening System
Truly modern ricewhitening systems are combined highspeed abrasive and lowspeed frictiontype configurations usually arranged in horizontal
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Table 1 The Effects of Milling Pressure in Combined Milling Systems
Temp.
Test Milling Power Flow Efficiency rise (° Broken White. Moist.
no. yield (%) req. (hp) (kg/hr) (kg/hr hp) C) rice (%) deg. (%) loss (%)
1 92.4 0.315 38.3 121.6 2.6 3.8 32.2 0.2
2 93.2 0.315 36.6 116.2 5.1 10.3 30.4 0.3
3 91.2 0.333 37.6 112.9 4.0 11.2 33.4 0.2
4 91.6 0.333 36.4 109.3 8.1 16.6 33.5 0.2
5 89.5 0.366 36.5 99.7 3.2 14.7 35.2 0.2
6 90.7 0.366 34.2 93.4 8.2 16.2 34.7 0.3
Source: Courtesy Satake Corporation.
Figure 8
Milling pressure effects in combined milling systems. Test results show that
efficiency increases and broken rice generation and grain temperature decrease
when milling with a combined highspeed abrasive and lowspeed friction milling
system compared with systems using lowspeed friction only.
(Courtesy Satake 1990.)
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type whitening machines. "Horizontal" here designates the juxtaposition of the machine's main shaft as well as the direction of the movement or flow of rice. Both are in
a horizontal orientation. Figures 2 and 4 are examples of socalled horizontally aligned whitening machines. As efficient as these horizontal whitening machines have
become after many years of refinement, there are nonetheless several technical drawbacks that prevent the horizontal milling machines from reaching optimum
performance. One factor has been that density and pressure within the milling chamber tended to vary, especially from the low or bottom side of the milling chamber to
the upper or top side. The main cause of this was simply that gravity, and in most units the suction air used to pull the loosened bran away from the milling chamber,
pulled the rice to the bottom of the milling chamber. Thus, it was subjected to the weight of the rice above, causing higher pressure and density at the milling chamber's
bottom portion. This disparity of pressure and density created conditions where efficiency was less than the theoretical optimum due to the fact that the upper portion
of the milling chamber was underutilized. Thus, uneven pressure created conditions for increases in broken rice generation. Significant improvements to the horizontal
whiteners over the years have minimized these shortcomings, but it was only recently that most of these drawbacks were overcome.
This was accomplished with the development of the verticaltype whitening machines such as those shown in Figures 9 and 10. These units and their predecessors are
of two types, namely highspeed abrasive and lowspeed friction, and are meant to be utilized in a combined abrasive and friction system. The hallmark feature of
these new machines is that the shaft and milling chamber are vertically oriented and the flow of rice is in a vertical direction, from the bottom of the unit toward the top.
A spiral shaft at the bottom of the chamber forces the rice grains to flow upward against the weight of the rice above. The interaction of pressure and weight through all
layers of rice within the chamber achieves maximum utilization of the milling surfaces, thus enhancing efficiency as well as preventing uneven pressures and the excess
pressure that causes broken rice. In this way, the process uniformly generates a safer maximum pressure on each rice grain, which results in improved milling efficiency
and ricewhitening yield with reduced generation of broken rice. This then corrects the problem of density and pressure differences found in earlier horizontal whitening
machines.
F—
Construction of Vertical Whiteners
The abrasivetype vertical unit utilizes a twostage whitening chamber that provides a central spiral screw, in addition to the one on the bottom of the chamber, to
propel the rice upward for a second whitening process. This
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Figure 9
Crosssection of bottomup abrasivetype vertical ricemilling machine (Satake).
Rice entering the inlet is augured horizontally by the feeding screw where it
comes into contact with the feed roller and is propelled upward into a milling
chamber consisting of abrasive rollers rotating within a perforated metal screen
fitted with a resistance ring to regulate internal flow. Milled rice is forced out the
top of the machine and is discharged from the outlet. A cleanout outlet is fitted to
remove any residual grain remaining in the milling chamber after milling.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
enables high flow rates through the unit, nearly double that of conventional horizontal units, without the uneven pressure and density problems associated with horizontal
types. This ability to achieve high flow rates and still maintain proper pressure and density is one of the main reasons the vertical type machines were developed.
The vertical orientation allows for another significant improvement for the vertical lowspeed friction whitener. Previously, almost all frictiontype whitening machines
had utilized milling rotors that were almost the same diameter as the milling cylinder and which utilized ribbed protrusions running approximately parallel to the main
shaft (Fig. 11). Unfortunately, this arrangement created high rice density at the front of the ribbed protrusions
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Figure 10
Crosssection of bottomup frictiontype vertical ricemilling machine (Satake).
Rice entering the inlet is augured horizontally by the feeding screw where
it comes into contact with the feed roller and is propelled upward into a
milling chamber consisting of a steel milling roller rotating within a
perforated metal screen. Milled rice is forced out of the top of the
machine and is discharged from the outlet. A cleanout outlet is fitted to
remove any residual grain remaining in the milling chamber after milling.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
Figure 11
Lowspeed milling rotor cross sections. The diameter of the new verticaltype
milling rotor is larger at the rear of the protrusion than in front of the protrusion,
which is roughly opposite the configuration of earlier horizontal milling rotors.
This shape greatly increases efficient action around the milling rotor and provides
more consistent rice grain agitation.
(Courtesy Satake 1990.)
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and also brought about lower and uneven densities at the rear of the protrusions. In the new verticaltype milling rotor, the milling rotor is configured differently so that
the diameter at the rear of the protrusion is larger than that in front of the protrusion, which is roughly opposite the configuration of earlier horizontal milling rotors. This
shape greatly increases efficient action around the milling rotor and provides more consistent rice grain agitation. This new configuration allows, for the first time, high
rice germ removal together with high polishing, high yield recovery, and a sharp decrease in the generation of broken tipped rice. Before the development of this new
type of vertical friction whitener, such accomplishments, particularly high germ removal and high yields, were thought to be mutually exclusive goals that could not be
obtained simultaneously. Interestingly, this benefit is unique to the verticaltype lowspeed machines. The same type of milling rotor and chamber, if applied to a
horizontal type friction unit, would have the opposite result. Geometry and forces in the verticaltype whitener allow this unique action to be realized.
G—
Vertical Milling Systems
By combining the vertical highspeed abrasive together with the vertical, lowspeed friction units, an improved system can be formed for almost any type of rice. For
the japonica short and mediumgrain rices, high germ removal and high polishing can be achieved without sacrificing whole grain yield. For indica long grains, this
vertical approach can be of significant value for reducing the amount of broken kernels particularly when milling brittle rices or rices of low quality.
Another advantage of the combined vertical system is that a waterpolishing feature can be added to the final pass through the vertical frictiontype whitener. This
greatly enhances the final bran removal process and helps clean the milled rice grains so that very little or no residual bran adheres to the discharging grains. The mist
application also serves to help cool the rice. A more detailed discussion of the benefits of water mist polishing is undertaken in the following section.
These vertical milling units allow for two additional benefits related to installation. First, because the units are vertically oriented, the floor space required for installation
is minimized and is usually less than the floor space required by conventional horizontal whiteners. This makes them useful where mills wish to upgrade to higher
efficiences and capacities within limited floor space. The second installation benefit of the vertical whiteners involves a reduction of conveying equipment. Because the
units are bottomup flow, units placed adjacent to one another can flow automatically from one machine to the next without any intermediary conveyors or
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Figure 12
Typical fourbreak vertical ricemilling machines consisting of two units of
abrasive type and two units of friction type (Satake). Rice entering the first
abrasive unit is milled and discharged out of the top of the unit where it is
conveyed by a diagonal chute into the inlet of the adjoining machine. This rice
continues in the same manner to the subsequent two frictiontype units. Rice is
finally discharged from the system from the fourthbreak friction unit.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
elevating equipment. In a fourbreak system, for example, there is only one input and only one discharge, thereby decreasing the complexity and expense of installation.
Figure 12 shows how the units can be joined in a multibreak installation.
In the context of processing equipment for rice, this new type of vertical milling technology can be seen as a generational transition to a new plateau of more efficient,
higher yielding, higher quality ricewhitening equipment.
III—
Water Mist Polishing
A—
Cleaning and Polishing Effect
As mentioned in the introduction, one of the ongoing goals in rice processing is quality enhancements of the finished rice, which means a rice that not only is well milled
and free of contaminants but has an attractive appearance or ''eye appeal." Although an inferior appearance may not detract from the nutritional and functional value of
a rice, a rice consumer will be more pleased and satisfied if in some way the raw product "looks delicious." Commercially, this can be of particular value in certain
consumer markets where "shelf appeal" is a very real competitive factor.
The water mist polisher was developed as a processing step to enhance the finish or appearance of milled rice. Although this process was invented
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in 1975, it is just now emerging as a processing alternative in the rice industry in the United States. From that standpoint, it is a relatively new technology. As the name
suggests, this device utilizes a finemist spray of water to remove final traces of dust, bran, and rice polish from the surfaces of milled rice grains. Moreover, bran and
polish hidden deep inside the exterior grooves of rice kernels can be stripped away. As well as serving this cleaning function, the water mist and the subsequent rubbing
action of the machine impart a high polish or luster to the milled rice, which substantially alters its appearance. From a dull, rather flat and chalky appearance, the rice
grains can be transformed into shiny, almost translucent kernels, which have good positive visual impact. This shiny polished appearance is even visible in photographs
(Fig. 13).
B—
Construction of Water Polishing Machines
The actual apparatus for water polishing is very similar to a horizontal, lowspeed frictiontype rice whitener. The main differences are that the milling action is much
less severe, as suited to its polishing function rather than a whitening one, and that the actual milling chamber is elongated to almost twice the length of the friction units
used for milling. In this way, the relatively lower millling pressure of the water mist polisher is compensated for by a longer retention time of product inside the milling
chamber. This arrangement is ideal for producing a polishing effect at low pressure, much in the same way as a rock polisher, without the generation of broken grains.
Water and compressed air tubing are carried to the back of the unit through the hollow main shaft. The tubing is connected to an atomizing device just inside the first
portion of the milling chamber. A plug in the hollow shaft prevents the water mist from being applied except for the first few inches of the milling chamber. This brief
exposure, however, is sufficient to wet the grains in preparation for cleaning and polishing. After wetting, the moistened grains are agitated and scrubbed by the milling
action of the central frictiontype rotor. During this phase, residual bran and polish interact with the moisture in such a way as to be more easily removed, particularly
from the grooves in the rice as well as from the kernel surfaces. A bran vacuum air line attached to the bottom of the milling chamber pulls air through the chamber and
removes any loosened material and prevents it from being redeposited on the product. The final stage of the process takes place at the discharge end of the unit where
ambient air is drawn into the unit by the force of the bran vacuum system and serves to dry the rice thoroughly before discharge. Thus, the polished rice product
becomes easy to handle and safe to store without any appreciable increase in moisture content.
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Figure 13
Ordinary milled rice (A) and waterpolished milled rice (B). Water polishing
cleans the final traces of dust, bran, and rice polish from the surfaces of
rice grains and at the same time imparts a high polish to the milled rice by
rubbing the grains together vigorously. The result is shiny, almost
translucent rice grains0whose improved performance is evident
even in photographs.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
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The degree of cleaning and polishing depends mainly on product flow rate and amount of water introduced. For truly brilliant, highly polished rice, multiple passes
through the machine are necessary. The water addition rate, which will be discussed in more detail in a later section, is typically about 0.3–0.4% by weight. Insufficient
water addition rates will
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lessen the polishing effect. Exceeding the optimum will not lead to further polishing since the rice surfaces become overmoistened and this interferes with polishing.
C—
Other Benefits
Although the water mist polisher was developed for precisely the process its name implies, its utilization has yielded other interesting benefits. Foremost among these is
the discovery that moisture addition softens the surface of partially milled rice kernels so that it is easier to remove the bran layer for the production of milled rice.
Because water addition facilitates bran removal, lower milling chamber pressures can be utilized in the whitening process, and lower pressure leads to less broken rice
and higher yields. Furthermore, the water addition cools the rice during the whitening process and also helps reduce grain moisture loss.
Figure 14 shows a comparison of milling results from a 4break (abrasionfrictionfrictionfriction) system with a 5break (abrasionfrictionfrictionfrictionwater
polisher) system. The degree of milling was equivalent in both systems. The water polisher system had better bran removal, slightly higher total milling yield, lower rice
temperature increases, lower power consumption, and less than half the amount of broken rice.
Figure 15 shows the effect of water addition rate on the performance of the water whitening system. As can be seen in Figure 15, machine motor load, broken rice
generation, grain temperature, and moisture loss are at their lowest at the 0.3–0.4% addition level.
Because of these significant benefits, the water mist polisher is starting to be used as an integral part of the ricewhitening system rather than simply a polishing step
after completion of the whitening process. As mentioned in the above section on the vertical milling units, a similar water mist function is incorporated into the final unit
of the vertical whitening system unit precisely to take advantage of these subsidiary benefits as well as to provide a product with a better appearance. Hopefully, these
milling benefits will come to be recognized by the rice industries at large. Rice mills with conventional equipment will begin to use water mist polishers in their whitening
process in order to take advantage of these milling benefits.
D—
Enhancement of Storage Stability
Evidence suggests that treatment of rice by the water mist polisher enhances the storage stability of whitened rice. Residual bran on the surface of milled rice kernels
can quickly oxidize and create free fatty acids, which impart a
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Ventilating, humidifying
Abr Fri Fri Fri Hu.Fri
friction action
Ventilating friction Abr Fri Fri Fri
Brown rice Milled rice
Figure 14
Characteristics of water polishing machines. Ricewhitening systems utilizing water polishing
(ventilating, humidifying friction action) can achieve better bran removal, slightly higher
total milling yield, lower rice temperature increase, lower power consumption, and less than
half the amount of broken rice of systems not utilizing water polishing.
(Courtesy Satake 1990.)
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Figure 15
Effects of added water quantity for water polishing. Water addition rates of about
0.3–0.4% produce the best results in terms of motor load, broken rice generation,
grain temperature, and moisture loss.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
rancid smell and taste to rice. Removal of the residual bran with the water polisher can therefore extend the safe storage period for milled rice. In some instances, the
water mist polisher has been used to reclean and polish previously whitened rice that had deteriorated during long storage or transport periods. The water mist
polishers can restore a fresh taste and smell to the rice.
There is also data, shown in Figure 16, that suggests that water polished rice ("clean rice") is more resistant to mold growth. Tests comparing water polished and
regular rices show that the water polished rice resisted mold growth 7–10 days longer than regular rice. This phenomenon may be due to the presence of residual bran
remaining on the surface and in the grooves of ordinary rice where it presents an ideal environment for the promotion of mold growth.
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Figure 16
Mold growth comparison for ordinary and waterpolished rice. Tests indicate that waterpolished rice ("clean
rice") resists mold growth 7–10 days longer than ordinary rice at a given moisture content.
(Courtesy Satake 1990.)
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IV—
Rice Moisture Conditioning
A—
Problems with Low Moisture Rices
In commercial rice milling, moisture content can have a significant impact on the processing characteristics of the rice and the economic return to the miller. Usually
moisture content concerns at the rice mill level are not about high moisture, since rices cannot be stored safely with excessive moisture. Thus, high moisture problems
have to be corrected before the rice reaches the mill. Instead, the moisture content problems a rice miller is likely to encounter have to do with low moisture content.
These rices tend to be more rigid and inelastic than higher moisture rices and are more apt to break under the strain of rice milling, thereby reducing whole kernel rice
yield. Cooking and taste quality can also be seriously affected by kernel cracking and starch leaching to the cooking water observed during cooking of low moisture
rices.
The low moisture problem usually originates in the field during hot dry weather in late summer or at the rice dryer when inattention and tight scheduling create
conditions for overdrying of some rice lots. When the rice reaches the mill, the miller can do little but try to adjust the equipment so as to make the most possible out of
the inferior raw material. A method is needed by which moisture could be safely added to rice kernels so that the optimum moisture content could be restored. Water
addition also increases total yield of milled rice.
B—
Difficulties of Moisturizing Rice
However, there are some practical difficulties that make moisture addition difficult. Primarily, moisture cannot be added to rice kernels, either brown or milled, by
simply soaking in water. Too rapid rehydration creates large moisture concentration gradients that cause the overly dry rice to develop serious cracks, which later
become broken kernels. Instead, moisture must be added slowly with periods of resting or tempering time to allow the moisture gradients inside the rice kernels to
reach equilibrium. In order to provide this resting time, additional storage bins or tanks are required.
C—
Early Rice Conditioners
In the past, this phenomenon of kernel cracking due to rapid rehydration has limited moisture addition to less than 0.2% per hour. If higher moisture levels were
desired, subsequent additions of moisture could only be performed after at least one hour of resting time in an abundance of interim
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Figure 17
First moisture conditioner for milled rice. This moisture conditioner utilized
humidified blowing air through a unit resembling an LSUtype dryer to add
moisture to rice. Rice passes from the top of the unit, receiving moistureladen
air through the inverted troughs, and is discharged out the bottom by the
volumetric discharger. An elevator is provided for recirculating the rice
through the unit for multiple passes.
(Courtesy Satake 1990.)
storage tanks. Rice with 15% moisture content could be produced in this fashion. The first units of milled rice conditioners (Fig. 17) resembled a rice dryer of the LSU
type that utilized blowing air, humidified almost to saturation with a water mist to slowly moisturize the rice. Moisture could be added safely and not crack the rice but
only if the rate of moisture addition was held below 0.2% per hour.
D—
Pressurized Rice Conditioners
For some time, a rate of moisture addition of 0.2% per hour represented the maximum rate practical. However, later research discovered that improvements could be
made if the water mist was applied in a pressurized vessel. Previous rice conditioners had always added moisture under normal atmospheric pressure. It was
discovered that pressurizing a chamber to about 1.2 × 105 N/m2 could increase the safe penetration of moisture into the grain by a factor of 5 or 10, thus accelerating
the moisture absorption rate from 0.2% per hour up to 1.0% or even 2.0% per hour without
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Figure 18
Pressuretype moisture conditioner. This rice
conditioner utilizes a pressurized vessel to apply
moisture to rice grains under pressure, thus
accelerating moisture addition. Rice enters the top
of the chamber through an air cutoff valve and
passes through the chamber absorbing moisture. The
moisturized rice is discharged through the bottom air
cutoff valve and can be recirculated for multiple passes
by an external elevator.
(Courtesy Satake 1990.)
damaging the rice grains. Figure 18 shows the device constructed to accomplish this. Basically this is a continuous flow pressure vessel with air lock cutoff valves at the
inlet and outlets. Pressurized moist air is injected into the vessel in a regulated fashion, and the pressure inside the chamber helps promote the penetration of the
moisture into the kernels. Retention time inside the chamber is about 20 minutes. A moisture sensor on the interior of the chamber regulates the amount of moisture
injected into the chamber.
The use of a pressure vessel has led to improvement in the ability to rehydrate overly dry rices. Table 2 shows typical moisture addition results for the atmospheric
pressure, white rice moisture conditioner. Notice that a 1% moisture gain is achieved at 300 minutes, or 5 hours.
Table 3 shows the results of moisture addition under pressure. In this case, 1% moisture addition can be accomplished typically in about 20 minutes without any
significant cracking or breaking of the rice.
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Table 2 Moisture Conditioning of White Rice Using an
Atmospheric Pressure Moisture Conditioner
Grain
Elapsed temperature (° Moisture Cracks Broken
time (min) C) content (%) (%) rice (%)
0 34.0 13.4 1.0 2.0
30 34.0 13.4 1.0 1.9
60 33.8 13.6 1.0 2.0
90 33.6 13.7 1.0 1.8
120 33.5 13.8 1.0 2.0
150 32.5 13.9 1.0 2.1
180 31.0 14.0 1.0 2.2
210 30.0 14.1 1.2 2.0
240 29.3 14.2 1.2 2.0
270 28.0 14.3 1.2 2.1
300 27.0 14.4 1.2 2.0
Source: Courtesy Satake Corporation.
Table 3 Moisture Conditioning of White Rice Using a Low Pressure Moisture Conditioner
Source: Courtesy Satake Corporation.
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Figure 19
Rice cracking during soaking (in 20°C water for 40 minutes) moisturized
to (A) 13%, (B) 14%, and (C) 15% moisture content. Rice moisturized to
15% moisture content shows the least number of cracks compared to rices
of lesser moisture.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
E—
Benefits of Rice Moisture Conditioning
Figure 19 shows that moisturizing rice can have a significant positive benefit on the cooking and eating quality of milled rice. Samples of rice at 13.0, 14.0, and 15.0%
moisture content were soaked in 20°C water for 40 minutes. Under these conditions, moisturized rice of 15% moisture content develops the least number of cracks.
During actual tests, a distinctive snapcracklepop noise can be heard coming from the low moisture rices, indicating the severity of the stresses being built up within
the rice grains as moisture begins to enter the kernel. These stresses build up until released
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Page 256
in a cracking of the rice grain, which can become so violent that the cracking sound is audible.
This cracking phenomenon during soaking is of great importance, particularly to those countries where cultural practices entail prolonged washing and soaking of the
rice prior to cooking. Still, the same phenomenon also takes place during the initial phase of cooking rice so that this becomes a universal problem. Since this cracking
allows inner starch to flow out into the cooking water and breaks down the integrity of the rice kernels, the result is a cooked rice that is starchy and mushy and
generally unattractive and flavorless.
The potential benefit of moisture addition to rice is one of quality. Not only are the weight and volume of the rice increased, but the quality in terms of bettertasting,
bettercooking rice is improved. It is conceivable that future milling technology will be expanded to include moisture conditioning as a standard processing stop. And as
modern, efficient milling equipment maximizes milling yields in the rice industry, the competitive edge in the future will lie in rice quality and taste. Certainly rice moisture
conditioning will play a major role in this area.
V—
RiceWashing Technology
A—
Origins of Traditional Rice Washing
In some cultures, rice cooking is as simple as putting rice in a pot of water and boiling until done. In other cultures, however, especially those where rice is the staple
food and the main ingredient of the meal, rice preparation is a more serious affair. This can probably be best illustrated by the ricepreparation practices in Japan. In
Japan, much time and attention are devoted to the preparation of rice before cooking. The principal step in this preparation is washing the rice. Ordinarily it may seem
that washing rice is not really necessary, and, in the United States, it is recommended that rice not be washed in order to retain the required enrichment. But in rice
centered cultures such as Japan, washing is seen as indispensable for the proper preparation of rice.
In Japan specifically, washing is done because washed rice simply tastes better. Even in wellmilled rice, some bran residue usually adheres to the kernel surface.
Depending on the interval between milling and consumption, the residual bran can oxidize and produce free fatty acids that can be detected as an offtaste or rancid
flavor. Discriminating palates can readily detect these offflavors, which make the cooked rice unpalatable. Washing the rice removes the residual bran and thereby
eliminates the offflavors. Washing is usually more than just a simple rinsing; rather, it can include a
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Figure 20
''Jiff" rice process. The "Jiff" rice process consists of three steps: washing/drying,
separating, and packaging.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
lengthy process of adding water, scrubbing the rice by hand, pouring off the water, and adding more water again and again. Usually this is repeated until the water
finally runs clear, at which point heat is applied and actual cooking is begun.
B—
Problems with Rice Washing in a Modern World
Traditionally, in most households where washing is practiced, this timeconsuming chore is performed by the housewife as part of her regular cooking duties and is not
seen as a problem. However, in the case of
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Figure 21
"Jiff" rice washer (A) and treatment plant (B). The
washing unit washes and dries the rice. The waste
water treatment plant treats the waste water from the
rice washer and reduces the level of contaminants
before discharge of the water to municipal
sewage systems.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
institutional preparation (restaurants, hospitals, schools, etc.), rice washing can be overly time consuming and costly, not to mention rather cumbersome, due to the
large volumes of rice involved. Moreover, even in individual households, rice washing is becoming bothersome as more and more housewives enter the labor market
and have less time to devote to prolonged cooking tasks.
C—
Development of RiceWashing Machines
To respond to this problem, ricewashing machines have been developed. Washing rice should be a simple matter, however, largescale rice washing poses special
problems. First, water addition must be handled carefully,
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otherwise extensive cracking of the grains can occur, and, as discussed earlier, this can seriously degrade rice, completely negating any benefits from washing.
Attention must be paid also to the drying step applied after washing. Too little drying will leave the rice moist, inviting mold and handling problems. Too much drying,
however, could partially gelatinize the grains, leading to uneven cooking and poor flavor. Finally, there is the problem of waste water. Any washing process produces
waste water. A rinsing process, such as that usually used for washing rice, intrinsically utilizes copious amounts of water, many times the volume of the rice being
washed. This can create substantial handling and disposal problems.
D—
The "Jiff" Rice Process
To overcome the problems associated with commercial, largescale washing of rice, a new washing system has been developed. The emphasis is on the whole system,
since the technique not only controls the amount of water and the drying rate but also handles waste water treatment of the effluent. In this sense, the ricewashing
system becomes a complete, selfcontained process. The system consists of two separate parts: the washer/dryer and the waste water treatment device. The entire
system has been termed the "Jiff" rice process in Japan to denote the fact that its washed
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rice product can be prepared quickly and easily or, in American slang, "in a jiffy." The flow sheet for the complete "Jiff" process is shown in Figure 20.
The washer/dryer unit (Fig. 21 A) adds water to the rice, agitates the moistened rice, and dries the rice, all in a continuous process flow. The moisture content of the
rice can be adjusted to remain constant with no moisture absorption or loss of moisture.
The second part of the process (Fig. 21B) is the treatment of the waste water. During the washing step organic solids become dissolved in the wash water, and these
solids pose a significant disposal problem. Usually this type of waste water is discharged into the municipal sewage system; however, due to the high loading of
suspended and dissolved organic solids, the costs charged by municipal sewage plants can be substantial. Therefore, a method has been developed to reduce this
contaminant loading before it reaches the municipal system.
This system (Fig. 22) consists of integrated waste water treatment, which, by precipitating and settling action, removes almost all of the suspended and dissolved solids
from the water. The solids and sediment are discharged from the system and can be discarded or dried and added to the bran fraction since the nutritional content of
the dissolved solids is suitable for mixing with rice bran for animal feed. The treated water discharged from the system is acceptable for discharge into municipal
sewage systems at no penalty or at greatly reduced surcharges. The BOD and suspended solids values before and after purification are shown in Table 4.
Although this process is one that has maximum advantages in cultures where rice washing is the norm, the contribution of the process to the quality of milled rice may
make it desirable even in those markets where rice washing is not customary.
Table 4 Efficiency of Waste Water Treatment of Rice Washing Using
the "Jiff" Rice Washing Process
Before After
Treatment
type BODa SSb BOD SS
Biological treatment 15,000c 15,000 50 20
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Figure 22
"Jiff" rice washer water treatment plant. This system removes almost all of the suspended and dissolved solids from
the waster water of the Jiff process.
(Courtesy Satake Corporation.)
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VI—
Conclusion
Although rice processing is already a fully mature technology, there are areas where new and improved techniques can be incorporated to enhance the yield and quality
of milled rice. Without doubt, progress to be made in rice processing in the 1990s will focus on these areas. The benefit will be better tasting and higher quality rice
products to supply sophisticated and discerning consumers around the world.
References
1. Modern Rice Milling Technology, (1991). Satake Corporation, Hiroshima, Japan.
2. Luh, B. S. (1980). Rice: Production and Utilization, AVI Publishing Company, Westport, CT.
3. Satake, T. (1942). Efficiency of grain milling machines, Shintairiku, Japan.
4. Satake, T. (1951). Efficiency and heat generation of Grain Milling Machines, Farming Mechanization, ShinNorinsha Press.
5. Satake, T. (1964). Centralized Rice Milling, Satake Corporation, Hiroshima, Japan.
6. Satake, T. (1990). Modern RiceMilling Technology, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, Japan.
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12—
Parboiling Rice with Microwave Energy
Lakshman Velupillai
Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
A—
The Conventional Parboiling Process
Parboiling, a precooking process applied to rough rice, has been practiced for centuries in parts of South Asia. Presently about 20% of the rice processed in the world
is parboiled. The subject of parboiling and its uses are described extensively in the literature. Notable among these is a fascinating account of the story of rice
parboiling by Bhattacharya (1) (see also Refs. 2 and 3). The process, now practiced in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas, involves soaking the rough rice until
the grains absorb moisture to approximately 30% (wet basis), draining the excess water, and heat treating to gelatinize the starch in the kernels. The grain is then dried
to facilitate processing or storage. Although the process, according to Gariboldi (2), was probably invented to ease the removal of the husk, economic, nutritional, and
other advantages were later recognized. With the advent of mechanical processing methods, the process of parboiling not only survived over the years but also became
widely practiced in many countries. In the United States, the process is fast gaining acceptance not only for export purposes but also for widespread domestic use. Of
the rice exported from the United States, nearly 50% is in the parboiled form. In the domestic market, a rapidly growing use for parboiled rice is in hotel and restaurant
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chains, which have recognized its many desirable cooking and keeping qualities.
B—
Research Emphasis
As the process of parboiling evolved and its use spread, the research emphasis changed based upon the state of the technology available and the current consumer
interest. The early studies date back to the turn of the century, when it was recognized that consuming parboiled rice prevented the occurrence of beriberi, a disease
later associated with the lack of thiamine in the diet. Thus, most of the early research was devoted to the nutritive aspects of parboiled rice (2, 4–9). The next stage of
development of the process was the advent of the steam boiler, which spurred the largerscale commercialization of the process. Research activity was thus
concentrated on the processing conditions and techniques to improve the quality of the parboiled product. These improvements were geared to the reduction or
elimination of the undesirable characteristics of the end product. Some of these improvements included:
1. Cleaning and size grading of rough rice prior to parboiling
2. Improvements to the soak process including the use of hot water to reduce the undesirable odor associated with "cold" soaking
3. The application of heat (primarily saturated steam) to facilitate uniform gelatinization of the kernels
4. Mechanical drying
Additionally, much research effort was devoted during this phase to the scientific evaluation of the quality characteristics of parboiled rice.
During this "commercialization" phase of development of the parboiling process, both the researcher and the processor realized the importance of energy (process
heat) that was required to complete the process. This realization became particularly relevant when the commercialscale operators began to resort to mechanical
systems to dry the parboiled rice. On a per ton basis, a complete mechanical system that parboils rice utilizes almost 80% of the total process heat for the drying stage.
This explains the widespread use even today of solar drying in many countries that parboil rice. However, the industrialized nations used mechanical drying systems
almost exclusively due to the labor intensive nature of solar drying systems. Research was therefore directed at systems utilizing nonfossil fuel sources to keep costs
down. A prime target was rice hulls, a byproduct of the milling process and available at the mill site. Since steam boilers were available at the time, modification of
existing boilers and even new designs of "huskfiring" systems for steam boilers came into use. As a result, husk
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fired water tube boilers of a wide range of capacities have been in use at parboil rice mills for decades. Typically, the supply of rice hulls is sufficient for the production
of process steam for the entire parboiling process including drying (via steam heat exchangers or direct/indirect fired drying systems). However, due to efficiency and
cost considerations, the quantity of hulls is insufficient for the production of process heat as well as motive power for the rice mill. These developments are embodied in
what is termed "cogeneration," a concept receiving increased attention today.
Using the energy available in rice hulls seems a logical field of endeavor for "parboil" rice mills as well as "white" rice mills (i.e., those that produce only "white"
nonparboiled rice). The use of rice hulls as a source of "wet'' heat is the most appropriate form for the smallcapacity (1–2 t/hr) parboil mill. The larger parboil mills
could improve efficiencies if the investment could be made to produce motive/electrical power and then utilize the low pressure steam for the process wet heat in the
parboiling process. On the other hand, large capacity "white" mills in the United States have shown that production of electrical power that could be sold to utility
companies through huskburning technologies is feasible. Electrical power in these instances is produced through conventional steam turbinegenerator technologies.
Capitalizing on these technologies and their applications offers much promise in utilizing electrical power for both parboiling and milling phases. Electrical power could
be utilized through the application of electrotechnologies such as microwave parboiling—the subject of discussion in this chapter.
II—
The Microwave Parboiling Process
A—
Background
The desire among processors to seek alternative sources of energy, particularly for grain drying, was a result of the energy crisis of the late 1970s. Utilizing electrical
power generated from coal, nuclear energy, or sources such as rice hulls becomes an important alternative. These choices are not fully exploited primarily due to
economic factors (availability of lowcost natural gas for grain drying in the United States, for example). Serious consideration is merited, however, when the
investment can be made to expand the use of rice hulls, a renewable energy source, for the production of electrical energy for processing. There have been efforts,
particularly in the United States where certain processes have been developed for the application of electrotechnologies to the processing of grains. The development
of the MIVAC (microwavevacuum) drying process (10) was one such effort primarily for the drying/dehydration of agricultural crops. This pro
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cess involved the use of microwave heating of the product in an evacuated atmosphere. The application of microwave heating technology as applied to rice was first
recorded by Wadsworth and Koltun (11) when they evaluated the drying of harvested rice in a chamber under the combined effect of microwave energy input with an
evacuated atmosphere. Subsequently, Wadsworth et al. (12) and Velupillai et al. (13) have reported the application of a similar process to the drying of conventionally
parboiled rice. Based upon a 5year effort begun in 1984, Velupillai et al. (14) were named as inventors in a U.S. patent awarded to the Louisiana State University
(LSU) Agricultural Center for a process for parboiling rice termed the "microgel" process. Since this development, researchers at the LSU Agricultural Center and the
Southern Regional Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, are collaborating in the development of a complete process for parboiling rice using microwave
energy.
B—
Basic Features of Microwave Parboiling
Regardless of the source of energy, the basic steps in parboiling rice include hydration, heat treatment, and drying. There are, however, certain distinct differences in
the application of electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range to effect the soaking, cooking, and drying steps. Some of these differences include the
mode of transfer of heat to and within the rice kernels and the removal of moisture during the drying stage. A unique feature of this approach, as the present status of
research indicates, is that all three steps of soaking, cooking, and drying can be performed as a series of sequential steps in a single piece of equipment. The
microwave energy application and vacuum pressure cycles are programmed in sequence to produce a finished product at the end of the process.
Provided in the following paragraphs is a discussion of the three basic steps in an experimental microwave energy application to parboil rice. Published research data
are provided where applicable. However, as the process is still in a state of development, the author has made projections in areas where information is lacking.
1—
The Soaking Process
The most important objective of the soak process is the increase of the moisture content to a level and distribution (within the kernel) whereby the subsequent cook
stage will ensure the complete and uniform gelatinization of the starch in the rice kernels. Conventional processes have determined that when the grain (total) moisture is
approximately 30% (wet basis), then the moisture at the innermost parts of the kernel is sufficient to fully gelatinize the entire kernel during the subsequent steam heat
treatment
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stage. The soak temperature and its uniformity throughout the grain mass during the soak period are additional factors that determine grain quality and cost of
parboiling. Research (15) has shown that a total grain moisture content of about 23% (wet basis) after the soak process is sufficient to produce parboiled rice of
acceptable commercial quality if the grains are allowed to partially equilibrate in terms of moisture. A lower total moisture at the end of the soak stage not only means a
lower cost of soaking but also reduces the amount of moisture that must be removed later (adding to the cost) at the drying stage. This advantage must be considered
in light of the cost of "holding" the grain during the partial equilibration as well as the increase in process time.
A key to successful soaking or hydration of the rice grains in the microwave parboiling process is to start the soak stage with the minimum amount of excess water and
end the stage at a near optimum grain moisture. At the end of the cook stage, which is the start of the drying stage, there ought to be little or no excess water. This is
very important from an energy and process time standpoint. On the other hand, excess moisture must be present throughout the cook stage to ensure complete and
uniform gelatinization of the rice kernels. As a result of these requirements, present studies at the LSU Agricultural Center assume a target moisture at the end of the
soak process of 30% (wet basis), a grain pore space volume of 50% and approximately 20% by weight of excess water to make up for evaporation losses. When
information on the effect of soaking rice using the application of microwave energy on partial equilibration and target moisture level to ensure commercially acceptable
end grain quality become known, the above assumptions could be revised. At this writing, information is available on target moisture levels achieved under vacuum at
300 Torr, indicating that 30% moisture (wet basis) could be achieved in 40–60 minutes under the application of between 0.6 and 1.2 kW of microwave power in
700g rough rice samples.
Soak temperature is another factor that must be given serious consideration. In conventional parboiling processes, this factor is controlled externally in that the hot
water is circulated via an external tank or small container where makeup heat is added to compensate for losses from the soak tank. In the microwave process, one of
the controlling mechanisms is the pressure in the chamber. Additionally the pressure in the chamber could also be used to advantage in increasing hydration rates. A
high vacuum (approximately 50 Torr) at the beginning of the soak stage enables the air trapped between the kernels and the hulls to be bled out of the system. The
pressure in the chamber could then be increased gradually to a level corresponding to the boiling point of water, which is also the target soak temperature for the soak
step (e.g., 300 Torr corresponding to about 75°C).
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The soak process can then proceed at a constant pressure with the time and microwave power adjusted to achieve the desired results. Again, the criteria governing
variables of microwave power and soak time should include the grain moisture at the end of the soak stage and the quantity of water remaining. The suitability of these
parameters could only be judged by the final outcome of parboiled rice quality as seen by the present completely translucent kernels, grain color, and yields. Present
research indicates that this approach yields approximately 30% (wet basis) final moisture in a time period of 40–60 minutes with suitable microwave power levels.
In the conventional process, partial equilibration has been found to be beneficial to a certain extent as discussed previously. However, the suitability of partial
equilibration prior to the cook stage in a microwave process is yet to be determined. From a process time and operational point of view, time devoted to just "holding"
a product is not desirable. Thus any partial equilibration stage must be carefully investigated with respect to potential benefits. In addition, the electric field of the
microwave radiation interacts with the dipoles in the material under treatment, generating heat. Heat is normally generated within the material due to the reversal of the
polarity of the field when oscillation at the frequencies approaching that of the microwaves occurs. Since water possesses a large number of dipoles, it reacts strongly
to the application of microwave energy. These factors and mechanisms may or may not aid in producing a uniform distribution of moisture in the kernels at the end of
the soak stage.
2—
The Cooking Process
The next stage of the parboiling treatment involves heating the soaked rice kernels. During this phase, the starch granules in the endosperm, which have absorbed water
during the soak stage, are changed in structure from a crystalline to an amorphous form. This is an irreversible process referred to as gelatinization. It is essential that
heat and moisture are present throughout the kernel to completely parboil each grain. The key criteria are the presence of sufficient moisture and the transfer of heat at
or above the gelatinization temperature for the variety of rice under treatment. Assuming that the grains are sufficiently hydrated, a drawback of the conventional steam
heating process is heat transfer from the steam source to and within the kernels. The present technology, which utilizes "autoclaving" or steam in tanks under pressure,
provides the best form of effecting gelatinization of the soaked rice grains. By comparison, heat treating the soaked grains of rice in the presence of excess moisture by
the application of microwave power possesses an inherent advantage over conventional heating in that the water molecules between and within the grains selec
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tively respond, generating heat. With appropriately adjusted microwave power input, the rice kernels are subjected to heat, both outside (due to the presence of the
excess water) and inside as the kernels are already saturated. This mechanism therefore makes the heattreatment phase independent of conduction heating. An
additional advantage is that, unlike conventional soaking and steam heat treating, the vessel or chamber that contains the rice is not heated as much. This results in
reduced conduction and convection losses, translating to energy savings.
Current research at the LSU Agricultural Center involves the evaluation of the effect of pressure in the chamber, the input microwave power, and the time of the cook
stage. The required input power levels, the process times, and the pressure in the chamber will be functions of the equipment configuration and the quantity of rice
under treatment. One would assume that a properly designed equipment configuration would ensure adequate penetration by the microwaves at the selected frequency
(2450 or 915 MHz) as well as ensure uniform heating of the rice water mixture. It is critical, however, that one track the increase of grain temperature via a suitably
calibrated infrared sensor throughout the period of the heat treatment to ensure that (a) the grain temperature reaches or slightly exceeds the gelatinization temperature
for the variety of rice under treatment, and (b) the grain temperature does not increase to a point at which scorching may take place. Once the rate of application of
microwave power is determined for the particular equipmentrice/water configuration, future research should concentrate on determining the optimum point at which
the power should be reduced or cut off. That is important due to the fact that one does not want the drying phase to begin sooner than necessary, which results in
partly gelatinized grains or "white bellies." White bellies are an undesirable component of the processed parboiled rice. Another factor that merits consideration is the
pressure in the microwave chamber. A pressure level at or higher than atmospheric pressure would prevent premature drying effects. Future research must address
these issues, and the heat treatment parameters must be refined based primarily on the quality characteristics of the end product.
3—
The Drying Process
In conventional commercial processes, the steamheat treated rice is directly transported into a series of dryers to complete the drying step. This step reduces the grain
moisture from a level of approximately 36% (wet basis) to a level suitable for storage and/or processing, i.e., 12–14% (wet basis). In the case of microwave
parboiling, the heattreated rice could at once be subjected to a new set of appropriate conditions of pressure and
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power input to begin the drying step. Chapter 14 discusses in detail the implications of applying microwave technology to the drying of parboiled rice. However, a few
salient points are discussed here.
Previous studies by Wadsworth et al. (12) and Velupillai et al. (13) have reported on both the drying aspects and the grain end quality parameters. The primary finding
as reported by the above studies was that the application of microwave energy to dry parboiled rice in an evacuated atmosphere produced rice of a quality
comparable to parboiled rice produced by conventional methods. Analysis of the conditions of drying, such as the microwave power input and the pressure in the
cavity, revealed that the drying mechanisms were inherently different from conventional methods of drying parboiled rice. For instance, the "falling rate" trend of the
drying rates was absent; instead, the drying rates (observed to be directly proportional to the microwave power input) essentially remained constant until the final
moisture content of the parboiled rice was 18% or lower. This is a significant difference when the drying mode is compared with conventional hot air drying and
indicates that the diffusion of water within the kernels of rice is not the limiting factor. Another important finding in this study was that rice kernel density did not
increase as in the case of conventional drying when the kernels tend to shrink as drying progresses. These two important trends under microwave energy application to
drying of parboiled rice indicate that with the proper adjustment of the microwave input power, the pressure in the chamber and the drying time, parboiled rice could
be dried in one single pass to safe storage levels. This has a profound bearing on potential equipment cost and process time savings when compared with conventional
commercial drying installations. Although the proper equipment configuration is not yet determined at this stage of development, the impact on drying equipment could
be seen when one reviews the present equipment layout in a typical large capacity (20 t/hr) parboil rice drying section. Normally, the rice leaving the autoclave is
conveyed directly to a rotary dryer in which hot air at temperatures ranging from 150 to 260°C is utilized. The firstpass drying reduces the grain moisture to between
18 and 22% (wet basis). Typically, the rice is then conveyed to a series of column dryers to gradually reduce the moisture (at lower air temperatures of less than 93°
C) to between 12 and 14% (wet basis).
The microwavevacuum method of drying parboiled rice has been found to produce rice yields (total as well as whole kernel yield) comparable to yields from
conventional methods. The yield variation was primarily influenced by the drying rate, which, in turn, was influenced by the power input and the pressure in the
chamber. A similar trend was seen for the percent variation of the gelatinized kernels, i.e., when the input power and vacuum were increased, there was a reduction of
the percent gelatinized kernels.
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III—
Future Outlook
The foregoing discussions lead one to ask the question, could a complete process for microwave parboiling be developed? What would be some distinct advantages
over conventional processes? Although a complete process has yet to be formulated, it is worth while to explore certain inherent differences and some advantages to
using microwave technologies in rice parboiling.
First, there has been a greater awareness among the food processors, particularly in the United States, who have in the last few years installed commercial scale
microwave based processing equipment. This, according to Decareau (16) is due in part to the growth in the consumer use of microwave ovens in the United States as
well as other parts of the world. Second, reviewing the general features of microwave processing systems, one finds certain inherent differences when a microwave
based system replaces a conventional system:
1. Equipment configuration
2. Space savings
3. Process time
4. Energy use
5. Quality of product
6. Maintenance
On the other hand, microwavebased systems are generally technologically more advanced than conventional systems and require a different set of operational and
safety standards.
Examining the above inherent differences in light of a potential rice parboiling system utilizing microwave energy, several comments could be made. The equipment
configuration and the resulting space savings are a necessary consideration when investments are to be made. At a minimum, soak tanks, a hot water supply tank, a
boiler, an autoclave, a rotary dryer, one or more column dryers, ancillary equipment including valves and steam pipes, and a conveying system of elevators and belts
are required in a conventional parboiling plant. In addition to a large investment for the equipment, the layout necessitates large, tall buildings to house the parboiling
equipment. By comparison, a single unit utilizing microwave energy to parboil the rice is expected to save considerable plant floor space and not require tall buildings.
A related point for discussion is the potential process time savings. As discussed earlier in this chapter, the soak times have been shown to be as much as a third less
than for the conventional process. Process time savings generally mean that a smaller amount of rice is processed at any one time, translating into a smaller amount of
the product
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being lost (or lowered in quality) in the event of equipment failure. Another aspect of this configuration is the possibility that parallel systems could be set up to make up
the desired throughput. As a consequence, only partial reduction of throughput will result if an equipment component in a single stream fails. This alternative is not
financially feasible in the presentday systems of rice parboiling.
The energy use in microwave parboiling is an important consideration. However, research data are not available at this time to illustrate the energy use on a commercial
scale. One needs to consider both the types of energy application and the source of the energy when energy use comparisons are made. In conventional systems,
natural gas, kerosene, and furnace oil are the primary sources of energy. Rice hulls have also been used for decades, particularly in the smaller mills worldwide. This
source has the advantage that rice hulls are available at the mill site and are a renewable source. If commercialscale parboiling systems utilizing microwave technology
become a reality, two factors merit consideration. First, the environmental impact (i.e., pollutants from combustion of either fossil fuels or rice hulls) could be better
controlled at a single location of the electric utility company (which usually must conform to the environmental standards). Second, the use of a renewable source of
energy such as rice hulls could reduce the use of fossil fuels. As stated earlier, research data are not available to illustrate a commercialscale comparison. However,
data are available on an experimental scale for comparison of the energy use in the drying step of the parboiling process. The drying step is the most energy intensive
step (requiring nearly 80%) of the total energy to soak, heattreat, and dry rice. Concentrating on the drying step will therefore provide a good indicator in making
energy use comparisons between conventional and microwave parboiling systems. Data available as a result of the LSU Agricultural Center studies (17) indicate a
savings of 46% in the energy available at site or at the magnetron to dry the soaked and steamed rice. This comparison, however, does not take into consideration the
conversion efficiency of fossil fuels to electrical energy.
Product quality in the general sense when microwave systems are used generally tends to be better primarily due to the fact that the heating is throughout the product
rather than on the surface first and then by conduction heat transfer into the product. Previous discussions in this chapter have addressed this issue illustrating that
uniform heating throughout the kernels of rice is essential. In the marketplace today, particularly in the United States, parboiled rice must meet certain "performance"
criteria required by consumers. Cooking quality has long been the hallmark of parboiled rice in that it is easier to cook and the cooked rice is dry and fluffy in
comparison with unparboiled rice. Another criterion is the steam
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table keeping quality. Restaurant chains and hotels desire good steamtable keeping quality. Previous research (14) has shown that microwave technology produces
rice of comparable quality to that produced by conventional technology. Additionally, the microwave configuration lends itself to finetuning process variables resulting
in a uniform product. The point to keep in mind here is that a smaller amount of rice (in comparison with conventional parboiling) is being treated at any one time. The
microwave system also has a great potential for "postparboiling" treatments that are now utilized to enhance, among other things, the cooking aspects (rapid water
uptake resulting in reduced cooking time).
The foregoing discussion leads one to the question raised in the beginning of this section regarding the formulation of a complete process for microwave parboiling. The
response is a positive one in that a commercialscale system is feasible. The state of technology development is at a point today where a commercialscale prototype
needs to be developed. This prototype must address equipment (microwave chamber, wave guides, etc.), configuration, controls, instrumentation, the conveying
system, and ancillary equipment including vacuum locks.
References
1. Bhattacharya, K. R. (1985). Parboiling of rice, Rice: Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul,
MN, p. 289.
2. Gariboldi, F. (1974). Rice parboiling. FAO Agricultural Development Paper No: 97, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
3. Kik, M. C. (1946). Rice conversion. Rice J., 49(1):4,12.
4. Kik, M. C. (1956). Polished rice and beriberi. Rice J., 49(4):608.
5. Kik, M. C. (1955). Influence of processing on nutritive value of milled rice. J. Agric. Food Chem., 3(7):600.
6. Hunter, I. R., Ferrel, R. E., and Houston, D. F. (1956). Free amino acids of fresh and aged parboiled rice. J. Agric. Food Chem., 4:874.
7. Kik, M. C. (1943). Thiamine in products of commercial rice. Cereal Chem., 20:103.
8. Simpson, I. A. (1951). The distribution of thiamine and riboflavin in rice grains; and of thiamine in parboiled rice. Cereal Chem., 28:259.
9. Subba Rao, P. V., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1966). Effect of parboiling on thiamine content of rice. J. Agric. Food Chem., 14:479.
10. Aeroglide, and McDonnell Douglas, MIVAC microwave vacuum drier. Product Brochure.
11. Wadsworth, J. I., and Koltun, S. P. (1986). Physicochemical properties and cooking quality of microwavedried rice. Cereal Chem., 63(4):346.
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12. Wadsworth, J. I., Velupillai, L., and Verma, L. R. (1990). Microwavevacuum drying of parboiled rice. Trans. ASAE, 33(1):199.
13. Velupillai, L., Verma, L. R., and Wadsworth, J. I. (1989). Quality aspects of microwavevacuumdried parboiled rice. Trans ASAE, 32(5):1759.
14. Velupillai, L., Verma, L. R., and Tsangmuichung, M. (1989). Process for parboiling rice. U.S. Patent No. 4,810,511, March 7.
15. Velupillai, L., and Verma, L. R. (1982). Parboiled rice quality as affected by the level and distribution of moisture after the soaking process. Trans. ASAE, 25
(5):1450.
16. Decareau, R. V. (1988) Microwave processing. Food Industry Trends in FPE News, The Food and Process Engineering Institute of ASAE, 22(1):1.
17. Verma, L. R., Velupillai, L., Wells, J. H., Ransibrahmanakul, V., and Wadsworth, J. I. (1991). Microwavevacuum process in rice parboiling. 1991 Winter
Meeting of ASAE, Paper No. 913531, December 1991.
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13—
New Methods for OntheFarm Rice Drying:
Solar and Biomass
Lalit R. Verma
Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
The agriculture industry is crucially dependent on fossil fuels for efficient production of food and fiber. Rising fuel costs and dependence of the United States on foreign
oil are critical factors for U.S. agriculture and other segments of our economy and make energy independence an urgent but difficult goal. Significant amounts of energy
are used in the postharvest processing of crops. It is estimated that about 3.3 × 109 MJ of fossil fuel energy is used in the United States for this phase of crop
agriculture (1). Grain drying in the United States requires the equivalent of 15 million barrels of crude oil per year, most of which is in the form of propane and natural
gas. Crop drying is a very energyintensive farm operation. The onthefarm energy use for crop drying in the United States is estimated to be 7.3 × 1010 MJ (2). As
world demand for efficient food production and processing increases due to growing population, limited resources, and emphasis on keeping our environment clean,
alternative sources of energy for onthefarm use need to be developed and substituted for the more expensive and increasingly scarce fossil fuels.
Approved for publication by the Director of the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station as manuscript number 91075377.
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Solar and biomass energies have unique possibilities in the agricultural system. Onthefarm energy requirements for applications such as drying and space heating can
be easily met by these renewable energy sources. Instorage lowtemperature drying is estimated to use less than 25% of the energy of other, fasterdrying
alternatives. Drying and space heating on the farm can efficiently utilize low quality heat, which can be generated with simple and inexpensive solar or biomass systems.
The technology necessary to design/modify, construct, operate, and maintain such systems is available on the farm, which make them attractive alternatives. Alternative
renewable energy systems are ideally suited for onthefarm applications because drying and space heating are required at different times of the year, which increases
the efficiency of solar energy systems by using them for longer periods during the year. Another factor in favor of these supplemental energy systems is that they can be
used with the existing airhandling and control systems on the farm. These factors reduce complexity and cost. Conventional backup energy can be left in place to
meet increased demand or emergency situations.
II—
OntheFarm Rice Drying
Rice, like many other grain crops, often requires more energy for drying than for preplanting, planting, and harvesting combined. The amount of energy used in onthe
farm rice drying systems and methods to reduce this energy input are of great concern to the rice farmers as this can determine the profitability of the crop.
Drying of freshly harvested rice, using air as the transfer agent, is essential for safe storage. To maintain quality, drying should be started as soon as possible after
harvest. And to produce highquality milled white rice with a minimum amount of broken kernels, the drying operation must be carefully executed. During the rice
harvest season, the farm drying and storage facilities may become a bottleneck to the immediate and complete drying of the rough rice. Thus, rice drying onthefarm is
a critical operation requiring careful management of the available harvesting and drying resources.
Onthefarm ricedrying equipment is essentially the same as that for other grain crops, however, the operation of the drying systems is different. Rough rice is a unique
type of grain in that its bran and husk layers are intact while it is being dried. The weather conditions in ricegrowing areas are also different from those in the
midwestern states. The high humidity and ambient temperatures in the South make the rice very susceptible to quality deterioration and spoilage if not dried quickly,
and yet to preserve milling quality, it cannot be overheated. If rice is heated above a critical temperature and/or dried too fast below a certain moisture content level,
rough rice will fissure. It is critically important to avoid fissuring in the rice
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during drying as fissured grains tend to break during subsequent handling and milling, which drastically reduces the market value of the rice.
A—
Equipment
The most common system used for onthefarm rice drying is the inbin, deepbed drying system. A deepbed system consists of a metal bin with perforated floor and
plenum chamber below it, a fossil fuel burner, air fan, duct system for air distribution in the bin, and a dryer control system. Such a system of rice drying can be easily
used for either solar or biomassassisted drying.
The most commonly used fossil fuels for rice drying are natural gas, propane gas, LP gas, and oil. Burners utilize either a direct or indirect mode of heat transfer to the
air. In the direct mode, the products of combustion are forced through the grain with the drying air. Such a system is usually less expensive and utilizes the thermal
energy more efficiently, but the grain may be adversely affected by the smoke and combustion products. In the indirect mode, a heat exchanger surface is heated and
the drying air is circulated around it and then through the grain to be dried, keeping the combustion products away from the grain.
Both axial fans and centrifugal fans are used for air movement in the inbin ricedrying systems. Maintaining an adequate airflow throughout the drying period is vital for
keeping deterioration in rice quality to a minimum. Electric motors are the most common sources of energy to power the fans. Airflow rate is the single most important
factor in determining the progress of the drying zone through the rice mass in the bin.
Uniform and level distribution of the rice in the bin can be achieved with the use of mechanical spreaders provided they do not discharge the grain at excessive
velocities and damage the rice. Gentle mixing of the rice during drying promotes uniform quality and reduces the likelihood of heat and moisture accumulation due to
respiration, which can promote mold damage.
B—
Drying Conditions
Unheated air is recommended for onthefarm rice drying in a storage bin except during prolonged periods of high humidity (3). Even then it is recommended that the
drying air be heated by no more than 7°C. Adding small amounts of heat is desirable to lower the humidity of the drying air but does not greatly influence the rate of
movement of the drying zone and the time required to complete the drying of the rice. Proper control of the most common onthefarm drying system requires
monitoring of the ambient conditions, the temperature rise of the drying air by the burner, and the temperature and moisture content of the material being dried.
Thermostats and/or humidistats are commonly used to shut off the fuel flow when the
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Table 1 Average Energy Used During OntheFarm Drying of Long and
MediumGrain Rough Rice
Source: Ref. 4.
preset temperature is exceeded in the plenum and turn it on again when the temperature drops below a certain point or the humidity exceeds a certain value for the
drying air. A newer control strategy used with the conventional onthefarm ricedrying systems, to reduce drying energy consumption, is a modulating control on the
gas line to the burner of the dryer. Such a control system has been shown to save up to about a third of the drying energy using a conventional burner system (4).
Drying only with ambient air, although possible, takes much longer time than heatassisted drying (18–24 days versus 7–10 days) and results in milling quality loss. This
loss may be due to the extended storage of highmoisture rice before it dries, resulting in excessive respiration heat, moisture, and deterioration, and to desorption and
adsorption of moisture in the rice due to changing humidity of the ambient air resulting in fissuring. Moisture adsorption in dried rice also causes fissuring, similar to that
caused by excessively rapid drying or desorption.
C—
Energy Use
A theoretical minimum of 2.5–2.7 MJ/kg of water removed, depending on the temperature at which water is evaporated, is required in crop drying (5). The actual
energy requirements for evaporating water from grain have been found to range from 3.0 to 7.0 MJ/kg of water removed (6). The
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Table 2 Comparison of Energy Consumption Using GasModulating
Control with Conventional Gas Burners for OntheFarm Rough Rice
Drying
Conventional burners, kJ/kg
H2O removed
Modulating
control, kJ/kg
Year H2O removed Bin 1 Bin 2 Bin 3
1984 1980 3808 3120 3830
energy requirements in fixed bed and cross flow rice driers are reported as 3.96 and 5.31 MJ/kg of water removed, respectively (7). High air temperature and low air
flow increase the energy efficiency of a concurrent flow rice dryer, whereas the grain flow rate has only a marginal effect (8). An LSUtype commercial dryer uses
about 7.9 MJ/kg of water removed (9), whereas the energy used in an LSUtype model lab dryer for rice was 16.5 MJ/kg of water removed (10).
The results for a longterm onthefarm ricedrying study conducted in southwest Louisiana are shown in Table 1 (4). The 7year average energy requirement for on
thefarm drying of long and mediumgrain rice was 3.46 MJ/kg of water removed. However, large variations were observed from year to year. A low average energy
input of 1.9 MJ/kg water removed and a high average of 4.9 MJ/kg water removed for longgrain rice were observed. About 90% of the total energy was used in
heating the ambient air to 38°C during drying. The drying potential for the system (defined as the actual water removed during drying compared with the theoretical
maximum possible as calculated from psychometric data) was generally in the range of 40–80% depending on the time of day and weather conditions. Higher drying
potential was observed for lower ambient temperatures, typically in the morning, when the air was higher in humidity and required heating. The average potential was
63%.
A burner control to regulate the fuel flow (modulator) as well turn it on or off to maintain a stable drying air temperature in the plenum was evaluated (4). The average
energy usage (Table 2) with such a modulating con
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trol (2.40 MJ/kg water removed) was about 28% lower than the conventional burners (3.32 MJ/kg water removed) during 1984 to 1986. Energy savings of as high as
48% were reported in 1985 when prolonged periods of rainy weather occurred during the drying tests. No adverse effect on rice milling quality was observed during
these drying tests.
III—
Solar Energy Use for Rice Drying
Solar heat can be harnessed to heat ambient air for lowtemperature drying with a relatively simple system. The purpose of solar collectors used in drying is to
intercept solar radiation, convert it to thermal energy, and transfer this energy to air used for drying or heat storage. Farms have a practical advantage for the use of
solar energy for both drying and space heating because they have ample area for solar collectors.
One of several possible uses of solar energy in agricultural production systems is for drying rough rice. The slow drying required for onthefarm drying of rough rice
has the advantage of using a long period for collection of solar energy. Low to moderate temperature rise solar energy systems, which are more efficient than high
temperature rise systems, can provide a large percentage of the energy requirements normally met by using highquality fossil fuels. Simple and inexpensive solar
collectors can add enough heat to lower the relative humidity of the drying air sufficiently to dry the rice crop to a moisture level safe for storage and marketing.
A—
Equipment
Various physical configurations for solar collectors are shown in Figure 1. The solar energy collector can be either a flat plate type or a concentrating type. A flat plate
collector with reflectors works as both of the above. Typically, in a flat covered plate collector, an insulated black surface acts as the solar energy absorber and a
transparent cover or glazing above it, which reduces heat losses from the absorber, is used to form the heated space through which air is circulated. The bare plate
collector does not have a glazing above it, which causes a loss of absorbed energy to the wind, but has a back plate below it to form the channel for airflow. An ideal
solar collector absorber should: (a) absorb a high percentage of incident solar radiation (emissivity value close to 1), (b) have minimum losses to its surroundings, and
(c) efficiently transfer the absorbed energy to the circulating air stream. The glazing layer reduces convection heat losses, is transparent to shortwave solar radiation,
and reduces longwave radiation heat loss from the absorber. A covered plate collector is more efficient than a bare plate collector. A suspended plate collector is
more efficient than the covered plate collector. It has the absorber in the middle with the transparent layer
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Figure 1
Different physical arrangements for airtype
flat plate solar collectors.
(From Ref. 12.)
above and back plate below it. It can have airflow either under the absorber or on both sides of the absorber (11). Concentrating collectors are not necessary for low
temperature rice drying. Plans are available from local agricultural extension services or the Midwest Plan Service for wraparound solar collectors (Figs. 2, 3) on a
grain bin or wall of a farm building or for a portable collector (12). Any southfacing wall or roof can be used, or the collector can be placed on the ground. Such a
simple collector can capture as much as 70% of the solar energy incident on it to heat the drying air.
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Figure 2
Schematic diagram of a wraparound solar collector attached to a drying bin.
(From Ref. 12.)
B—
Drying Conditions
Most of the solar grain drying research has been conducted with corn in the midwestern United States. The major differences between rough rice and corn for solar
drying are the ambient weather conditions during the drying season and the vulnerability of rough rice to fissuring and subsequent breakage, resulting in lower head rice
yields and reduced market value. Results from the midwestern states cannot be directly transferred for use in
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Figure 3
Vertical and horizontal cross sections of the wraparound solar collector shown
in Figure 2.
(From Ref. 12.)
the humid South. Although the midwestern systems can be used under the more humid and warm conditions, the airflow rates must be adjusted to the local weather
conditions.
A solar collector can provide enough supplemental heat for lowtemperature drying (13). The basic principles of solar energy in drying and curing, which are applied in
different types of practical solar drying systems, are discussed by Huang (14). The technical feasibility of solar energy
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Figure 4
Two configurations for drying rice using a rock bed as a heat
sink for storing solar energy. (A) A single air flow path for both day
and night operation. (B) A dual air flow path. For daytime operation,
dampers 1 and 3 are open. For nighttime operation, damper 2 is
open and dampers 1 and 3 are closed.
(From Ref. 15.)
for providing a significant percentage of the heat energy for drying has been demonstrated for various agricultural commodities. However, economic considerations and
reliability data on specific systems and their components have limited the widespread adaptation of solar energy for drying.
Calderwood (15) evaluated three methods using three types of solar collectors for applying solar heat to dry rough rice in metal bins. These methods were (a) solar
heat applied directly to a stationary bed of rice, (b) solar heat applied directly to rice displaced by a stirring auger, and (c) stored solar heat from a rock bed applied to
rice displaced by a stirring auger. Figure 4 shows schematics of two ricedrying systems using a heatsink (rock bed) to store solar energy. System A uses only one
airflow path. Ambient air is heated in a solar collector and passed through a rock bed and rice storage bin connected in series. When the air exiting the solar collector
is hotter than the rock bed (daytime conditions), the air heats the
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rock bed before it passes through the rice bin. When the air exiting the solar collector is cooler than the rock bed (nighttime conditions), the air absorbs energy from
the rock bed. Schematic B shows two airflow paths. In the daytime, ambient air is used unheated to dry the rice and the solarheated air is used to store energy in the
rock bed. At night, ambient air is heated by the rock bed before it passes through the rice bin, and the solar collector is shut down.
The above solar methods were compared with rice dried with unheated air. It was reported that drying time and fan energy for drying were lower for solarheated air
than the unheated air. The application of solar heat directly to the bed of rice was the simplest of the techniques evaluated for drying rough rice in depths of up to 2.4 m
with an average daily solar heat input of up to 2.2 kWh/m3 of rice under southeast Texas conditions. The additional investment necessary for storing solar heat in a
rock bed and associated control system was not justified.
Rice drying using solar energy was conducted using systems with (a) flatbedtype forced air dryer in a greenhouse, (b) a circulationtype dryer in
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a dryer roofhouse, and (c) a groundlevel stirrer in a semicircular solar energy collection house (16). The second system performed the best out of the three evaluated
in this study. It had a higher equipment cost than the other two but required less floor area. This cost can be further reduced by modifying an existing on the farm
circulationtype dryer and using a farm building, such as a shop, for the solar energy collection house.
A solar rice dryer designed for natural convective heat transfer, which utilized a layer of burned rice husk on the ground as an absorber and insulator (Fig. 5), resulted
in enhanced thermal energy collection (17). In this dryer, the rough rice to be dried does not remain in contact with the ground. This small prototype flatbed dryer with
a simple air heater made from burned rice husk and clear plastic sheet was successfully used to dry rice during the wet harvest season in Thailand. Rice was dried in
depths of up to 150 mm in 2–3 days with no adverse effect on milling quality. The suggested dryer capacity is 80 kg/m2 of bed.
The satisfactory drying of rice with heat produced by solar energy has also been reported by Mayeux et al. (18). The recommendation is to use about 16 cm2 of bare
plate rooftop collector area for every m3 of rice to be dried. The air velocity used for drying in the bin should be limited to 10 m/ sec by adjusting the depth and width
of the collector plenum, and an airflow rate of 2 m3/min per m3 of rough rice to be dried should be maintained. A supplemental heat source for prolonged inclement
weather is, however, recommended.
Supplemental heat is normally used in onthefarm drying during periods of high relative humidity or cool temperatures to accelerate the drying process. The ambient
air temperature in the southern ricegrowing states of Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi is typically above 27°C, and the relative humidity is above 65%
during the ricedrying months. Supplemental heat to reduce the relative humidity should not increase the drying air temperature above 38°C to keep from overdrying
and fissuring the rice and yet provide an acceptable drying rate. The challenge with a solar energysupplemented rice dryer is to limit the temperature rise of the
ambient air in order to prevent rice overdrying resulting in reduced head yields. This is especially true on clear days, because, when the solar radiation is the greatest,
the ambient relative humidity is usually less than 65%. Solar heating of the air would further reduce this humidity and may result in overdrying, especially in the lower
rice layers in the bin, if the temperature rise is above about 38°C. Temperatures well above this may cause faster than desirable drying and large moisture gradients in
the grain, resulting in fissuring and subsequent breakage. A more complete discussion of the rice moisture gradients and their effect on kernel breakage is presented in
Chapter 15. This confirms the need for gradual and slow
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Figure 5
Solarheated, natural convection rice dryer that uses burnt rice husks as a radiant energy absorber.
(From Ref. 17.)
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moisture removal from rough rice, especially at moisture levels below about 16% (w.b).
A controller using a thermostat and a humidistat is commonly used in onthefarm drying systems to accomplish the drying management program described above. A
properly designed and operating control to limit this temperature rise but maintain the airflow can virtually eliminate this problem and maintain rice head yields. Such a
drying system in combination with a conventional natural gas or LPgas system for night or prolonged cloudy spells can provide drying as fast as a conventional gas
system without adverse quality effects and keep the drying energy costs to a minimum.
The above research has shown that grain drying in humid conditions using solar energy is possible, preferably with a humidistat controller for the blower to enable 24
hour operation (19). Drying in depths not to exceed 1 m is recommended with adequate airflow for satisfactory drying, and a backup system is recommended for
periods of bad weather.
IV—
Biomass and Residues for Drying
Agricultural crop residues are produced as byproducts in normal crop production systems and are not used beneficially at present. Crop residues and biomass are
among the cheapest, most readily available energy sources on the farm. These renewable fuels provide an option for partially meeting future energy needs.
Biomass from agriculture as an alternative energy source is predicted to supply up to 5% of U.S. energy needs by the year 2000. An estimated 365 × 109 kg of
residue is produced each year from 10 major crops in the United States. The potential of biomass and residues to supplement energy needs in agriculture and other
areas is well documented (12, 20). The residues recovered from one hectare of corn should provide enough heat energy to dry corn from 10 or more hectares (21). A
similar situation also exists for crops such as soybeans, wheat, and rice. Baling and storage of rice straw at different moisture levels has been reported (22, 23).
A—
Equipment
Direct combustion of crop residues and biomass provides the greatest utilization of stored energy in biomass to heat air for grain drying and is presently the most
widely used technique. Successful systems have primarily used wood or forest products as fuel (24). Other biomass fuels could be viable alternatives if appropriate
technology and equipment were available to utilize the biomass energy. Equipment suitable for one biomass may not
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be as suitable for other materials. Round balers or stackers are available on most farms and can be used to harvest various types of crop residues and straw. These
packages of crop residue are easy and efficient to handle and store. Dry residue in a typical bale of 500 kg can have 9000 MJ of thermal energy, equivalent to over
1.45 barrel of crude oil. The usable energy from a bale depends on the moisture content, heat of combustion of the residue, and the furnace efficiency.
Furnaces utilizing biomass and crop residue for grain drying applications are either direct fired or indirect fired. The former type usually uses gasification, whereas the
latter uses a heat exchanger. All furnaces utilize either updraft, downdraft, or crossdraft gasifiers. The biomass fuel typically undergoes drying, pyrolysis, combustion,
and reduction in conversion to thermal energy (25). Several biomass and residuefired burners for drying grains, direct or indirect fired, have been evaluated in the
recent past to reduce fossil energy consumption in crop drying (26–35). At least one furnace of each type is commercially available in the United States and has been
used to dry corn and a few other grains.
An indirectfired biomass furnace was evaluated with crop residues for furnace efficiency (36). Large round bales of cotton stalks, corn stover, and soybean residues
burned satisfactorily in the tests. Heat energy available for grain drying ranged from 45 to 64% of the biomass heat energy determined from bomb calorimetry tests.
The same furnace was utilized for forage dehydration using cotton stalks, small grain straw, and Bermuda grass in large round bales (37). Cotton stalks were the most
efficient. Bermuda grass was found to be a good source of heat if the bales were kept dry or burned with another biomass source.
One of the major concerns in grain drying with heat from directfired furnaces using biomass is the contaminant residue on the grain from the combustion gases. Several
studies have been conducted that quantify the contaminants and their effects on the grain (primarily corn) and air pollution (38–43). In most of these studies,
preliminary results showed that the grain was of acceptable quality.
B—
Rough Rice Drying
Rough rice has been successfully dried in a bin from 21 to 12.7% (w.b.) moisture using an indirect fired furnace with a crossdraft gasifier (44). The furnace used a heat
exchanger to heat the air blown through the rice. This heat exchanger was located around a batchtype combustion chamber in which a fixed supply of biomass was
allowed to burn completely before another supply of biomass was placed in the furnace. The heated air was delivered to the floor plenum of a batchtype bin dryer.
The air tempera
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ture entering the bin dryer was controlled by an adjustable thermostat that regulated the onoff mode of the conbustion air fan. This fan supplied oxygen to the
combustion chamber and controlled the burning rate of the biomass to maintain the desired temperature for drying. The furnace was rated to raise the drying air
temperature an average of 25°C above ambient conditions but was used in the ricedrying tests with plenum air below 40°C to maintain the milling quality (Table 3).
Average furnace efficiency was 41% with bales of rice straw and Bermuda grass as fuel. Drying efficiency of over 60% was achieved with an air temperature rise of at
least 5°C. More energy was required in these tests to power the fan as the heat output by the biomass was irregular, forcing longer drying times. Rice quality, as
determined by the mill and head yields of samples from the three tests, was not adversely affected by this biomass drying system as compared with the rice dried in a
conventional inbin drying system.
A rice huskfired rotary dryer (Fig. 6) was designed and evaluated for rapid drying using conduction heating of rough rice at heating surface temperatures of 100 to
180°C [45]. This system was also evaluated for insect disinfestation of the high moisture rough rice. Drying was terminated at about 16% (w.b.) moisture, and the
reduction in milling yields was nonsignificant. Such a system may not be easily adaptable for onthefarm drying unless the rice husk is readily available in ample
quantities.
A rice dryer (Fig. 7) with energy derived from a rice husk gasifier was developed and tested at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Unlike the rotary dryer
system described above, this system uses combustion
Table 3 Drying Rough Rice with Energy Generated by Burning Rice Straw and Dallis Bermudgrass in a
Stormor Furnace
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Figure 6
A schematic diagram of a rotary dryer/cooler system that uses rice husks for fuel.
Rice is heated by conduction at surface temperatures between 100°C and 180°C for short times.
(From Ref. 45.)
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Figure 7
Schematic diagram of the DAIRRI reactor dryer with rice hull gasifier.
(From Ref. 46.)
gases from the burner to directly heat the rice by forced convection. Shorttime, singlepass exposures of the rice to temperatures in the range of 80–95°C dried the
rice to 16–19% (w.b.) moisture without affecting the milling quality (46). This dryer was developed for Asian regions for farmer cooperatives and rice millers when sun
drying is not possible due to adverse weather conditions. This system is also not entirely suitable for onthefarm drying.
A warehouse dryer with a centertube furnace fueled with combustible agricultural residues and byproducts such as rice and coconut husks, and a vortex wind
machine as the power source for air movement, was developed and tested for drying rice at IRRI (47). The system was found suitable for drying and storage, and the
airflow rate was found to be the critical factor in drying of the rice.
V—
Combined Solar and Biomass
A grain dryer using both biomass and solar energy sources has also been proposed (48). This system for onthefarm rice drying, to prevent quality loss, enabled the
drying to be spread over a longer time period with combined solar/thermal energy as compared with solar energy alone. Biomass, crop residues, and husk can be
utilized for periods of no solar energy availability. The use of solar and/or husk/biomass briquette dryers for
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drying rice at the farm level has also been suggested for the rural situations in the Far East, where dependence on sun drying at roadside areas and other floor space is
predominant (49). Both these options provided lowtemperature drying and can be adapted to inbin drying for maintaining milling quality of the rice. The briquette
was able to sustain burning for over 2 hours.
VI—
Other Nonconventional Methods
The energy utilization and drying characteristics of lowtemperature, solarassisted, heat pump, and combination high/lowtemperature drying for shelled corn have
been discussed (50). The energy savings are estimated at about 17, 48, and 54% for inbin, lowtemperature drying of a ton of corn at an initial moisture content of
26% (w.b.), with conventional, solar, and heat pump drying, respectively, over inbin drying with a 20°C air temperature rise. A simulation of aeration of rice using
cooled air was reported to maintain moisture below 13% (w.b.), to lower rice temperature below 15.6°C, and to be economically feasible in southwest Texas (51).
Cooling of rice in hot and humid conditions can result in savings due to lower drying costs, less grain shrinkage, and lower discount due to quality deterioration than
conventional drying.
VII—
Conclusions
Under humid conditions, solar heat can be harnessed to assist lowtemperature rice drying with a relatively simple system. Low to moderate temperature rise solar
energy systems, which are more efficient than high temperature rise systems, are well suited for rice drying. The slower drying that must be used for onthefarm drying
of rough rice provides a longer period for collecting the solar energy. A 24hour humidistat controller for the blower is more efficient than completely shutting down at
night. Drying in depths not to exceed 1 m is recommended with adequate airflow for satisfactory drying. A backup heating system is recommended for periods of bad
weather.
Crop residues and biomass are among the cheapest and most readily available energy sources on the farm. Direct combustion of crop residues and biomass provides
the greatest utilization of stored energy in biomass to heat air that can be used for grain drying. Rough rice can be dried in a bin using a biomass furnace with bales of
rice straw and lowquality grasses as fuel, without sacrificing milling yields. Several other drying systems using combustible agricultural residues and byproducts such
as rice and coconut husks are also possible for rough rice drying. Several of these systems
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provide lowtemperature drying and can be adapted to inbin drying for maintaining milling quality of the rice. In onthe farm bin drying systems, energy usage with a
modulating control can be significantly reduced compared with conventional burners.
Drying using both biomass and solar energy sources is also possible, with biomass, crop residues, and husk being utilized for periods of no or low solar energy
availability. This can provide lowtemperature drying and can be adapted to inbin drying for maintaining milling quality of the rice.
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31. Raman, K. P., Walawender, W. P., Shimizu, Y., and Fan, L. T. (1981). Gasification of corn stover in a fluidized bed, Agricultural Energy, vol. 2. ASAE
Publication 3–81. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI, p. 335.
32. Peart, R. M., Zink, H. R., and Doering, O. C. (1981). Corn cob gasification for corn drying, Agricultural Energy, Vol. 2. ASAE Publication 3–81. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI, p. 338.
33. Barrett, J. R., and Jacko, R. B. (1984). Corncob channel gasifier design, performance and safety, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Solar & Biomass
Workshop, Southern Agricultural Energy Center, Tifton, Georgia, p. 108.
34. Rice, C. E., and Brown, R. H. (1979). Solar heat for broiler production from a biomass burner system. ASAE Paper No. SER 79–039. American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
35. Hill, R. C. (1979). Design, construction and performance of stickwood fired furnace for residential and small commercial application. U.S. Department of Energy,
EC 77S0245, Washington, D.C.
36. Summer, H. R., Sumner, P. E., Hammond, C. W., and Monroe, G. E. (1981). Energy available from biomass for grain drying. ASAE Paper No. 81–3014.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
37. Hellwig, R. E., Sumner, H. R., and Monroe, G. E. (1983). Systems for drying forages and grain with biomass products, Proceedings of the Third Annual Solar
& Biomass Workshop, Southern Agricultural Energy Center, Tifton, Georgia, p. 250.
38. Jacko, R. B., Foster, G. H., and Barrett, J. R. (1982). Contaminant residues on corn dried by combustion gases from biomass furnaces. ASAE Paper No. 82–
3523. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
39. Sizemore, S. W., Loewer, O. J., Taraba, J. L., Ross, I. J., and White, G. M. (1983). Retention of gasificationcombustion products by corn. ASAE Paper No.
83–3005. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
40. Jacko, R. B. (1984). Grain contamination and air pollution from residue furnaces, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Solar & Biomass Workshop, Southern
Agricultural Energy Center, Tifton, Georgia, p. 104.
41. Mwaura, E. N., BakkerArkema, F. W., Van Ee, G. R., and Braselton, W. E. (1983). Grain contamination in drying by direct biomass heating. ASAE Paper No.
83–3512. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
42. Anderson, M. E., Bern, C. J., and Baker, J. L. (1983). Corn drying with biomass combustion products. ASAE Paper No. 83–3005. American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
43. Williams, R. S., Barrett, J. R., and Field, W. E. (1983). Emissions from biomass furnaces. ASAE Paper No. 83–3547. American Society of Agricultural
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44. Verma, L. R. (1990). Biomass energy for rice drying. Biomass, 23(1):13.
45. Jindal, V. K., and Obaldo, L. G. (1986). Ricehusk fired rotary dryer for disinfestation and rapid drying of paddy, Grain Protection in Postharvest Systems.
Proceedings of the Ninth ASEAN Technical Seminar on Grain Postharvest Technology (B. M. de Mesa, ed.), ASEAN Crops Postharvest Program, Manila,
Philippines, p. 42.
46. Stickney, R. E., Piamonte, V. N., and Belionio, A. T. (1988). DAIRRI rotary paddy dryer with rice hull gasifier, Advances in Grain Postharvest Technology
Generation and Utilization. Proceedings of the Eleventh ASEAN Technical Seminar on Grain Postharvest Technology (J. O. Naewbanij, ed.), ASEAN Grain
Postharvest Program, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 46.
47. Jeon, Y. W., Bockhop, C. W., and Halos, L. S. (1984). A warehouse dryer using nonconventional energy sources, Health and Ecology in Grain Postharvest
Technology. Proceedings of the Seventh ASEAN Technical Seminar on Grain Postharvest Technology (R. L. Semple and A. S. Frio, eds.), ASEAN Crops
Postharvest Program, Manila, Philippines, p. 241.
48. Kamaruddin, A., Tahir, R., and Sutrisno, R. (1987). Performance of a dual energy source grain dryer, International Symposium on Agricultural
Mechanization and International Cooperation in High Technology Era. Japanese Society of Agricultural Machinery, Tokyo, p. 71.
49. Soedjatmiko, and Madjid, R. (1987). Grain drying at the small scale farm—the Indonesia case, International Symposium on Agricultural Mechanization and
International Cooperation in High Technology Era. Japanese Society of Agricultural Machinery, Tokyo, p. 272.
50. Peart, R. M., Brook, R., and Okos, M. R. (1979). Energy requirements for various methods of crop drying, Handbook of Energy Utilization in Agriculture
(D. Pimental ed.), CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL, p. 49.
51. Maier, D. E., Weidmayer, K. D., BakkerArkema, F. W., and Moreira, R. G. (1991). Regular and chilled aeration of grains in Texas. ASAE Paper No. 91–
6062. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
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14—
MicrowaveVacuum Drying
James I. Wadsworth
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana
I—
Introduction
One of the most important economic considerations in rice processing is the prevention of breakage; broken rice is worth about onehalf the value of head (whole
grain) rice. Farmers must harvest their rice before it completely matures to prevent fissuring of the rice in the field (see Chapter 15). The average moisture content of
freshly harvested (green) rice is usually between 18 and 24% (wet basis). Rice at this high moisture content is susceptible to the growth of microorganisms, and it must
be dried to less than 14% moisture content to prevent spoilage during storage. To prevent deterioration, drying should be started within 24 hours of harvest. Rough
rice is the normal form in which rice is dried because it stores better than brown rice and it is easier to remove the hulls after the rice has been dried.
Drying can have a profound effect on rice breakage. As a rice kernel dries, the outer layers shrink, establishing stress within the kernel (1). The magnitude of this stress
depends on the moisture gradient and temperature gradient within the rice kernel, while the tensile strength of the kernel is a function of its moisture content and
temperature. If the rice is dried improperly, the internal stress in some kernels might exceed their tensile strength, resulting in cracked kernels that tend to break during
milling. Thus, drying methods are extremely important for the rice industry.
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This chapter will first briefly review conventional ricedrying technology currently being used by the rice industry. Then it will describe in detail a new method for drying
rice using microwavevacuum technology. The microwave method for drying both freshly harvested green rice and parboiled rice will be discussed. Finally, the
cooking and processing quality of microwavevacuum dried rice will be compared with conventionally dried rice.
II—
Conventional Drying
Conventional rice drying has been treated in detail by Steffe et al. (2), Kunze and Calderwood (3), and Wang and Luh (4). Mossman (5) reviewed critical areas of
ricedrying research. Basically, in conventional rice drying, air is forced through the rice by fans. Forcedair dryers currently being used include two types: the deep
bed dryer and the continuousflow, heatedair dryer.
A—
DeepBed Dryers
Deepbed dryers (Fig. 1) serve both to dry the rice and to store it after drying without need for transferring the grain during these operations. These structures are
generally used onfarm. The airdistribution systems commonly used are a perforated floor (Fig. 1A) or different arrangements of ducts and laterals (Fig. 1B). Airflow
direction is usually upward. A zone of dried rice begins at the bottom and moves upward through the bin. The difficulty with this type of drying is that bad weather may
unduly prolong the drying of the rice, particularly at the top of the bin, until the rice is damaged. During prolonged wet or humid weather, supplemental heat can
Figure 1
Bintype deepbed dryers. (A) False perforated floor; (B) main duct and laterals.
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improve the effectiveness of deepbed drying. However, supplemental heat may result in overdrying the bottom layers, with consequent loss of quality.
The drawback of supplemental heat in deepbed dryers has been largely obviated by the development of an auguring system, extending from the top to the bottom of
the bin, programmed to move around the bin to ensure complete mixing and uniform moisture content of the rice. With adequate mixing, a greater amount of
supplemental heat can be safely applied to speed drying. Both natural gas and LPG are used as fuels. Combustion products are mixed with the drying air. For a
detailed discussion of onthefarm drying, see Chapter 13.
B—
ContinuousFlow, HeatedAir Dryers
The majority of the U.S. rice crop is dried at commercial installations using continuousflow, heatedair dryers (Fig. 2). Natural gas and heating oil are the preferred
fuels; the combustion products are mixed with the drying air. Commercial dryers are of the columnar type, in which rice flows by gravity from the top to the bottom of
the dryer, where it is conveyed to receiving
Figure 2
Continuous flow, heatedair columnar dryers. (A) Nonmixing type; (B) mixing type.
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bins. Feed rolls or other devices at the bottom of the dryer are used to regulate the rice flow. Columnar dryers are classified as nonmixing or mixing.
Figure 2A shows a cross section of a nonmixing dryer. Rice flows between two parallel screens 15–23 cm apart. Heated air flows horizontally through the screens and
rice, and the rice kernels flow straight downward. The rice closest to the screen where the air enters is always exposed to hotter, drier air than the rice on the opposite
side. Hence, the rice on one side tends to be dried more than that on the other side. Figure 2B shows a mixing columnar dryer. Grain initially on the inside surface may
move to the outside surface in falling from one baffle to the next, producing uniform drying. In nonmixing dryers air temperatures up to 54°C are commonly used.
Airflow rates vary from 112 to 262 m3/min/t. The mixing dryer uses lower air velocities and higher temperatures than the nonmixing type. Typical are air temperatures
up to 66°C and airflow rates of 44–97 m3/min/t.
Rice is usually not dried from harvest moisture content to storage moisture (14%) in a single pass through a continuous dryer. To minimize breakage due to the
development of excessive internal moisture gradient stress in individual grains, only 2–3% moisture is removed in each pass through the dryer. Between passes the rice
is conveyed to bins for tempering. Tempering allows moisture migration from the interior of a rice kernel to the exterior, thereby relieving the internal stress. It is
customary to aerate the tempering bin with low airflow rates of ambient air to cool the rice and also remove additional moisture.
C—
Mechanism of Conventional Drying
The mechanism for conventional hotair grain drying is shown in Figure 3. An energy source, such as natural gas, is used to heat air. The heated air is then used to
transfer energy to the surface of the grain kernels by convection. The transfer of energy within the kernel is by conduction. Water is desorbed into the drying gases at
the surface of the kernel. A moisture gradient is established within the kernel, and liquid water molecules diffuse to the surface. The temperature and moisture profiles
within the kernel determine the rate of liquid water diffusion to the surface. The air temperature, humidity, and water concentration at the grain surface determine the
rate of water desorption from the grain. As long as the rate of water evaporation from the surface does not exceed the rate of liquid water diffusion from within the
kernel to its surface, the desorption step is rate limiting and the overall drying rate is constant. However, when the rate of diffusion falls below the rate of desorption,
the drying process becomes diffusion limited and enters the falling rate period. A constant rate period
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Figure 3
Mechanism for conventional hotair drying of rice.
followed by a falling rate period is typical for most conventional graindrying operations.
An increase in the drying gas temperature increases the rate of desorption of water from the surface of the kernel, which results in a greater moisture gradient inside the
kernel. Since a high internal moisture gradient can result in cracked or broken kernels, there is a practical upper limit to the drying temperature that can be used.
Commercial dryers generally operate at temperatures around 60°C and use multiple passes through the dryer.
III—
MicrowaveVacuum Drying
A new technique for drying rice in a single pass using microwaves as an ennergy source was reported by Wadsworth (6), Wadsworth and Koltun (7), and Wadsworth
et al. (8). The energy crisis of the late 1970s demonstrated the need for multiple energy sources. With the continuing political turmoil in the Middle East, there still exists
the threat that supplies of natural gas and oil might become restricted and more expensive. If such a circumstance were prolonged, processors would be required to
seek alternative sources of energy for grain drying. It seems likely that electrical power, generated from coal or nuclear energy, would be a prime alternative.
Microwavevacuum (MV) drying is one technique that utilizes electrical power for grain drying.
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A—
Mechanism of Microwave Drying
Microwavevacuum drying (Fig. 4) is fundamentally different from conventional hotair grain drying. The energy source must be electrical. The electrical energy is
converted via a magnetron into electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range (915 and 2450 mHz are the FCC allowed frequencies for use in food
processing). The microwave energy is transmitted by wave guides into the chamber that contains the rice. Microwaves penetrate the rice kernel, where they are
preferentially absorbed by highly polar water molecules. In some products during microwave heating, the internal product temperature can exceed the surface
temperature (9). The highenergy water molecules rapidly diffuse through the rice kernel to the surface where they desorp into the reducedpressure atmosphere. In
some cases the water molecules attain a sufficiently high energy level to enable them to diffuse through and out of the product as vapor.
The reduced pressure in the vacuum chamber lowers the concentration of water in the air surrounding the grain, thereby increasing the rate at which the water
molecules desorb from the surface of the kernel. For a given rate of drying, a reduced pressure enables the grain to be dried at a lower grain temperature than would
be required at atmospheric pressure. Moisture is removed from the chamber by a vacuum pump and condenser. The temperature of the grain during MV drying can
be regulated by the rate of input of microwave energy and by the vacuum level maintained in the chamber. During MV drying there will still be a moisture gradient
estab
Figure 4
Mechanism for microwavevacuum drying of rice.
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lished within the rice kernel, but the magnitude of the gradient will be less than that for conventional drying.
B—
MV Drying Freshly Harvested Rice
1—
Experimental
a—
Rice
Tests to obtain definitive information on the suitability of MV technology for drying freshly harvested green rice were run with six lots of rice. Three Nato mediumgrain
lots, two Labelle longgrain lots, and one lot of Starbonnet longgrain grown in different crop years were evaluated. The rice moisture contents at time of harvest
ranged from 17.5 to 22.0%, wet basis (w.b.).
b—
Drying
A batchoperated microwavevacuum dryer (Fig. 5) was used to assess the drying characteristics of green rice. A schematic diagram of the MV system
Figure 5
Laboratory model batchoperated microwavevacuum dryer.
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Figure 6
Schematic diagram of batch operated microwavevacuum dryer system.
is shown in Figure 6. The dryer operated at a microwave frequency of 2450 MHz. The power was continuously adjustable up to a maximum of 2.5 kW. Reflected
power was measured with a microwave power meter installed in the wave guide. The vacuum pump/condenser system (condenser temperature approximately 1–4°C)
could maintain pressures as low as 1.3 kPa. During drying, the experimental rice sample was either continuously tumbled in a rotating microwavetransparent drum
located in the drying chamber (Fig. 7) or spread on a revolving turntable that was suspended from a strain gauge (Fig. 8). The turntable had the advantage that
continuous sample weight measurement and infrared temperature measurement (the infrared sensor was calibrated for rough rice) could be made while the rice was
drying. The rotating drum produced more uniform drying of the rice, which was important for quality evaluations.
The dryer was operated at three microwave power levels (600, 1200, and 2000 watts) and three vacuum levels for each power level. Initial rice moisture content
varied with the particular lot of rice being dried. Drying was accomplished in a single pass, with the drying times adjusted to achieve the desired final moisture content.
Control samples were shade dried at approximately 22°C and 60% relative humidity.
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Figure 7
Rotating drum sample holder. Rice sample is continuously tumbled during
microwavevacuum drying.
c—
Milling
The MVdried samples were allowed to equilibrate with the milling room environment (22°C and 60% relative humidity) for two weeks before milling. Milling moisture
content was approximately 12%. Samples were shelled and milled in accordance with directions in the USDA rice inspection handbook (10). A wellmilled rice was
obtained for all samples. The head rice yield was determined with a sizing device using the plates and conditions described in the USDA handbook.
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Figure 8
Revolving turntable suspended from a strain gauge inside MV dryer that enables
continuous rice sample weight and temperature measurements to be made during
drying.
2—
Results
Figure 9 shows typical weight and temperature changes that occur in 4.54kg rice samples dried at three power levels. One interesting feature of the weight traces was
that, after a brief initial lag, the weight loss was essentially linear during the entire drying period. This was not, however, the traditional constantrate drying period
usually observed with hotair drying because the temperature of the sample increased as it dried.
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Figure 9
Typical weight and temperature curves for 4.54kg rice samples dried
at microwave power inputs of 600, 1200, and 2000 watts.
a—
Drying Rate
Figure 10 shows the effects of the microwave dryer power level on the drying rate. The response of drying rate to power level change was linear over the range
investigated. The maximum drying rate shown was equivalent to drying a rice sample from 20% moisture to 12% moisture in 20 minutes (24 percentage points
decrease per hour). The fact that the drying rate was linearly proportional to the power input, even at the very high rates, indicates that microwave drying was not
controlled by the rate of water diffusion within the grain.
Table 1 presents data for three different rice lots dried to 13% final moisture content using three power levels and three vacuum levels. The initial moisture contents for
Nato 82, Nato 83, and Labelle 83 were 20.1, 18.3, and 19.5%, respectively. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that there were significant differences (p =
0.01) in drying rates obtained for the three different rice lots for all conditions investigated. This may be related to the initial moisture content of the rice lot rather than
the variety or grain type. As seen in Table 1, the mediumgrain Nato 82 lot (20.1% initial moisture) had the highest drying rates, while Nato 83 lot (18.3% initial
moisture) had the lowest and the longgrain Labelle 83 (19.5% initial moisture) was intermediate. Data from other rice lots have also indicated that rice with higher
initial moisture had a higher initial drying rate and maintained the higher rate throughout the drying process even as the moisture content decreased.
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Table 1 Drying Rate, Maximum Drying Temperature, and Drying Efficiency for Three Lots of Green Rice MicrowaveVacuum Dried at Three Power
Levels and Three Vacuum Levels for Each Power Level
NATO 82 NATO 83 LABELLE 83
Power Pressure Rate Temp. (° Efficiency Rate Temp (° Efficiency Rate Temp (° Efficiency
(kW) (kPa) (g/min/kg) C) (g/kJ) (g/min/kg) C) (g/kJ) (g/min/kg) C) (g/kJ)
0.6 2.7 1.23 52 0.156 1.13 52 0.145 1.19 50 0.149
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Figure 10
The effect of microwave power level on the rate of water removal from 4.54kg
rice samples.
The effect of MV drying on the relationship between moisture and the volume of a rice kernel might explain this phenomenon. It is generally understood that kernel
volume is proportional to moisture content (11). During conventional hotair drying, the kernels shrink as moisture is removed, resulting in a higher density endosperm.
However, with MV drying the vacuum and the internal mechanism of heating enable the kernels retain a more open, less dense structure as they dry, thereby allowing
the moisture to escape at a constant rate throughout the drying process.
The effect of vacuum level on drying rate can be seen from the data in Table 1. At all power levels and for all rice lots, the drying rate was inversely related to dryer
pressure. ANOVA indicated that the interaction effect of power and vacuum levels on rate was significant (p = 0.05)—changing pressure had more effect at low
power than it did at high power. This indicates that the rate of adsorption/desorption of water on the surface of the rice was a significant factor in establishing the
overall drying rate.
b—
Drying Temperature
Also shown in Table 1 are the maximum temperatures reached by the rice samples during drying. Higher maximum temperatures were observed when the rice was
dried at the higher power levels. Also, the rate of temperature increase was greater with higher power. The operating pres
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sure in the dryer had a significant effect on maximum rice temperature. As the dryer pressure decreased, the maximum temperature reached by the rice also decreased.
c—
Drying Efficiency
The drying efficiency data shown in Table 1 are based on the total amount of water removed relative to the total amount of energy input to the dryer. ANOVA
indicated significant differences (p = 0.01) in efficiency related to power level, vacuum level, and rice lot. The lower dryer operating pressures yielded higher
efficiencies. This was expected since the lower dryer pressure would give a greater water vapor pressure differential between the rice and its environment, thereby
increasing the rate of drying. Thus, more of the microwave energy went toward evaporating water and less toward heating the rice. This is reflected in the data on
maximum rice temperatures, which show lower temperatures associated with lower pressures. The efficiency and temperature data also support the theory that the
adsorption/desorption rate was a significant factor in overall drying rate.
An unexpected result was that both higher efficiencies and higher temperatures were obtained at higher microwave power levels. This indicates that more of the
microwave energy was being coupled with the rice for both drying and heating. One possible explanation is that, with the batchoperated system, less energy was lost
from the dryer during the higher power runs because the drying times were shorter. Two sources of direct microwave energy loss are energy reflected back into the
magnetron and energy absorbed by the dryer itself.
Figure 11 shows the reflected power values measured at various microwave power settings and dryer pressure settings. Reflected power remained essentially constant
during the course of a drying experiment. Reflected power loss was higher at higher dryer operating pressure over the entire power range. Thus, at the lower operating
pressure, more microwave energy was available to be absorbed by the rice sample.
The relationship between reflected power and input power was more complex than the relationship of reflected power with pressure. The reflected power increased
with increasing power level to a maximum value at an input power setting of approximately 1.1 kW, and then decreased. The percentage of input power that was
reflected decreased continuously with increasing input power. These results demonstrate the importance of properly matching the cavity, the load, and the input power
level to attain optimal efficiency.
The relationship between rice lot and efficiency was similar to that between rice lot and drying rate. The rice lots with higher initial moisture contents dried more
efficiently.
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Figure 11
Effects of microwavevacuum dryer operating conditions on the rate of microwave
energy reflected back into the wave guides.
The efficiencies shown here are somewhat lower than those obtained with conventional drying because a batch drying operation is inherently less efficient than a
continuous one. A well designed continuous microwave system could expect to achieve a microwaverice coupling efficiency of approximatley 80%. The MV system
is suitable for latent heat energy recovery through wasteheat evaporators (12). Thus, one could expect an overall drying efficiency significantly greater than
conventional drying.
d—
Head Yields
Figure 12 shows the final rice moisture contents obtained for different MV drying intervals. These runs were made to measure changes in head yields at various stages
of the drying process. Samples that were not MV dried to storage moisture levels were shade dried before milling. The head yields obtained at the various final
moisture contents from Figure 12 are shown in Figure 13 for three different lots of rice. A moisture content of approximately 15% appeared to be critical. When the
microwave drying was stopped before the rice reached 15% moisture, there was very little change in head yield relative to the shadedried controls. However, below
15% moisture the head yields began to decrease. The lower the final moisture attained, the lower the resulting head yield. The responses of the three rice lots were
slightly different with respect to the exact
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Figure 12
Relationship between rice moisture content and drying time for the 1982 Nato
rice dried with three power levels.
moisture content at which the head yield began to decrease and the rate of decrease.
Preliminary reports on MV drying of rice (13,14) indicated that drying could be accomplished in a single pass at greatly improved drying rates and without any
increase in breakage as compared with conventional drying. The results of this study were disappointing with respect to anticipated head yields at high drying rates.
Only when the rice was dried slowly (less than 2–4 percentage points decrease in moisture content per hour) could it be dried by MV procedures to safe storage
moisture level in a single pass without any reduction in head yield.
3—
Conclusions
For freshly harvested green rice, the MV drying rate was linearly proportional to the rate of microwave energy put into the system up to the maximum rate of water
removal obtained (from 20 to 12% moisture content in 20 minutes). Drying rate over the duration of a run was essentially constant for a given power input and initial
moisture content. Lower operating pressures in the dryer increased the drying rate, increased drying efficiency, and decreased the rice temperature. This indicates that
the rate of water adsorption/desorption on the rice kernel surface is an important factor in determining overall drying rate. Drying rate varied significantly for different
lots of rice. There is an indication that this is related to the initial moisture content of the rice rather than variety or type. Rice with higher initial moisture had a higher
drying rate. The maximum drying rate that could be used to
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Figure 13
Relationships between final moisture content and head yield for
three rice lots MV dried in a single pass. Microwave power = 600
watts. Chamber pressure = 13.3 kPa.
dry the rice to safe storage moisture (14%) in a single pass, without increasing breakage, was approximately 2–4 percentage points per hour.
C—
MV Drying of Parboiled Rice
Parboiling, a hydrothermic process that invovles soaking and steaming of rough rice, increases the rice moisture content to approximately 35% (w.b.). For safe storage
and subsequent milling, it is essential that the rice moisture content be reduced to less than 14% (w.b.). If the drying is not performed properly, one of the important
economic advantages of rice parboiling (the reduction of kernel breakage) will not be realized. Thus, drying is a very important step in the overall process of parboiling.
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The use of microwave energy in a reducedpressure environment for drying parboiled rice in a single pass was studied by Wadsworth et al. (8). The effects of parboil
soaking conditions, steaming conditions, microwave power level, drying pressure, drying time, and final moisture content were evaluated.
1—
Experimental
a—
Rice
Two lots of Saturn variety rice grown near Crowley, Louisiana, were used in these studies. The rice had been commercially dried using conventional methods. The
moisture content was 12% (w.b.).
b—
Parboiling
Rice samples weighing 1500 g were first soaked in water at 70°C. While soaking, nitrogen was used to pressurize the parboiling apparatus to 205 kPa (29.7 psia).
Soaking time was either 60 or 120 minutes. After soaking, the excess soak water was drained and the rice sample was equilibrated in the closed apparatus for 90
minutes at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The apparatus was then pressurized with saturated steam at 205 kPa (29.7 psia). Steaming time was either 20
or 25 minutes. These timetemperature conditions were selected because they had previously been determined sufficient to increase the rice moisture content into a
range considered optimum for parboiling and to gelatinize the starch without excessive discoloration of the milled parboiled rice product (15).
c—
Drying
The equipment described above was used to study MV drying of parboiled rice. The samples were transferred without cooling from the parboiling apparatus to the
MV dryer. The moisture content of a parboiled rice sample at the start of drying (initial moisture) was a function of the four sets of parboiling conditions. Three
microwave power levels (0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 kW) and two dryer pressure levels (6.7 and 53.2 kPa absolute pressure) were used. Drying was accomplished in a single
pass with the drying time adjusted to achieve a final moisture content of 14, 16, or 18% (w.b.).
2—
Results
All tests for statistical significance were performed at the p = 0.01 level.
a—
Parboiling Conditions
Table 2 shows the effects of the parboiling soak and steam times on the change in moisture content of the rice. The effects of parboiling conditions on the microwave
vacuum drying of the parboiled rice are shown in Table 3. Parboiling soak time and steam time both significantly affected the moisture
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Table 2 Moisture Content of Rice After Various Parboiling
Treatmentsa
pressure.
cSteaming with saturated steam at 205 kPa absolute pressure.
dThe same letter within a column indicates no significant
differences between means at p = 0.01 (Duncan's multiple
range test).
content at the start of drying and, thus, the required drying time. ANOVA also indicated that steam time, but not soak time, significantly affected total yield and head
yield. Final moisture content, drying rate, drying efficiency, rice temperature, and brown rice density were not significantly affected by parboiling conditions. Also, none
of the interaction effects involving soak time and steam time were significant.
b—
Drying Conditions
The values presented in Table 4 are results averaged over all of the parboiling conditions and show the effects of microwave power level and dryer pressure level on
drying results. A general linear model (GLM) for main effects, with drying time treated as a continuous independent variable, indicated that microwave power level
significantly affected all of the drying results shown in Table 4 except the initial and final moisture contents. The only factor significantly affecting final moisture content
was the drying time. The dryer pressure level significantly affected final rice temperature, drying rate, drying efficiency, and head yield. Rice temperature, drying rate,
and drying efficiency were also significantly related to the interaction of power with pressure.
c—
Drying Curves
Araullo et al. (16) describe conventional hotair drying curves for parboiled rice as being divided into three periods or zones: (a) a zone of constant rate drying that
occurs between 35% and 26% moisture content; (b) a zone of first falling rate drying that occurs between 26 and 21%; and (c) a zone of
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Table 3 Effects of Parboiling Conditions (Soaking Time and Steaming Time) on MicrowaveVacuum Drying Resultsa
Moisture at Moisture at
start end Final rice Dryingc Brown rice Total Head
Soak time Steam time of drying Drying time of drying temp. (° Dryingb rate efficiency density rice yield rice yield
(min) (min) (%, w.b.) (min) (%, w.b.) C) (g/min/kg) (g/kJ) (g/ml) (%) (%)
60 20 35.4a 55.8a 15.6a 86a 9.1a 0.161a 1.4574a 74.1a 70.4a
60 25 36.0b 57.4b 15.5a 86a 9.1a 0.162a 1.4537a 73.4b 67.1c
120 20 36.7c 60.8c 15.2a 87a 9.2a 0.163a 1.4540a 74.1a 70.2a
120 25 37.8d 64.7d 15.4a 86a 9.2a 0.163a 1.4572a 73.4b 68.1b
aValues averaged over all drying conditions for each parboiling condition. The same letter within a column indicates no significant
difference between means at p = 0.01 (Duncan's multiple range test).
bRate basis: g water evaporated per minute per kg of rice (dry weight basis).
cEfficiency basis: g water evaporated per kJ of energy input into system.
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Table 4 Effects of Microwave Dryer Pressure and Power Settings on Drying Resultsa
Final
Dryerb Dryer Initial Final rice Dryingc Dryingd Brown rice
pressure power level moisture (%, moisture (%, temp. (° rate efficiency density Total Head
level (kPa) (kW) w.b.) w.b.) C) (g/min) (g/kJ) (g/ml) yield (%) yield (%)
6.7 0.6 36.6a 15.1b 68a 4.93b 0.181d 1.4599c 74.0bc 71.4d
6.7 1.2 36.6a 15.7bc 88c 10.42d 0.191e 1.4602c 73.8b 69.5c
6.7 1.8 36.3a 16.1c 98d 16.41f 0.201f 1.4447b 72.6a 60.0a
53.2 0.6 36.2a 14.6a 72b 2.98a 0.109a 1.4627d 73.9bc 73.0e
53.2 1.2 36.7a 15.6bc 89c 7.48c 0.137b 1.4638d 74.3c 72.7e
53.2 1.8 36.4a 15.2b 102e 12.76e 0.156c 1.4422a 73.8b 67.0b
aValues averaged over all drying conditions for each parboiling condition. The same letter within a column indicates no
significant difference between means at p = 0.01 (Duncan's multiple range test).
bAbsolute pressure values.
cRate basis: g water evaporated per minute per kg of rice (dry weight basis).
dEfficiency basis: g water evaporated per kJ of energy input into system.
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second falling rate of drying occurring between 21 and 14%. This probably indicates that, for conventional drying of parboiled rice, moisture desorption from the
surface of the rice and heat transfer to the rice are rate limiting from 35 to 26% moisture content and that diffusion of liquid water within the kernel is rate limiting below
26%. During conventional drying the rice temperature is constant and near the drying air temperature.
Figure 14 shows four typical MV drying curves for parboiled rice dried with 53.2 and 6.7 kPa dryer operating pressures and two microwave power levels (0.6 and
1.8 kW) for each pressure. Note that the sample weight scale is linear but the sample moisture content (w.b.) scale is not. The corresponding rice temperature curves
for the same sets of drying conditions are shown in Figure 15.
The parboiled rice was still hot when placed in the MV dryer. While the dryer pressure was decreased from atmospheric to the desired operating pressure, a small
amount of water would flash off and the rice temperature would decrease. When the operating pressure was attained and the microwave power turned on, the rice
temperature would initially increase rapidly and then continue to increase, though more slowly, throughout the drying experiment. Rice temperature was lower at lower
operating pressure. The sample weight would decrease slowly at first. After this brief initial lag, the
Figure 14
MVdrying curves for parboiled rice at two dryer operating pressures and two
microwave power levels for each pressure. Note—moisture scale on right
side vertical axis is not linear.
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Figure 15
Rice temperature curves during microwavevacuum drying of parboiled rice at two
dryer operating pressures and two microwave power levels for each pressure.
Initial sample weight = 2130 g. Initial moisture content = 38.0% (w.b.).
weight loss was essentially linear with time until a moisture content level of 16% (w.b.) was attained. At that point, the slope of the drying curve decreased slightly
indicating a possible change in drying mechanism or water activity.
These results verify that the mechanisms for conventional hotair drying and MV drying of parboiled rice are different. Even the period of MV drying where weight loss
is linear with time is not equivalent to the constantrate drying period observed with hotair drying because, with MV drying, the rice temperature is continuously
increasing.
d—
Drying Rate
Figure 16 summarizes the drying rate results for the various microwave power and dryer pressure conditions. There were large changes in drying rate related to power
and pressure settings and a more subtle decrease in drying rate, as explained below, that occurs as the rice is dried below 16% moisture content (w.b.). Above 16%
rice moisture, the drying rate was essentially constant for each microwave power and dryer pressure combination.
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Figure 16
Effects of operating conditions for the microwavevacuum dryer system on the
rate of drying of parboiled rice.
The trends for parboiled rice were similar to those seen with freshly harvested rice. The drying rate was linearly proportional to microwave power. Also, the drying
rate was greater at the lower dryer pressure setting. These two pieces of information indicate that drying rate was not limited by liquid water diffusion and that the
adsorption/desorption of water on the surface of the rice was a significant factor in the overall drying rate. GLM and regression analyses of the data, with final moisture
content treated as a continuous independent variable, indicated that the rate of increase in drying rate with increasing power was greater at a pressure of 6.7 kPa
(regression line slope = 12.63) than it was at a pressure of 53.2 kPa (slope = 10.75). The percentage change in drying rate with change in pressure was greater at
lower power levels than it was at higher power levels. This indicates that adsorption/desorption rate was a more important factor in determining overall drying rate at
lower power levels. And at the higher power levels, it may indicate that water molecules inside the rice kernel have attained an energy level high enough to diffuse
through and out of the kernel in a gaseous state.
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GLM and regression analyses indicated that, below 16% moisture content, the drying rate decreased as the rice sample was dried to lower moisture contents. This
reduction in drying rate could be due to a diffusion effect that was manifesting itself at the lower moisture levels. Or it might be due to water activity changes (i.e., the
physical binding of water molecules to the starch at these lower moisture contents that increases the energy required to vaporize the water molecules). The interaction
effect of pressure and final moisture content on drying rate was also significant. The decrease in drying rate with decreasing moisture was greater at 6.7 kPa than at
53.2 kPa. At the 53.2 kPa pressure, the slopes of the regression lines for drying rate on final moisture content at all power levels were not statistically greater than
zero. This interaction effect indicates that the contribution of adsorption/desorption rate to the overall drying rate is greater at 6.7 kPa than at 53.2 kPa.
e—
Drying Efficiency
The coupling efficiencies (percentage of microwave energy entering the drying cavity that is absorbed by the load) attained in this work ranged from 31 to 62%. A
welldesigned continuous microwave system, where the cavity, load, and power level have been matched, should have coupling efficiencies in excess of 80% (17).
However, an analysis of the experimental data herein will show the relative effects of the MV operating variables on drying efficiency for a batchoperated system.
Microwave energy that enters the drying cavity is either absorbed by the rice sample, reflected back into the wave guide, or lost through dryer inefficiencies. Energy
absorbed by the sample can be calculated from the sample temperature and weight changes. Reflected power was experimentally measured. System losses were
estimated by differences. Drying efficiency was calculated as the amount of water evaporated from the sample divided by the amount of microwave energy entering the
drying cavity.
Table 5 shows the total amount of energy absorbed by the rice sample during drying at different microwave power and dryer operating pressure settings. A specific
heat value of 1.8 kJ/kg/°C (11) and a heat of vaporization value of 2722 kJ/kg (2) were used in the calculations. Since approximately equal amounts of water were
evaporated (latent heat) from the parboiled rice samples for all of the power/pressure combinations, the differences in total amount of energy absorbed were due to the
differences in sensible heat changes in the rice. The rice samples dried at higher power levels and higher pressure levels attained higher final temperatures and, thus, had
greater increases in sensible heat.
Table 5 also shows the average rate of energy absorption by the rice at each of the power and pressure settings. At a fixed power level, the aver
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Table 5 Energy Absorbed by Rice Sample at Different Microwave Power Levels and Dryer
Operating Pressures.
Microwave Dryer Sensible Latent Total energy Mean rate of Percentage
power level operating heat effect heat absorbed energy of input
(kW) pressure (kJ) effect (kJ) absorption power (%)
(kPa) (kJ) (kW)
0.6 6.7 75.6 1429 1505 0.3097 51.6
0.6 53.2 88.2 1418 1505 0.1887 31.5
1.2 6.7 142.2 1407 1548 0.6793 56.6
1.2 53.2 145.8 1388 1534 0.4914 41.0
1.8 6.7 176.4 1425 1602 1.1084 61.6
1.8 53.2 187.6 1412 1598 0.8601 47.8
age rate of energy absorption by the rice was greater at lower pressures. The differences in energy absorption rate at different pressures could not be totally accounted
for by the differences in reflected power at the different pressures. Thus, energy losses from the dryer system, as explained below, must have been greater at higher
operating pressures.
At a fixed operating pressure level, energy absorption by the sample increased as microwave power level increased. This increase was at a rate greater than the rate of
input power increase (i.e., the second derivative of the curve was positive). At the lower operating pressure (6.7 kPa), this additional increase in energy absorbed by
the sample (the amount over and above that accounted for by the input power increase) was approximately equal to the decrease in reflected power with increasing
input power. However, at the higher pressure (53.2 kPa), the additional increase in energy absorbed exceeded the decreases in reflected power, which indicates that
the system losses decreased at the higher input power levels.
Also shown in Table 5 are the percentages of input power absorbed by the rice (coupling factors).
Table 6 shows the estimated energy losses from the dryer system at the different dryer operating conditions. These losses, which were due to various causes described
below, were estimated to be the difference between the microwave energy input to the system and the sum of the energies absorbed by the rice and reflected.
Since instrumentation was not available to directly measure the system energy losses, one can only speculate about the sources and magnitudes of these losses. The
rice sample holders, which were constructed of polypropylene, had masses that were 2.5 and 3.4 times the sample weight. Since the rice is in direct physical contact
with the sample holder, it is
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Table 6 Estimated System Energy Losses at Different Microwave Power Levels and
Dryer Operating Pressures
Dryer
Microwave operating Totala system
power level pressure losses Average loss Percentage of
(kW) (kPa) (kJ) rate (kW) input power (%)
0.6 6.7 1069 0.2203 36.7
0.6 53.2 2927 0.3367 56.1
1.2 6.7 947 0.4148 34.6
1.2 53.2 1829 0.5866 48.9
1.8 6.7 871 0.6316 35.1
1.8 53.2 1588 0.8528 47.4
aEnergy losses from dryer system estimated by difference (losses = input energy
absorbed energy reflected energy).
probably safe to assume that the sample holder is heated from room temperature to approximately the final rice temperature. The specific heat of polypropylene is 1.9
kJ/kg/°C (18). Thus, the energy loss to the sample holder would be more than three times greater than the sensible heat change of the rice. Another source of energy
loss was due to the room air bled into the system to help carry the evaporated moisture away and prevent it from condensing inside the rotating drum sample holder
and rewetting the rice. The amount of energy lost in this manner would depend on the rates of heat transfer from the rice and sample holder to the air. Since convective
heat transfer is highly pressure dependent, this explains the much greater energy losses at higher dryer operating pressure. Another energy loss was due to water
condensing on the inside dryer walls and then dripping onto the sample holder where it was revaporized. It is not possible to estimate the magnitude of this energy loss,
but undoubtedly it was significant. This loss was also greater at the higher dryer operating pressure, because this condensationrevaporization process would continue
until the interior surfaces of the dryer attained a temperature equal to the flash temperature of water at the dryer operating pressure. The boiling points of water at 6.7
and 53.2 kPa are 38 and 83°C, respectively. Our operating experience for this dryer was that, with the 6.7 kPa pressure runs, the interior surfaces of the dryer were
free of moisture at the end of the run. This indicates that at some point during the run the interior surface temperature reached 38°C and the condensation
revaporization process ceased. With the 53.2 kPa pressure runs, the interior surfaces were still wet at the end of the run indicating that an interior surface temperature
of 83°C had never been attained. Thus, the condensationrevaporization process
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Table 7 Summary Energy Balance on BatchOperated Microwave
Vacuum Dryer System at Different Microwave Power Levels and
Dryer Operating Pressuresa
Percentage of input powerb
Dryer
operating Microwave System
pressure power level Reflected Absorbed losses
(kPa) (kW) (%) by rice (%) (%)
6.7 0.6 11.7 51.6 36.7
6.7 1.2 8.8 56.6 34.6
6.7 1.8 3.3 61.6 35.1
53.2 0.6 12.4 31.5 56.1
53.2 1.2 10.1 41.0 48.9
53.2 1.8 4.8 47.8 47.4
aEnergy rates averaged over complete drying cycle for drying
parboiled rice from approximately 36 to 14% moisture content (w.b.).
bEnergy rates normalized as a percentage of the rate of microwave
energy input to the drying chamber.
had continued, probably at a diminishing rate, throughout the 53.2 kPa runs. Another source of energy loss in a microwave system is called wall loss. No material
reflects 100% of the microwave energy striking its surface. Of the various energy loss mechanisms described above, only the wall loss should be a factor in a well
designed continuous system.
Table 7 summarizes the energy balance on the dryer system in terms of the average rate of energy transfer, normalized as a percentage of input rate, while drying
parboiled rice from approximately 36 to 14% moisture using various combinations of microwave power levels and dryer operating pressures. Reflected power
decreased as input power increased and was lower at low operating pressure. The power absorbed by the rice increased as input power increased and was
considerably higher at low operating pressure than at high operating pressure. The average power lost from the system was much greater at higher operating pressure
than at low pressure. The change in system losses with changing input power was negligible at low operating pressure but decreased with increased power input at high
operating pressure.
Figure 17 summarizes the drying efficiency data for the various microwave power and operating pressure combinations. Each subplot shows the effects of final dried
moisture content. The ANOVA and GLM statistics indicated that microwave power level, dryer operating pressure, and
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Figure 17
Effects of operating conditions for the microwavevacuum dryer system on the
efficiency of drying of parboiled rice.
final moisture content significantly affected drying efficiency. Also, the interactions of power with pressure and final moisture with pressure were significant.
Drying efficiencies were considerably higher at lower operating pressure. Drying efficiency increased with increasing power level, and the rate of increase was greater
at higher pressure. The higher drying efficiencies at lower pressures can probably be explained by differences in the energy losses related to the condensation and
revaporization of water that were different for the different pressures. The differences in drying efficiencies at different power levels can also be explained by
differences in energy losses. Reflected power losses were lower at higher power levels. Also, the rate of energy loss by convective heat transfer to the air bled into the
dryer and by condensation/revaporization of water are probably independent of microwave power level. Since the high power drying runs required less drying time,
there was relatively more energy available to heat the rice and evaporate water. And because these losses (convection and condensation/revaporization) were greater
at higher pressures, the effect of the shorter
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drying times for higher power levels was relatively greater at higher pressures, which explains the interaction effect.
The drying efficiency decreased slightly as the rice moisture decreased below the 16% level. This is the same region where a slight decrease in drying rate was
observed. As with drying rate, the effect was greater at the lower operating pressure.
f—
Brown Rice Density
The effects of microwave power level, dryer operating pressure, and final moisture content on the density of the dried brown parboiled rice are shown in Figure 18.
ANOVA and GLM indicated that the significant factors affecting the density of MVdried parboiled rice were microwave power level and the interaction of power
level with final moisture content.
It has been reported by Bhattacharya (19) and many others that as parboiled brown rice moisture content decreases, the density of the rice increases. However, the
rice density changes observed with MV drying of parboiled rice, and with MV drying of green rice, do not conform with
Figure 18
Effects of operating conditions for the microwavevacuum dryer system on the
density of MVdried parboiled rice.
Page 329
conventional drying results. At microwave power levels of 0.6 and 1.2 kW the brown rice density remained constant as the rice was dried from 18 to 12% moisture
content. The densities obtained at 1.2 kW were approximately equal to the densities obtained at 0.6 kW (means of 1.4620 g/ml and 1.4613 g/ml, respectively). For
the 1.8 kW drying runs, the densities at 18% moisture content were not significantly different from the densities obtained with the 0.6 and 1.2 kW power levels.
However, at 1.8 kW, as the rice was dried below 18% moisture content, the densities actually decreased. This indicates that a slight puffing effect was taking place at
the higher power level. The fact that brown rice density did not increase as the rice was MV dried to lower moisture contents is evidence that vaporization of moisture
within the rice kernel was occurring during microwave drying.
g—
Milling Yields
Total milled rice yield was significantly affected by microwave power level, dryer operating pressure, and the moisture content to which the rice was dried. At a final
moisture content of 18% (w.b.) there were no significant differences in total yield related to power or pressure levels. Regression analyses of total yield on final
moisture content below 18% indicated no significant reduction in total yield at power levels of 0.6 and 1.2 kW for both pressure levels. However, at the power level of
1.8 kW, the total yield significantly decreased with decreasing final moisture content. These results were very similar to the relationships found for brown rice density
with microwave power, operating pressure, and final moisture content. Since milling conditions were identifcal for all samples, the samples with lower densities were
probably softer and lost more endosperm material during milling, which resulted in reduced total milling yields.
Bhattacharya and Indudhara Swamy (20) reported on hotair drying of parboiled rice in a single pass at various temperatures from 40 to 80°C and sun drying. At all
conditions, rice head yields decreased dramatically when the parboiled rice was conventionally dried in a single pass to less than 16% final moisture content.
Head yields for MV drying (Fig. 19) were affected by microwave power level, operating pressure level, and final rice moisture content. Regression analysis of the
results obtained for the MV drying of parboiled rice (Table 8) shows that, at the lower power level (0.6 kW), it was possible to dry the rice in a single pass to less than
12% moisture content without any significant reduction in head yield. The head yields at a pressure level of 6.7 kPa (final rice temperature = 68°C) were only slightly
less than those at 53.2 kPa (final rice temperature = 72°C) even though the average drying rate was 1.63 times greater. At the high power level (1.8 kW), regression
analysis indicated significant reductions in head yield as the moisture con
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Figure 19
Effects of operating conditions for the microwavevacuum dryer system on the
milled head rice yield for MVdried parboiled rice.
tent decreased below 16%. The reduction was greater at an operating pressure of 6.7 kPa (final rice temperature = 98°C) than it was at 53.2 kPa (final rice
temperature = 102°C). The results at a power level of 1.2 kW were intermediate to those at the lower and higher power levels. At an operating pressure of 53.2 kPa,
regression analysis of the 1.2 kW data indicated no significant reduction in head yield with decreasing final moisture content, whereas, at 6.7 kPa operating pressure,
the decrease in head yield was significant. Thus, at water removal rates of less than 7.4 g of water/min/kg of dry rice, there was no significant decrease in head yield as
the moisture content decreased from 18 to 12% (w.b.). At water removal rates of 10.5 g/min/kg or greater, head yield decreased as the final rice moisture content fell
below 18%. As the drying rate increased, the reduction in head yield also increased. Figure 20 shows the relationship between drying rate and the decrease in head
yield (percentage points) for each percentage point decrease in final moisture content below a moisture level of 18% (w.b.).
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Figure 20
Effect of drying rate on the rate of decrease in head yield as parboiled
rice is microwavevacuum dried from 18 to 12% moisture content (w.b.). The
head yield decrease is the change in head yield per percentage point
decrease in moisture content below 18%.
Table 8 Effects of Water Removal Rate on Change in Head Yield with Decreasing
Moisture Content Below 16% (w.b)
Regression statistics
in final moisture content.
Page 332
3—
Conclusions
Parboiling conditions had no direct effect on the rate and efficiency of MV drying of parboiled rice. Longer soaking and steaming times increased the moisture content
of the rice, which then required longer drying times.
Drying rate and drying efficiency were significantly affected by microwave power level, dryer operating pressure, and the final moisture level to which the rice was
dried. Energy losses in the batchoperated system were highly dependent on the dryer operating pressure (lower losses at lower pressure). Drying runs at higher
power levels also had lower energy losses due to shorter drying times and lower reflected power losses. Drying rates were directly proportional to microwave power
level, were higher at lower dryer operating pressures, and were constant during a run until the rice moisture content fell below 16% (w.b.). For equivalent MV
operating conditions, parboiled rice dried more rapidly than freshly harvested rice.
The brown rice density did not increase with decreasing moisture as it normally does during conventional rice drying. At the higher microwave power levels, the brown
rice density actually decreased, showing that a slight puffing effect was occurring during drying.
The results indicate that liquid diffusion of water within the rice kernels was not rate limiting, that the rate of adsorption/desorption of water played a significant role in
determining overall mass transfer rate, and that vaporization of water within the rice kernel was probably occurring during drying.
Milling yields were significantly related to the same variables that affected the drying rate (power, pressure, and final moisture). Parboiled rice could be rapidly dried to
16% moisture content without any significant affect on milling yields. However, below 16% moisture, head rice yield was highly dependent on drying rate. At water
removal rates of less than 7.4 g of water/min/kg of dry rice, the parboiled rice could be dried in a single pass to safe storage moisture levels ( <14%, w.b.) without any
significant decrease in head yield. At water removal rates equal to or greater than 10.5 g/min/kg, rice head yields decreased dramatically as the rice moisture content
fell below 16% (w.b.).
Future research on the MV drying of parboiled rice should investigate the effects of varying the microwave power level during the course of a drying run in order to
develop an optimum power/moisture content relationship so that the rice could be dried in a minimal amount of time without adversely affecting milling yields. Another
research area that might be fruitful is a study of postdrying ricehandling procedures in order to minimize breakage due to stress development after drying (21). The
possibility of modifying the parboiled rice density to produce products with unique rehydration characteristics should also be investigated.
Page 333
D—
Quality Characteristics of MVDried Rice
Hogan and Planck (22) reported that drying conditions can influence the hydration characteristics of rice. Goebel et al. (23) reported the effects of microwave energy
on wheat starch granule transformations. It is known that microwaves can have subthermal effects (9). Anyone who has heated bakery products in a home microwave
is aware of the textural changes that can result. While it has been demonstrated that MV technology can successfully dry rice in a single pass to safe storage moisture
levels without adversely affecting milling yields, the process will not be acceptable to the rice industry unless rice dried by this method has the cooking and processing
characteristics of conventionally dried rice. Wadsworth and Koltun (24) reported on the physicochemical properties and cooking quality of microwavedried rice.
1—
Rice
The rice samples evaluated for quality characteristics were taken from the six rice lots used in the study described above on MV drying of freshly harvested green rice.
The samples were selected so that their MVdrying conditions spanned a range of mild to harsh treatments. The MVdrying conditions for each sample evaluated are
shown in Table 9. Drying rates ranged from 2–24 percentage point decreases in moisture content per hour. The head rice yields for the milder treatments were
comparable to the controls, whereas the harsh treatments gave head yields as low as 13%.
Table 9 MicrowaveVacuum Drying Conditionsa and Drying Codes
Drying time (min)
Labelle Nato
Microwave Dryer
Drying power pressure Starbonnet
code (kW/kg) (torr) 1981 1982 1983 1981 1982 1983
MV11 0.132 20 54 49 50 42 48 44
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Table 10 Alkali Spreading Values for MVDried Rice
Labelle Nato
Drying Starbonnet
codea 1981 1982 1983 1981 1982 1983
MV11 4.6 2.5 3.2 6.6 6.2 6.6
2—
Physicochemical Properties
The quality evaluation tests were selected from tests used at the USDA Rice Quality Laboratory (25). These were water uptake capacity at 77°C (26), alkali
spreading reaction (27), and amylographic gelatinization and pasting characteristics (26).
The results of the alkali reaction tests are shown in Table 10. ANOVA indicated significant differences among the rice lots (p = 0.01) and among the treatments (p =
0.05). For each variety, when the control was compared with each treatment using Fisher's least significance difference (LSD) test, the alkali spreading values for some
of the samples receiving the most severe MV treatments were significantly higher (p = 0.05) than the controls. However, these differences (less than 1.0 units) are not
great enough to be of any practical consequence in terms of rice quality.
Similar results were obtained with the water uptake capacity tests (Table 11). ANOVA indicated significant differences among rice lots (p = 0.01) and among
treatments (p = 0.05). Some of the more severely treated samples had significantly higher water uptake when compared with their controls (Fisher's LSD, p = 0.05).
However, the differences were too small to substantially affect rice cooking and processing quality.
A possible explanation for the higher alkali spreading values and water uptake capacities might be that the more severely treated samples had either small fractures in
the kernels and/or lower density, more porous kernels. These would allow alkali solution or water to infuse the kernels at
Page 335
Table 11 Water Uptake Values for MVDried Rice
Water uptake (ml/100g)b
Labelle Nato
Drying Starbonnet
codea 1981 1982 1983 1981 1982 1983
MV11 114 62 132 214 234 310
a slightly greater rate than for the uncracked or denser kernels, resulting in slightly higher test values.
Table 12 shows the peak viscosities and setback viscosities as measured with a Brabender viscoamylograph. The amylographic viscosity curves for the control and the
MVtreated samples within each rice lot were essentially identical. ANOVA indicated significant differences among the rice lots but not among the treatments for both
peak and setback viscosities. It seems safe to conclude that the MV treatments did not materially affect the cooking and processing quality of the milled rice.
3—
Taste Panel Evaluation
A taste panel evaluated the flavor and texture of standard cooked rice samples. A triangular test was used to compare the MVdried rice with its shade dried control.
At a panel session, each member was presented three samples, two of which were identical. The panelists were asked to identify the sample that was different by
either flavor or texture. Thus, the probability of a correct identification being made by random chance was one third. The hypothesis was that there was no difference
between the control and the MVtreated sample. The results of the taste panel evaluations for two of the rice lots are given in Tables 13 and 14. Similar results were
obtained with all lots.
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Table 12 Brabender Amylographic Peak and Setback Viscosities for MVDried
Rice
Viscosity (BU)b
Labelle Nato
Drying Starbonnet
codea 1981 1982 1983 1981 1982 1983
Peak viscosity
MV11 359 423 387 442 532 512
Setback viscosity
MV11 480 641 537 619 604 523
Page 337
Table 13 Taste Panel Comparison of MVDried Rice with Control Samples Using the Triangular Test
Taste test evaluations
Incorrectly
Correctly identified identified ChiSquarea
Dryer
Microwave pressure Labelle Nato Labelle Nato Labelle Nato
power (kW/kg) (torr) 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982
0.132 20 3 4 10 11 0.61 0.30
Table 14 Ability of Individual Members of Taste Panel to
Distinguish MVDried Rice Samples from Control Samples
Number of evaluations
Random chance
Panelist Correct Incorrect probabilitya
A 6 12 0.59
B 2 12 0.97
C 6 12 0.59
D 4 10 0.74
E 4 8 0.61
F 4 12 0.83
G 4 6 0.44
H 8 10 0.22
a
The probability that the panelist would, by random chance
only, get a number of correct responses equal to or greater
than that shown in the "Correct" column.
out of 18 tries by chance is 0.22. This indicates that no individual panelist was able to consistently detect a difference in flavor or texture resulting from MV drying.
Thus, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected.
4—
Conclusions
The variabilities in wateruptake and alkalispreading values normally found among rice lots with similar cooking and processing characteristics are much greater than
the observed changes caused by the MVdrying
Page 338
treatments. There was no evidence to indicate that MV treatments sufficient to dry green rough rice in a single pass to safe storage moisture levels had any adverse
effects on the physicochemical properties or eating quality of the resulting milled rice.
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311.
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6. Wadsworth, J. I. (1984). Microwavevacuum drying of rice, Proceedings of 20th Rice Tech. Working Group, Lafayette, LA, p. 85.
7. Wadsworth, J. I., and Koltun, S. P. (1990). Rice drying by microwavevacuum, Rice J., 93(6):20.
8. Wadsworth, J. I., Velupillai, L., and Verma, L. R. (1990). Microwavevacuum drying of parboiled rice, Trans ASAE, 33:199.
9. Copson, D. A. (1975). Microwave Heating, 2nd ed., AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT.
10. USDA. (1974). Inspection Handbook for the Sampling, Inspection, Grading and Certification of Rice, Agricultural Marketing Service, Grain Division, HB
918–11.
11. Wratten, F. T, Poole, W. D., Chesness, J. L., Bal, S., and Ramarao, V. (1969). Physical and thermal properties of rough rice, Trans. ASAE, 12(6):801.
12. Bryan, W. L. (1977). Recovery of waste heat from drying citrus byproducts, Water Removal Processes: Drying and Concentration of Foods and Other
Materials, (C. J. King and J. P. Clark, eds.), AIChE Symposium Series, p. 25.
13. Wear, F. C. (1979). Microwavevacuum drying system. Progress Report No. 5 (Final). COO2918T1. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
14. Gardner, D. R., and Butler, J. L. (1980). Preparing crops for storage with a microwave vacuum drying system, Proceedings Second International Symposium
on Drying, Montreal, Canada.
15. Velupillai, L., and Verma, L. R. (1982). Parboiled rice quality as affected by the level and distribution of moisture after the soaking process. Trans ASAE, 25
(5):1450.
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16. Araullo, E. V., dePadua, D. B., and Graham, M. (1976). Parboiling, Rice Postharvest Technology, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa,
Canada, p. 161.
17. Schiffman, R. F. (1977). Microwave processing for the food industry, International Microwave Power Institute, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
18. Perry, R. H., Chilton, C. H., and Kirkpatrick, S. D. (1963). Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th ed., McGrawHill, New York.
19. Bhattacharya, K. R. (1985). Parboiling of rice, Rice Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed. (B. O. Juliano, ed). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St.
Paul, MN, p. 289.
20. Bhattacharya, K. R., and Indudhara Swamy, Y. M. (1967). Conditions of drying parboiled paddy for optimum milling quality. Cereal Chem., 44:592.
21. Kunze, O. R. (1984). Physical properties of rice related to drying the grain. Drying Technol., 2(3):369.
22. Hogan, J. T., and Planck, R. W. (1958). Hydration characteristics of rice as influenced by variety and drying method. Cereal Chem., 35:469.
23. Goebel, N. K., Grider, J., Davis, E. A., and Gordon, J. (1984). The effects of microwave energy and convection heating on wheat starch granule transformations.
Food Microstruct., 3(1):73.
24. Wadsworth, J. I., and Koltun, S. P. (1986). Physicochemical properties and cooking quality of microwavedried rice. Cereal Chem., 63(4):346.
25. Webb, B. D. (1980). Rice quality and grades, Rice: Production and Utilization (B. S. Luh, ed.), AVI, Westport, CT, p. 543.
26. Halick, J. V., and Kelly, V. J. (1959). Gelatinization and pasting characteristics of rice varieties as related to cooking behavior. Cereal Chem., 36:91.
27. Little, R. R., Hilder, G. B., and Dawson, E. H. (1958). Differential effect of dilute alkali on 25 varieties of milled white rice. Cereal Chem., 35:111.
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15—
Role of Moisture Content in Affecting Head Rice Yield
Terry J. Siebenmorgen
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
I—
Introduction
Rice quality is judged by criteria different from those used for other grains. While several grading factors are used in determining rice quality, one of the primary indices
is head rice yield (HRY). The term "head rice" denotes milled rice comprised of kernels threefourths or more the original kernel length (1). "Brokens" are milled rice
fragments other than head rice. It is critical to maintain optimum conditions during drying, storage, and milling operations to obtain high HRY (2,3). Fryar et al. (4)
quantified the economic value of HRY as $0.075 per cwt per percentage point of HRY reduction. While this value is subject to domestic and international market
trends, it does indicate the relative value of head rice. A rule of thumb often followed is that head rice is worth twice that of brokens.
It is difficult to ascribe reduction in HRY to a single cause or to assign relative weights to factors that result in a lower HRY. A major contributing factor is the
environment surrounding the rice kernels, both in the field after reaching maturity and during postharvest processing operations.
Moisture content (MC) is used perhaps more than any other property in managing rice from harvest to milling. Many studies have used MC as a benchmark in
quantifying the effects of various harvest, drying, storage, and milling practices on HRY. The MC of a bulk rice sample is dependent on the MC of individual rice
kernels forming the bulk sample. Many investigators
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(5–8) have indicated that large differences in individual kernel MCs exist throughout maturation and at harvest. Nelson and Lawrence (9) have shown that in
equilibrated (no moisture exchange between the kernel and surrounding air) samples of corn, large differences in kerneltokernel MC can exist. Siebenmorgen et al.
(10) have shown similar differences in rice. Since there is kerneltokernel MC variation, different MC distributions could presumably result in the same bulk MC.
Differences in HRY have been observed in samples at the same bulk MC; therefore, some of the variability in HRY could be due to different individual kernel MC
distributions in samples.
This chapter summarizes recent research that has addressed the interrelationship between rice MC, at various stages from preharvest to milling, and resultant HRY. A
summary of past research pertinent to the subject area being scrutinized is presented as a prelude to detailed discussion on current studies. Specifically, preharvest
studies leading up to and directly involving the correlation of HRY to individual kernel MC distributions within samples are first described. A second area is research
addressing the rewetting of rice and resultant effects on HRY. Finally, recent work on the effects of rice properties, including MC, and settings of the McGill #2 rice
miller on HRY and degree of milling (DOM) is presented.
II—
Preharvest and Harvest Moisture Content Effects
A—
Previous Studies
The rice kernel starts developing after pollination and fertilization. Maturation continues over a period of time that is longer in temperate climates than in tropical
climates and is characterized by a general decline in MC. When the kernel is fully mature, its MC is no longer controlled by moisture transfer from within the plant, but
varies in response to the surrounding environment. This dependence on environmental conditions is a result of the hygroscopic nature of the rice kernel, in that it loses
moisture (desorption) when the kernel MC is greater than the equilibrium MC of rice associated with given temperature and relative humidity (RH) conditions and
gains moisture (adsorption) if the conditions are reversed.
Milling quality is directly affected by the condition of rough rice prior to harvesting. Since MC is often used as an indicator of kernel maturity, it is one of the most
important factors affecting the field yield of rough rice and the HRY. Rice should be harvested at a proper stage of maturity, or at an optimal MC, to maximize both the
yield of rough rice and the HRY.
Rice kernels in a field, and even on the same panicle, do not reach a given maturity at the same time. Thus, at harvest, some kernels may al
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ready be well past maturity, while others may still be immature. During normal weather conditions at harvest, rice will lose moisture during the day but gain moisture at
night because of high relative humidity (RH) and dew. Rain will cause dramatic MC change. Rapid moisture adsorption by kernels with low moisture content can have
detrimental effects on HRY. However, harvesting rice at a high MC can result in a large proportion of immature kernels, which often break during milling. Therefore,
harvesting rice at too high or too low a MC may result in significantly reduced HRY.
Many studies have quantified the effect of MC at harvest on HRY and have reported different optimal harvest MCs. Smith and Jones (11) suggested that rice be
harvested at a MC of about 23–28% in order to obtain the maximum HRY and field yield. McNeal (12) reported that the highest HRY of four varieties tested was
obtained when the harvest MC was in the 16–23% range.
Kester et al. (13) reported that the optimal MC for harvesting shortgrain rice in California to obtain maximum HRY occurred between 25 and 32%. Steffe et al. (14)
reported a parabolic relationship between HRY and harvest MC for a shortgrain rice variety. They recommended that most earlymaturing rice grown in California
should be harvested at an average MC of 24–26% in order to obtain the maximum HRY and total milling yield.
In a study on the effect of harvest MC on the HRYs of two mediumgrain varieties, M101 and M 103, K. E. McKenzie (personal communication) reported that the
HRYs for both varieties began to decrease as harvest MC declined from approximately 23%. The two varieties showed different responses to changes in MC.
Determination of the optimal harvest MC is complicated by the fact that the relationship between HRY and preharvest MC can be variety dependent. Cultural
practices, climatic conditions, and soil types are also considered to be factors, although Kunze et al. (15) state that management practices affect the number of rice
kernel fissures only to the extent that they affect grain MC. In addition to the quality aspect, farmers must also consider other factors such as harvest losses and drying
costs since these factors are also a function of MC. Thus, the optimal harvest MC for maximizing HRY may not necessarily be the same as that for maximizing
economic return, which would include considerations of field losses, drying costs, and harvest capacity.
B—
Recent Research
Work by Counce et al. (16) has also shown that the MC at which rice is harvested is critical in determining HRY. A study was conducted over a 2
Page 344
year period at three Arkansas locations, each representing a different soil (Crowley silt loam, Sharkey clay, and Calhoun silt loam). Plots were drained at 0, 2, and 4
weeks after heading (defined as the date when 50% of panicles emerged as determined by visual rating) and were handharvested at 3, 4, 5, and 6 weeks after
heading.
It was found that draining at 2 weeks after heading did not reduce rough rice yields or HRYs over draining at 4 weeks after heading at any location in any year. Figure
1 represents the rough rice yield, average MC, milling yield, and HRY for rice grown on Crowley soil in 1988. As was generally the case in all locations in both years,
the 2 and 4week time of draining treatments showed that as MC decreased and maturity progressed, HRY steadily increased and appeared to level off at a MC of
approximately 22–24%. The 0week time of draining treatment (draining at heading) dramatically reduced HRYs in several instances, and did so in both 1987 and
1988 on the Crowley silt loam. For the 0week time of draining treatment on Sharkey clay, HRY was dramatically reduced in 1987 but not in 1988. This
corresponded to the observation that the average MC for the 0week time of draining in 1987 fell well below that of the other treatments, while in 1988, average MC
for all three draining treatments remained approxi
Figure 1
Time of draining × time of harvest effects on rough rice yield, grain
moisture, milled rice yield, and head rice yield from an experiment conducted
at Stuttgart, AR on a Crowley silt loam soil in 1988.
(From Ref. 16.)
Page 345
mately the same throughout the harvest season. The average MC trend for the 0week time of draining in 1988 is attributed to the frequent occurrence of rain. Thus,
the trends in the MC and HRY data of this study indicate that there were interactive effects among soil type and other variables, most notably weather conditions.
The trend of increasing HRYs as MC decreased at the early stages of harvest can be attributed to the decline in the number of immature kernels. If MC is an indicator
of maturity, then as average MC decreases, kernels reach maturity and attain sufficient structural strength to withstand the stresses of milling without cracking. Draining
at heading apparently did not allow this maturation process to occur in several situations.
The above research indicates that HRY is affected by the MC of rice at harvest. Harvesting rice at too high or too low a MC results in reduced HRY, but for different
reasons. At the high end of the harvest MC spectrum, the presence of immature kernels appears to reduce HRY. Conversely, at the low end of the MC spectrum,
HRY reduction results from rapid adsorption of moisture and concomitant development of fissures that increases the propensity of rice kernels to break during milling.
1—
Variation in Individual Kernel Moisture Contents
a—
Preharvest Moisture Content Variation
The work of several investigators (17–19) has indicated that when rice below a critical MC rapidly adsorbs moisture, fissuring will occur with resultant reductions in
HRY. This knowledge has prompted researchers to investigate the possibility that preharvest HRY reduction may be correlated to the number of lowMC kernels
adsorbing moisture.
Chau and Kunze (7) showed that average MC differences ranged from 21 to 29 percentage points for groups of grains harvested from the top of 10 of the most
mature panicles and from the bottom of 10 of the least mature panicles on a given day during the normal harvest season of mediumgrain Brazos rice. This work
identified a need for accurately quantifying the kernel MC variation of rice throughout harvest.
The means for addressing this need were provided by the introduction of the Shizuoka Seiki CTR800A single kernel moisture meter (20). This meter is capable of
measuring the MC of individual kernels of rice and will display the MC of each kernel tested, the average MC of a sample, and the standard deviation of kernel MCs.
Calibration by Siebenmorgen et al. (21) showed the meter to be in close agreement with an ovendrying method in measuring both individual kernel and sample
average MCs.
Kocher et al. (5) used this moisture meter to measure kerneltokernel MC variation in Katy, a longgrain rice variety. Kernel MC frequency distributions as measured
throughout the 1988 harvest season are shown in
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Figure 2
Frequency distributions of individual rice kernel moisture contents throughout a harvest season for a May 3, 1988, seeding date.
(From Ref. 5.)
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Figure 2. The early harvest dates showed a trimodal kernel MC distribution. As time progressed and the rice matured, the frequency distribution peaks for kernels with
high MCs decreased and the peaks for kernels with low MCs increased. This process continued until the last harvest date, which generally showed a single mode. The
cause of these multimodal distributions was speculated to be either kernel location effect on panicles or kernel maturity differences resulting from different tiller
emergence times.
b—
Postharvest Moisture Content Variation
Based on the fact that a large variation in kernel MCs was present at harvest, especially if the rice was harvested at high average MC, Siebenmorgen et al. (10)
conducted a study to determine the kernel MC variation in apparently equilibrated samples. Rice that had been harvested and stored at 18% MC for one year was
conditioned to average MCs ranging from 9 to 37%. Individual kernel MC distributions were determined at 3 weeks and 3 months after conditioning using a Shizuoka
Seiki CTR800A moisture meter. There was no difference (p < 0.05) in the average MCs of the samples measured after either equilibration time period. However, a
characteristic response in the standard deviation of the individual kernel MCs was observed for both storage periods (Fig. 3). The standard deviation increased
exponentially from approximately 0.5% at 10% average MC to 4.5% at 26% MC. The coefficient of variation also increased with average MC. The dramatic increase
in standard deviation with average MC and the increasing coefficient of variation suggested that the hygroscopic response of rice kernels within a sample to MC
change was different. The cause of this varying hygroscopic behavior was hypothesized to be due in part to varying kernel maturities when the rice was harvested.
Because of the variability in kernel MCs at harvest, an associated variability in kernel hygroscopic behavior would also be expected.
2—
Correlation of Kernel Moisture Content Variation to Head Rice Yield
The progression of research findings described above, along with the capabilities afforded by the individual kernel moisture meter, prompted further studies
investigating the relationship between individual kernel MC distribution at harvest and HRY. Specifically, a hypothesis was formulated that the number of kernels with
MC less than a critically low level prior to moisture adsorption could be correlated to HRY reduction. Kocher et al. (5) give a summary of research that supports such
a hypothesis.
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Figure 3
Average indiviudal kernel moisture contents standard deviations determined from
MC data taken after 3 weeks and 3 months of equilibration using a Shizuoka Seiki
CTR800A moisture meter.
(From Ref. 10.)
Tests were conducted by Siebenmorgen et al. that directly addressed this hypothesis. Timeofharvest experiments were conducted using the longgrain variety
Newbonnet in 1989 and two longgrain varieties, Lemont and Tebonnet, in 1990. Rice was harvested on eight dates for the Newbonnet in 1989 and on 13 dates for
the Lemont and 15 dates for the Tebonnet in 1990. Immediately following each harvest, individual kernel MCs were determined using a Shizuoka Seiki, CTR800A
moisture meter. Samples for HRY determination were refrigerated at approximately 1°C, subsequently dried to 12.5% MC and milled.
The trends in MC frequency distribution patterns were in agreement with those reported by Kocher et al. (5). Tables 1 and 2 summarize the average MCs, total milling
yields (TMYs), and HRYs for the Newbonnet and Lemont rice, respectively. As harvest progressed, environmental conditions had an increased influence on kernel
MCs. Frequently, rice harvested at a later date had a higher MC than earlier dates because of rewetting by rain. Table 1 shows that TMY for the Newbonnet rice
increased as the average MC decreased to about 22%. Below this MC level, TMYs did not
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Table 1 Average Moisture Contents at Harvest, Total Milling Yields and
Head Rice Yields for Newbonnet Rice, 1989
Harvest date
Average
Calendar DOYa MCb (%,w.b.) TMYc (%) HRYc (%)
Sept. 11 254 25.7 62.3c 39.7d
13 256 22.9 65.7b 49.7c
18 261 21.4 67.6a 54.0a
20 263 19.8 67.7a 54.7a
22 265 18.1 67.9a 55.3a
25 268 17.7 68.1a 55.5a
27 270 15.0 67.7a 54.2a
Oct. 2 275 17.8 68.3a 52.2b
aDay of year.
bMean of 8000 kernel MC measurements.
cMean of 8 milling determinations. Means within a column followed by the
same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 level as determined by
Duncan's multiple range test.
Source: Ref. 21.
Table 2 Percentages of Kernels with Moisture Contents Below
Given Levels for Lemont Rice, 1990
Harvest date Percentage of kernels with MCs
Calendar DOY a
<12.5% <13.5% <14.5%
Source: Ref. 21.
Page 350
show a significant change throughout the remaining harvest season. The TMYs for the Lemont or Tebonnet rice also did not show any appreciable change after the
average MC reached about 22%.
The results in Table 1 show that HRY for the Newbonnet variety increased until the average MC was about 22%. Thereafter, HRY did not show a significant change
until the average MC was about 15%. The HRY from the last harvest date was lower than those from earlier harvest dates (Table 1). It appears that HRY began to
decrease after MC reached 15%. However, no dramatic reduction in HRY was observed for the Newbonnet rice. It is speculated that this was because the harvest
was ended above the critical MC level for most of the kernels.
a—
Environmental Effects on Head Rice Yield
Daily temperature, RH, and rainfall data were analyzed for both harvest seasons to investigate the influence of environmental conditions on HRY. Figure 4 shows
HRYs and average MCs for the Newbonnet rice and the incidence of rain during the 1989 harvest season. Figures 5 and 6 show similar data for the Lemont and
Tebonnet rice, respectively, plus the calculated equilibrium MC based on the daily average temperature and RH during the 1990 harvest season. The rain data shown
in these figures only reflect those dates on which there was rain and do not represent rain amount. As seen in Figures 5 and 6, the rice MCs were increasingly influ
Figure 4
Head rice yield (HRY) and average moisture content (MC) for Newbonnet rice on
each harvest date and the incidence of rain during the 1989 harvest season.
(From Ref. 21.)
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Figure 5
Head rice yield (HRY) and average moisture content (MC) on each harvest date for
Lemont rice, calculated equilibrium moisture content (EMC) based on the daily
average ambient air conditions, and the incidence of rain during the 1990 harvest
season.
(From Ref. 21.)
Figure 6
Head rice yield (HRY) and average moisture content (MC) on each harvest date for
Tebonnet rice, calculated equilibrium moisture content (EMC) based on the daily
average ambient air conditions, and the incidence of rain during the 1990 harvest
season.
(From Ref. 21.)
Page 352
enced by the ambient air conditions after the average MC reached about 17%. In the 1989 experiment, there was about 1.0 cm of rain (September 23, DOY 266)
when the rice MC was about 18% (Fig. 4). At this high MC, HRY was not affected when the rice was harvested 2 days after the rain (Table 1). However, rain did
show some effect on HRY (2 percentage points reduction) when the Newbonnet rice was harvested after a rain was received at a time when the average MC was
about 15%.
The 1990 experimental results for the Lemont and Tebonnet rice (Figs. 5 and 6, respectively) show that rain had an adverse effect on HRY only after the average MC
reached 15%. Dramatic HRY reductions occurred for both Lemont and Tebonnet as a result of rewetting of lowMC rice by rain. Lemont HRY dropped 37.5 and
Tebonnet 23.1 percentage points over a time interval in which rain began on DOY 308. Based on these reductions and the fact that both varieties had reached 12%
MC prior to the rains, the Lemont rice appeared to be more susceptible to fissuring than Tebonnet.
The results in Figures 5 and 6 show that HRYs for both Lemont and Tebonnet varieties had not been reduced when rice was harvested at 12% average MC, which
was believed to be below the critical MC level. However, it is to be noted that it had not rained for several days prior to the dates when these MCs were measured
and thus conditions for rapid moisture adsorption did not exist. Further, when the Lemont rice was harvested at 12.9% MC (October 31, DOY 304), 2 days after the
rice had reached 12.1% MC, a HRY reduction of only 1.6 percentage points was measured. Figure 5 indicates that there was no rain over this 2day period and thus
the increase in MC was attributed to dew. Therefore, it appears that dew or frost did not fissure a large percentage of the rice kernels, even at this low MC level.
In summary, HRY reduction for the three rice varieties appears to have been mainly caused by rewetting of rice kernels by rain. Rain had no discernible effect on HRY
when the average MC was above 15%. Severe HRY reductions occurred as a reuslt of rewetting by rain after kernel MCs reached about 12%. These results agree
with the work of other investigators (17,19).
b—
Head Rice Yield vs. Kernel Moisture Content Distribution
The percentages of rice kernels with MCs below 12.5, 13.5, and 14.5% for the Lemont and Tebonnet rice are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Head rice yield
on a given date was first correlated to the percentage of kernels with MCs below given levels for that particular harvest date. The correlation coefficient was found to
be very low because the percentage of kernels below an assumed critical MC level could be very low, but unless rain or some other means of rewetting occurred, a
corresponding reduction
Page 353
Table 3 Percentages of Kernels with Moisture Contents Below
Given Levels for Tebonnet Rice, 1990
Harvest date Percentage of kernels with MCs
in HRY did not appear. Since the HRY reduction usually occurred as a result of rewetting by rain, it was deemed more logical to correlate HRYs from those harvest
dates after a rain to the percentages of kernels with MCs above (or below) a given MC level measured on the harvest date immediately before a rain.
It was found that HRY on a given harvest date after a rain was most favorably correlated to the percentage of kernels with MCs above 10.5% for Newbonnet, 13.5%
for Lemont, and 12.5% for Tebonnet rice as measured immediately prior to the rain. Figures 7 and 8 illustrate this correlation for Lemont (r2 = 0.992) and Tebonnet
rice (r2 = 0.991), respectively. It appears from the above discussion that the critical MC level for individual kernels was about 13% for the Lemont and Tebonnet rice
and about 11% for the Newbonnet rice.
In summary, the study by Siebenmorgen et al. (21) showed that TMY and HRY were a function of MC at harvest. Further, there was a relationship between individual
kernel MCs and HRY reduction. However, this relationship must be viewed as a correlation of the number of kernels below (or
Page 354
Figure 7
Comparison of head rice yields (HRYs) of Lemont rice harvested after raining to
the percentages of kernels with MCs above 13.5% measured before raining.
(From Ref. 21.)
Figure 8
Comparison of head rice yields (HRYs) of Tebonnet rice harvested after raining to
the percentages of kernels with MCs above 12.5% measured before raining.
(From Ref. 21.)
Page 355
above) a critical level on a given date to the HRY measured on a subsequent date after a severe rewetting condition, such as rain, has prevailed.
III—
Effect of Moisture Adsorption/Desorption on Head Rice Yield
A—
Moisture Adsorption/Desorption Studies
Kondo and Okamura (22) were perhaps the first to recognize the influence that moisture adsorption had on fissure development in rice kernels. Their studies showed
that cracks developed after about 1 hour of adsorbing moisture and that the percentage of cracks tended to increase with time. Stahel (22) showed that addition of
moisture when the rice MC was more than 15% had no effect on the HRY, but at MCs below 15%, significant drops in HRY were observed. He concluded that it
was not rapid drying that caused development of fissures in the kernel and consequent breakage but the reabsorption (through adsorption) of moisture by the kernel,
and that these effects manifested themselves only when the grain MC was below about 14%. Similar results were obtained by Grant in Burma and Coyaud in Vietnam
(22), Desikachar and Subramanyan in India (23), and Kunze (24) in the United States.
Kunze and Choudhary (25) studied the effect of moisture adsorption on tensile strength of rice. They hypothesized that when a kernel adsorbed moisture at the
surface, the swelling of cells in the surface layers produced compressive stresses on the kernal surface. These stresses were balanced by development of tensile
stresses in the inner portions of the kernel. If, however, the compressive stresses developed at the surface resulted in tensile stresses in the center far in excess of the
tensile strength of the kernel, failure would occur.
Recent research (26) corroborates this hypothesis. Lague used a finite element model to simulate preharvest stress cracking of rice kernels. Simulation results showed
that cracking was initiated when the kernel was under tensile stresses during moisture adsorption. Results also showed that endosperm cracking first occurred at the
center of the kernel and that it could progress both in the radial and longitudinal directions. This also explained the observations made by Henderson (27) using Xray
films, which showed that rice fissures began at the center of the kernel and progressed toward the minor circumference and that there could be fractures in many
directions.
One of the earliest analyses of the effect of artificial drying on HRY was by Schmidt and Jebe (28). Their results indicated that it was drying rate
Page 356
rather than drying air temperature that resulted in HRY reduction, a conclusion consistent with later observations.
Sharma and Kunze (2) studied postdrying fissure development in rough rice. Rough rice was dried from MCs of 20% and 14% using air at 60°C for 2, 10, and 24
hours. Dried rice was stored in airtight vials, and appearance of fissures in rice kernels was monitored for a period of 144 hours. In general, an increase in drying time
resulted in fissuring more kernels, and more kernels fissured when the MC of the rough rice was low.
A study by Stermer (29) showed that cracks caused by desorption were irregular and those due to adsorption were straight and more severe. Thus, fissures resulting
from drying would proceed from the surface toward the center of the kernel. This kind of damage is, however, seldom seen. Therefore, postdrying adsorption of
moisture appears to be a more important factor than drying per se (2).
B—
Other Factors Influencing Fissure Development
Although moisture adsorption is an important factor in the development of fissures in kernels, other factors such as variety and chemical composition also influence the
extent of fissuring. Rice varieties and types have different fissuring characteristics. For instance, shortgrain varieties are more susceptible to fissure development than
longgrain varieties (30). No experimental data are available to quantify the effect of chemical composition of kernels on fissure tendency, though the observation that
varieties similar in physical characteristics had differing number of fissures does indicate some kind of dependence (31).
C—
Current Research
Since there have been few studies on the effects of rate of moisture adsorption on HRY, recent research has focused on quantifying these relationships.
1—
Moisture Adsorption Rates of Rough Rice
Banaszek and Siebenmorgen (32) exposed Newbonnet longgraint rice at MCs of 9.0, 10.5, 12.0, 13.5, and 15% to an airstream with temepratures of 12.5, 20, and
30°C and RHs of 70 and 90%. Samples were removed from the airstream after durations of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, and 168 hours. The samples
were immediately stored in sealed plastic bags and MC determined after at least one week in storage.
An important finding of the study was that rice at different initial MCs reached different equilibrium MCs. Banaszek and Siebenmorgen (33) hypothesized that
irreversible changes occurred whent he rice was dried to
Page 357
the various initial MCs, which resulted in the rice at each level acting as a different material, with each having its own equilibrium MC.
The rate of moisture adsorption was found to be dependent on the initial MC and the air RH and temperature. Air RH had a significant effect on the rate of moisture
adsorption as well as on the final MC of the sample. From Figures 9 and 10 it can be seen that the rate of moisture adsoprtion was greater at a RH of 90% than at
70%. The effect of temperature on the rate of moisture adsorption is depicted in Figures 9 and 11. The figures show that RH had more effect on moisture adsorption
than did temperature.
The following equation was found to accurately describe the moisture adsorption data:
where:
MR = (MtMe)/(MoMe), moisture ratio, dimensionless
t = time (hr)
k,n = regression coefficients
The parameter k of the equation was found to be a function of initial MC and temperature, while the parameter n was determined to be a constant.
Figure 9
Moisture adsorption curves for rough rice exposed to an airstream at
20°C and 70% RH.
(From Ref. 32.)
Page 358
Figure 10
Moisture adsorption curves for rough rice exposed to an airstream at 20°C
and 90% RH.
(From Ref. 32.)
Figure 11
Moisture adsorption curves for rough rice exposed to an airstream at 30°C
and 90% RH.
(From Ref. 32.)
Page 359
Banaszek and Siebenmorgen (32) list the equation describing k and the results of using other equations to describe the data. The moisture adsorption rate was found to
be highest when the initial MC of the rice was low. The rate of moisture adsorption was also found to be directly proportional to temperature.
2—
Head Rice Yield Reductions Resulting from Moisture Adsorption
Rice samples removed at the times listed above were milled to determine HRY. Figure 12 shows that HRY reduction (HRYR), defined as the difference between the
HRY at time 0 and the HRY at a given time, was not significant unless adsorption was initiated below a MC of approximately 12%, which is consistent with the field
results for Newbonnet reported by Siebenmorgen et al. (21). The HRYR at 20°C and 90% RH was almost identical to that at 30°C and 90% RH (Fig. 12), showing
that air temperature had little effect on HRYR. Comparison of Figures 12 and 13 shows that the reduction in HRY when the RH was 70% was much less than when at
90%. Banaszek and Siebenmorgen (19) present complete HRYR data for this study.
Figure 12
Experimental data and head rice yield reduction curves for rough rice exposed to
an airstream at 30°C and 90% RH.
(From Ref. 19.)
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Figure 13
Experimental data and head rice yield reduction curves for rough rice exposed to
an airstream at 20°C and 70% RH.
(From Ref. 19.)
An empirical equation was used to describe the data:
where:
HRYR = (Ho Ht) (%)
Ht = HRY at time t (%)
Ho = HRY of control (time = 0) (%)
t = time (hr)
a, b = regression coefficients
The values of coefficients a and b were:
IMC = initial moisture content (%)
RH = relative humidity (%)
a = a2 * IMC
b = IMC2 * (a3 + b3 * RH + c3 *IMC) + d3
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where:
a2 = 0.011674512
a3 = 0.027676183
b3 = 0.011442723
c3 = 0.003100051
d3 = 1.073776072
Equation 2 was compared with a ''crack generation" equation developed by Nishiyana et al. (34). The crack generation equation requires the lowest asymptotic HRY
obtained during a test as an input to the equation and is thus analogous to equilibrium MC used in the moisture ratio term of Eq. 1. In terms of mean square error, the
crack generation equation was superior to Eq. 2 in predicting HRYR due to moisture adsorption. However, since the lowest asymptotic HRY is usually not known,
Eq. 2 was deemed more appropriate at this time for general prediction of HRYR due to moisture adsorption.
3—
Head Rice Yield Reduction Rates
To obtain the rate of HRYR, the partial derivative of Eq. 2 with respect to time was used:
Rate of HRYR curves were generated using Eq. 3 and are shown in Figures 14 and 15. Figure 14 displays the HRYR rates for various levels of initial MC at an air
condition of 30°C and 90% RH. The lowest initial MCs produced the highest HRYR rates. Increasing the initial MC level correspondingly decreased HRYR rates.
For example, the 9% initial MC level in Figure 14 showed a HRYR rate of 1 percentage point/hr at an exposure time of 6 hours, whereas with the higher initial MCs,
the reduction rates had reached near minimum within 6 hours.
Figure 15 shows the effect that RH had on HRYR rates at the conditions of 9% initial MC and 30°C. At the 90% RH, the rate of HRYR is initially high and then
reduces exponentially. The 70% RH level resulted in a similar trend but with much less drastic results. The 90% RH showed HRYR rates at least five times greater
than the 70% level for the first 10 hours. The rates converged after 24 hours of exposure.
4—
Effects of Adsorption Rate on Head Rice Yield Reduction
The curves presented in Figure 16 were generated using Eqs. 1 and 2 and represent the amount of HRYR incurred in a time interval as a function of
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Figure 14
Rate of head rice yield reduction as affected by initial moisture content at the
condition of 30°C and 90% RH.
(From Ref. 19.)
Figure 15
Rate of head rice yield reduction as affected by relative humidity at the
condition of 9% initial moisture content and 30°C.
(From Ref. 19.)
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Figure 16
Head rice yield reduction as affected by adsorption rates for 1hour intervals
at the condition of 30°C and 90% RH.
(From Ref. 19.)
the corresponding average adsorption rates for 1hour intervals at the condition of 30°C and 90% RH. Average adsorption rates were calculated as follows:
The first point at the right of each curve represents the first hour interval. The lowest initial MC of 9% resulted in the highest average adsorption rate (1.6% MC/hr)
and associated HRYR (7 percentage points) during the first hour. During the second hour, the average rate of adsorption decreased dramatically to approximately
0.7% MC/hr but resulted in an additional HRYR of 4 percentage points. As the initial MC level was increased, the corresponding average adsorption rate and the
amount of HRYR for each time interval decreased. For a given average adsorption rate, there was not a single level of HRYR. Thus, it appears that not only is HRYR
a function of adsorption rate, but that it is also a function of the initial MC at which adsorption is occurring.
In summary, the work on adsorption effects revealed that most of the reductions in HRY occurred fairly rapidly, generally within the first 8 hours of exposure to
adsorptive environments. It appears that significant HRY reduc
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tions occurred in the longgrain variety Newbonnet only when initial MCs were below 12%. Initial MC played an important role in determining the extent of HRY
damage and also directly determined the equilibrium MC.
IV—
Moisture Content Effects during Rice Milling
A—
Factors Affecting RiceMilling Quality
It is well documented that MC at the time of milling has a significant effect on HRY and DOM (35–40). Webb and Calderwood (36) determined that as MC
decreased, HRY increased and DOM decreased. They stated that in order to obtain a DOM at lower MCs equivalent to that observed at higher MCs, increased
milling with associated HRY reduction was necessary. Banaszek et al. (35) determined HRY and DOM for rice milled at MCs ranging from 10 to 16%. A McGill #2
miller was used with milling time held constant at 30 seconds. They stated that within the range in which rice was classified as being well milled, MC accounted for
more than 10 percentage points of change in HRY. The abovecited studies indicate that, in general, milling at lower MCs produces higher HRYs than at high MCs, if
milling time and miller settings are held constant. Recommendations concerning the proper MC of rice at milling are not apparent in the literature, although rice
standards as given by USDA (41) state that milling yield shall not be determined when the MC of the rice exceeds 18.0%.
Velupillai and Pandey (42) associated DOM with the milling time used on a McGill #2 miller. They determined that 65–73% of the bran was removed in the first 20
seconds of milling. In the case of Newbonnet variety, as much as 84% of the breakage occurred in the first 20 seconds of milling. No recommendations for a standard
milling time to be used in routine HRY determinations were made.
Head rice yield and DOM can be influenced by the pressure applied to the rice during milling. The pressure applied to rice in the milling chamber of laboratory millers
is controlled by the amount and location of the weight placed on the weight lever. Another factor thought to influence HRY and DOM is the amount of brown rice
placed in the miller.
B—
USDA Standards for Rice Milling
The USDA ricemilling standards (1,41) specify the use of the McGill #3 miller or an "approved miller that produces the same results for determining head rice yield."
However, the standards are written for use of the McGill #3 miller. An initial rough rice sample of 1 kg is required (41). Since the weights for the McGill #3 miller hang
from the end of the weight
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lever, there is no adjustment for the position of the weights. Total weight on the weight holder is adjusted according to the type (short, medium, or longgrain) of rice.
The milling duration is usually set at 30 seconds for all types of rice (41).
C—
Current Research
Although the McGill #3 miller is specified by the USDA ricemilling standards, the McGill #2 is becoming more popular in the rice industry due to lower initial costs
and lower power and sample size requirements.
A study was conducted by Andrews et al. (43) to determine the effects of rough rice MC, milling time (residence time of rice in the milling chamber), sample size
(amount of rice to be used in the miller), and pressure applied to the rice (location of weight on the weight lever) on HRY and DOM. The HRYs attained under the
various experimental conditions in the McGill #2 miller were compared to those attained by milling with the McGill #3 miller.
1—
Experimental Design and Procedure
A McGill #2 miller, equipped with an automatic timer and an adjustable weight to attain different degrees of milling, was used. The pressure on the rice during milling
was controlled by the placement of a 1.5kg weight on the weight lever (lever arm). The positions originally chosen for testing were 6, 12, 18, and 24 cm from the
center of the saddle to the center of the weight. However, it was discovered that when the 1.5kg weight was placed at 24 cm from the center of the saddle, the
pressure applied to the rice was too great for the miller to start.
Rough rice MCs of 9.5, 11, 12.5, and 14% were chosen. Rough rice samples of 100, 125, and 150 g were milled for durations of 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 seconds.
Two longgrain varieties, Lemont and Newbonnet, were used, and the experiment was replicated. Samples milled in the McGill #2 miller were graded for HRY and
DOM by the Federal Grain Inspection Service (FGIS).
As a control for the experiment and a basis of comparison of the McGill #2 and #3 millers, 40 1kg samples (five samples from each of the four MCs for both
varieties) of rough rice were milled by the FGIS. The FGIS milled the rough rice samples in a McGill #3 miller according to the USDA standard procedure and
determined HRY and DOM.
2—
McGill #3 Milling Results
The 40 1kg samples milled by the FGIS in the McGill #3 miller were used as the basis of comparison for the HRYs obtained under the experimental
Page 366
Table 4 Data from 40 1kg Samples Milled by the FGIS Using a McGill
#3 Miller
Moisture Milling Head rice Standard
content (% yielda (%) yielda deviationb
Variety w.b.) (%) (%)
Lemont 9.5 73.3 64.6 0.553
Lemont 11.0 72.4 62.9 0.793
Lemont 12.5 71.6 60.4 0.785
Lemont 14.0 70.7 57.4 0.532
Newbonnet 9.5 72.6 67.9 0.262
Newbonnet 11.0 71.4 65.7 0.380
Newbonnet 12.5 70.4 64.0 0.385
Newbonnet 14.0 69.1 61.7 0.174
aValues are the average of five replications.
bValues are the standard deviation of the five head rice yields
comprising the average.
Source: Ref. 43.
settings of the McGill #2 miller. These control HRYs are listed in Table 4, which shows that HRY was inversely related to MC in both varieties. The change in MC
from 9.5 to 14% accounted for a difference of 7.2 HRY percentage points in the Lemont and 6.2 HRY percentage points in the Newbonnet. Table 4 indicates that
milling yield was also inversely proportional to MC. This indicates that the performance of the #3 miller in removing bran, and possibly some endosperm, is greater at
higher MCs.
3—
McGill #2 Milling Results
The HRY and DOM classification for each combination of variables for the Lemont and Newbonnet varieties are shown in Figures 17 and 18, respectively. The tables
show that MC and HRY were inversely related, just as they were with the McGill #3 miller. The tables also show that as MC decreased, the rice became more
difficult to mill to a "wellmilled" degree, as indicated by the increasing number of samples that were not "well milled."
D—
Statistical Analysis
Because there were significant higherorder interactions between variety and the other independent variables, models were fitted independently for the two varieties.
The details of the quadratic response surface for the four independent variables (MC, milling time, weight placement, rough rice weight) used to predict HRY are given
in Table 5. All of the effects in Table 5 were statistically significant at the 5% significance level. The linear ef
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Figure 17
Milling data for Lemont rice milled in the McGill #2 miller. Head rice yields are shown
as the first number in each block and are the average of two replications. Degree
of milling is classified as: UM, undermilled; LIM, lightly milled; RWM, reasonably
well milled; WM, well milled. Number in parentheses is the difference between the
HRYs obtained with the McGill #2 miller and those obtained with the McGill #3
miller (see Table 4). Blocks in grey are below the WM classification; blocks
in black are WM, and the HRYs deviate less than two percentage points
fromt he McGill #3 HRYs; blocks in white are well milled but deviate more
than two percentage points from the #3 miller HRYs.
(From Ref. 43.)
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Figure 18
Milling data for Newbonnet Rice Milled in the McGill #2 Miller. Nomenclature is
the same as in Figure 17.
(From Ref. 43.)
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Table 5 Coefficients of Equation Predicting Head Rice Yields for Lemont and Newbonnet Varieties
Milled in a McGill #2 Miller
Rice variety
Linear comp.
MC(%) (9.5,11,12.5,14) 13.226 0.7329 1.4099 0.5126
Quadratic comp.
MC2 0.5983 0.0289 0.041 0.019
Interactions
MC*MT 0.0175 0.0023 0.0153 0.0019
The influence that each of the independent variables had on HRY is illustrated in Figure 19. Moisture content was the most important factor affecting HRY while rough
rice weight was the least important. Figure 19 illustrates that the relative influence of the experimental variables on HRY was different for the two varieties. In an effort
to explain this difference, 100 kernels were measured from each variety. The average length, width, and thickness for the Lemont variety were 7.08, 2.35, and 1.73
mm, respectively. The average length, width, and thickness for the Newbonnet variety were 6.82, 2.06, and 1.59 mm, respectively. A ttest showed that there were
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Figure 19
Contributions of experimental variables in accounting for changes
in HRY as indicated by sum of squares.
(From Ref. 43.)
Page 371
differences at the 5% significance level between corresponding dimensions of the two varieties. From this, it is postulated that the difference in contributions shown in
Figure 19 are due to differences in kernel dimensions between the varieties.
To plot the response surface for both varieties, two variables (weight placement and rough rice weight) were fixed. The surfaces are shown in Figures 20 and 21 for
the Lemont and Newbonnet varieties, respectively. In general, the contours show that for both varieties, HRY decreases as either MC or milling time is increased.
E—
Rough Rice Weight Effects
In general, increasing rough rice weight resulted in fewer broken kernels and thus an increase in HRY. The rotor action in the McGill #2 miller is such that the more
kernels present in the milling chamber, the less each kernel is milled per unit time. Thus as rough rice weight is increased, the interactions from one kernel to another are
decreased. This is supported by Figures 17 and 18 showing that as rough rice weight is increased, the number of wellmilled samples decreases. However, there were
interactive effects between rough rice weight and the other experimental variables.
Figure 22 reveals the results of a physical limitation of the McGill #2 miller. The graphs indicate that for the 100g rough rice weight, varying the milling time minimally
affected HRY. When using 100 g of rough rice, which resulted in approximately 80 g of brown rice to be milled after hulling, it was observed that the lever arm of the
miller rested on the milling chamber frame instead of entirely on the rice. It was concluded that the McGill #2 miller requires a brown rice sample larger than 80 g in
order to prevent the miller from ''bottoming out." It is to be noted, however, that the data in Figure 22 were obtained with a weight placement of 18 cm, which was the
greatest weight placement setting, and thus produced the greatest pressure on the rice. As a result, Figure 22 represents the worstcase scenario for illustrating the
bottomingout action.
Figure 20 also illustrates the interactive effects of milling time and rough rice weight. The relative changes in HRY obtained when milling time was varied were
dependent on rough rice weight. As rough rice weight was increased from 125 to 150 g, HRYs increased for low milling times, indicating that there was less milling
action per kernel. However, as milling time was increased, HRY for the 150g rough rice level decreased by relatively greater amounts than the 125g level. This
decrease in HRY reflects the increase in the exposure of the rice to milling or frictional forces.
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Figure 20
Head rice yield response surfaces for Lemont rice milled in a McGill
#2 miller. WP = weight placement; RRW = rough rice weight.
(From Ref. 43.)
Page 373
Figure 21
Head rice yield response surfaces for Newbonnet rice milled in a McGill
#2 miller. WP = weight placement; RRW = rough rice weight.
(From Ref. 43.)
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Figure 22
Head rice yields produced with the McGill #2 miller for the Lemont variety and the given
variables. MC = moisture content; WP = weight placement.
(From Ref. 43.)
Page 375
F—
Moisture Content Effects
Figures 19, 20, and 21 show that MC is a major factor in determining HRYs. A change in MC from 9.5 to 14% accounted for a change in HRY of as much as 14.6
percentage points in the Lemont and a change of 17 percentage points in the Newbonnet variety. These figures reinforce the observations made from the McGill #3
milling results. Figures 17 and 18 show that as MC decreases, so do the number of "wellmilled" samples. This is an indication that bran removal becomes more
difficult at lower MCs.
G—
Weight Placement and Milling Time Effects
As weight placement was increased, HRY decreased (Figs. 21 and 22). A change in weight placement from 6 to 18 cm accounted for a reduction in HRY of 8.7
percentage points in the Lemont variety and a reduction of 12.2 percentage points in the Newbonnet variety. This inverse relationship was consistent throughout the
data. An analogous trend was found for milling time in that as milling time was increased, HRYs decreased. However, milling for given time periods was necessary to
attain a wellmilled sample. Tables 5 and 6 show that many of the samples milled for the 15second duration were not wellmilled samples.
A sample milled in the #2 miller is defined herein to be "equivalent" to the #3 miller if it was not only well milled, but also deviated less than 2 percentage points from
the HRY determined using the #3 miller. Two percentage points was assumed to account for typical variations associated with grading. As previously stated, rough
rice weights of 100 g were below the lower limit of the McGill #2 miller and therefore were not included in making a comparison between the two millers. In the
Newbonnet variety, only two experimental combinations produced equivalent results at the 12.5% MC level. These two combinations were at a weight placement of 6
cm, a milling time of 45 seconds, and a rough rice weight of 125 or 150 g. These same two combinations will produce equivalent results to the #3 miller at the 11.0
and 14% MC levels. In the Lemont variety, more combinations produced equivalent results, but no single combination was sufficient at all four MC levels.
A weight placement of 6 cm tended to produce equivalent results in more experimental combinations than the 12 or 18cm weight placements. Aside from weight
placement, MC plays such a large role in determining the ease or difficulty in bran removal that a consistent milling time did not produce equivalent results across all
MCs. At 12.5% MC, a weight placement of 6 cm and a milling time of 45 seconds produced equivalent results to the #3 miller for both varieties. In the Lemont
variety, a milling time of
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30 seconds also produced equivalent results. When the milling time was set at 30 seconds in the Newbonnet variety and at a weight placement of 6 cm, there was less
than 2 percentage points difference in HRY from the McGill #3 at the 12.5% MC level, but the samples were only reasonably well milled.
H—
Summary
In summary, MC was found to be the most significant variable affecting HRY in both the #2 and #3 millers. As MC decreased, bran removal became more difficult
and HRYs increased. The interactive effects of MC with milling time, weight placement, and rough rice weights were found to be significant and greatly influenced
HRY and DOM in both varieties.
The effects of milling time, sample size (rough rice weight), and the pressure applied to the rice (weight placement) were found to be critical when determining HRYs.
Milling time was found to have an inverse effect on HRY and played an important role in determining DOM. A rough rice weight of 100 g was found to produce an
insufficient amount of brown rice for the McGill #2 miller. rough rice weights of 125 and 150 g were adequate for the #2 miller, and 150 g usually produced higher
HRYs for equivalent weight placement settings and milling time. Weight placement was inversely related to HRY in both varieties and had a greater effect on HRYs
than did milling time in the Newbonnet variety.
When comparing HRYs from the McGill #2 miller to those of the McGill #3 miller, it was determined that equivalent results could be obtained with the proper settings.
However, no one combination was found to produce equivalent results across all four MCs for both varieties.
V—
Future Research Opportunities
Many research opportunities exist throughout the overall spectrum of areas affecting rice processing, from rice maturation to final milling. It is often the case that a
technological advance in equipment or techniques will allow researchers to investigate topics that once were only abstractly pictured. Such was the case in the studies
reported herein using the individual kernel moisture meter. While it was speculated that kerneltokernel MC differences existed in rice samples, this meter enabled the
quantification of MC variation, which has in turn provided insight to practical problems such as HRY reduction prior to harvest.
Another advancement that is beginning to be used more frequently in the foodprocessing industry is the science associated with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
equipment and techniques. Magnetic resonance imaging
Page 377
(MRI), an extension of NMR spectroscopy, has been used in the medical industry for some time and is being increasingly applied in foodprocessing research (44). A
significant advantage of the use of NMR is that the technique is nondestructive and noninvasive. The NMR signal is sensitive to the number of nuclei in the sample, the
mobility of the nuclei, and the local chemical and electronic environment of the nuclei (44). Thus, NMR is readily adaptable for applications of measuring MC and oil
concentrations. Further, it can be used to quantify the state or binding energies of water in a product.
It is this later capability that prompts the author to speculate about the potential of NMR for ricedrying and processing research. If a full or better understanding of
moisture migration within kernels is obtained, better equipment, controls, and processes can be developed to maximize drying efficiency and product quality. It would
appear that NMR could also be used to evaluate physical and chemical constituent differences among varieties in terms of potential for food product use and milling
performance.
Research is currently being conducted at the University of Arkansas in applying NMR techniques in the riceprocessing area. Projects being investigated at the time of
this writing include measuring MC of bulk samples using NMR (45) and determining the state of water in rice over the full range of MC levels encountered in rice
drying and processing. In addition, NMR signals from samples at the same MC, but reached through adsorption or desorption, are being evaluated to investigate
hysteresis effects in rice. Projected work in this area will use MRI to visually represent the moisture migration process in rice kernels.
It is also believed that another area worthy of investigation is that of kernel size effects as related to milling performance. The milling study of Andrews et al. (43)
described above indicated that kernel size may have accounted for some of the varietal differences in milling behavior. It appears that further understanding of the
kerneltokernel interactions during the milling process, and the associated effects of kernel size distribution in samples, could be beneficial in maximizing HRY. Also,
differences in chemical and physical characteristics of the various rice size fractions could be potentially useful in rice product development.
Yet another area for future investigation is that of controlling milling processes to produce desired degrees of bran removal. Although several techniques, including
color comparisons, are being used to measure DOM, improvements are needed, especially in light of the recent interest in rice bran and oil as a food product.
Measurements from nearinfrared reflectance and image processing techniques need to be correlated to accurate DOM measurement techniques, such as lipid
extraction tests.
Page 378
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Mr. Virendra Bhumbla and Dr. Renfu Lu for the excellent assistance in preparing and editing this chapter.
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40. Wasserman, T. (1961). Low moisture milling. Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Rice Utilization, May 18–19, Albany, CA.
41. USDA. (1982). Rice Inspection Handbook. Agricultural Marketing Service, Washington, D.C.
42. Velupillai, L., and Pandey, J. P. (1987). Color and bran removal in rice processing. Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station Manuscript No. 87071342,
Baton Rouge, LA.
43. Andrews, S. B., Siebenmorgen, T. J. and Mauromoustakos, A. (1992). Evaluation of the McGill #2 rice miller. Cereal Chem., (in press).
44. McCarthy, M. J., and Kauten, R. J. (1990). Magnetic resonance imaging applications in food research. Trends Food Sci. Technol., (December):134.
45. Bhumbla, V. K., Siebenmorgen, T. J., and Komoroski, R. A. (1992). Moisture content determination of rice constituents using nuclear magnetic resonance.
Proceedings of the Rice Technical Working Group Meeting, February 23–26, Little Rock, AR.
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16—
Processing and Utilization of Rice Bran in the United States
Keith L. Hargrove, Jr.
Farmers' Rice Cooperative, Sacramento, California
I—
Introduction
Dr. Robin M. Saunders would generally include Figure 1 in his many presentations and discussions of rice bran. Although the translation to English may not be
technically precise, the Chinese symbols predate most of the current research on rice bran by about 2000 years, give or take a few centuries.
Actually, the international scientific research community has recognized the underutilization and potential of rice bran for many years. Much has been published to this
effect (1). However, only recently has the United States riceprocessing industry begun to explore in earnest and develop the full commercial potential of this relatively
abundant byproduct of rice milling.
This interest, at least in the United States, was initially and primarily spurred by the work of Saunders and his associates at the United States Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Research Center (USDA, ARS, WRRC). Their research described the first commercially feasible
method of overcoming the inherent problems of stability and storability of rice bran (2–5). Extrusion type stabilization systems were subsequently installed in a few
major rice mills in the mid1980s, and rice bran was stabilized on a limited basis for commercial export to Japan, Korea, and Taiwan for oil extraction.
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Figure 1
Chinese characters depicting (a)
rice bran and (b) white rice.
Rice bran feeding studies were conducted on hamsters by the WRRC, and the results indicated that rice bran was equal to oat bran in its ability to lower serum
cholesterol in hamsters (6). Further studies with hamsters were carried out to confirm this finding (7). With the commercial success that oat bran was having at the time,
these new findings attracted the immediate attention of the rice industry along with the food industry in general. Several major companies began studying the various
potential applications of stabilized rice bran in food products. Subsequent clinical trials with human subjects in Australia (8), California (9), and Louisiana (10),
appeared to confirm the beneficial effects of rice bran in controlling cholesterol in humans. Additional studies in Europe (11) and the United States (J. W. Lampe,
unpublished) appear to confirm the laxation benefits associated with rice bran and its dietary fiber components.
Today, a number of high quality food products containing stabilized rice bran are being produced and marketed successfully. The U.S. rice industry has been relatively
conservative in its approach to the research and marketing of rice bran for food products. Additional clinical studies are needed and are being planned, and much
remains to be learned. Market growth, consumer awareness, and demand is steadily increasing.
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II—
Composition of Rice Bran in the United States
Rice bran in the United States can generally be divided into two categories: food grade and feed grade. Most U.S. rice mills are of the multiple break design, and the
hulls are removed in a process that is separate from the actual milling or bran removal process. Feed grade bran composition can vary widely depending upon the mill
design, dehulling and paddy separation efficiencies, and whether calcium carbonate is used as a milling aid.
Weed seeds, straw, hulls, dust, and calcium carbonate may be present in varying amounts, as feed grade bran is generally sold against very basic minimum guaranteed
specifications, including crude fiber, crude protein, and ash content. Many rice mills are not equipped with the processing and handling systems necessary to keep
these byproducts of the milling process separate from the actual bran and germ. In order to produce a food quality rice bran, it is necessary to minimize the
commingling of the the various byproducts to assure a consistently pure and wholesome bran. In many instances, this requirement may necessitate significant mill
redesign and may involve significant capital investment.
A thorough review of the physical properties and other characteristics of rice bran has been done by Barber and Benedito de Barber (1) and Luh et al. (12). The
descriptions of particle distribution, sources of contamination or dilution, and composition are quite comprehensive.
Due to the naturally occurring enzymatic activity and subsequent hydrolytric rancidity that occurs rapidly in the bran after milling, it is further necessary to stabilize the
bran or to inactivate the indigenous lipase either before milling or very shortly afterwards. Although there are several potential methods of accomplishing stabilization,
most are associated with some type of heating process. Parboiling the rough rice or paddy prior to milling and dry or moistureadded extrusion of the bran after milling
are the most common methods in use today in the United States.
Food grade and stabilized rice bran can be further categorized as full fat stabilized or parboiled, defatted, or partially defatted. Although these variations can be
customized or modified somewhat to meet certain end use requirements, typical proximate compositions found in the United States are included in Table 1.
A—
Protein
Rice bran protein is of relatively high nutritional value. Reported PER values generally range from 1.6 to 1.9 compared to a casein value of 2.5, while for protein
concentrates extracted from bran with dilute alkali, values from 2.0 to 2.5 were found. Digestibility of protein in rice bran is reported
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Table 1 Proximate Composition and Caloric Content of Stabilized, Parboiled, and Defatted Rice Brans
B—
Lipids
Rice bran typically contains 16–32% oil. Three major fatty acids, palmitic, oleic, and linoleic make up more than 90% of the total fatty acids (13).
C—
Minerals
The ranges of expected mineral contents in rice bran are depicted in Table 2. The mineral content is impacted by variety, soil conditions and growing environment, and
by the milling process used. In the United States, silicon would be at the low end of the range due to the absence of hulls.
D—
Vitamins
Vitamins found in rice bran are listed in Table 3. The range in content reflects rice variety, degree of milling and processing, and possible contamination with hulls. In
the United States, bran produced for domestic food consumption is virtually devoid of hulls, and therefore the vitamin content would be at the high end of the range
listed. Rice bran contains at least 78% of the rice kernel thiamine, 47% of the riboflavin, and 67% of the niacin. Parboiled
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Table 2 Minerals in Rice Bran
Mineral Content (ppm)
Aluminum 53–369
Calcium 140–1310
Chlorine 510–970
Iron 190–530
Magnesium 8650–12300
Manganese 110–877
Phosphorus 14800–28700
Potassium 13650–23900
Silicon 1700–16300
Sodium 0–290
Zinc 80
Source: Ref. 13.
Table 3 Vitamins in Rice Bran
Vitamin Content (ppm)
Vitamin A 4
Thiamine 10–28
Riboflavin 2–3
Niacin 236–590
Pyridoxine 10–32
Pantothenic acid 28–71
Biotin 0.2–0.6
Myoinositol 4600–9300
Choline 1300–1700
pAminobenzoic acid 0.7
Folic acid 0.5–1.5
Vitamin B12 0.005
Vitamin E 150
Source: Ref. 13.
bran would be expected to contain lower levels of the soluble vitamins due to leaching of these vitamins during the parboiling process (13).
E—
Carbohydrates
The major carbohydrates present in commercial rice bran are cellulose, hemicelluloses (or pentosans), and starch. Starch is not botanically present
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in the outer pericarp layers, but because of endosperm breakage during milling, it appears in the bran. The quantity varies according to the amount of breakage and
degree of milling, but values of 10–20% could be expected. Amylose and amylopectin in the starch depend upon the rice variety. In general, amylose content is 2% or
less in waxy (sweet) varieties, about 10–20% in short and mediumgrain varieties, and 20–30% in longgrain varieties (13).
Hemicelluloses have been reported to comprise 8.7–11.4% of the bran. Cellulose in rice bran is reported to range from 9.6 to 12.8%. Betaglucans in rice bran are
present at less than 1%. These polysaccharides comprise part of the dietary fiber complex (13).
Sugars in rice bran range from 3 to 8%. Glucose, fructose, sucrose, and raffinose have been reported, although sucrose is by far the predominant sugar. Sugars would
be lower in parboiled bran due to the heat and moisture used in the parboiling process (13).
F—
Dietary Fiber
The dietary fiber content of stabilized and parboiled rice bran varies with the degree of milling and with the amount of starch and sugars present in the brans. The
ranges for soluble and total dietary fiber are given in Table 4.
G—
Antinutritional Compounds
The occurrence of some antinutritional compounds has been reported. Among these are trypsin inhibitor (14), pepsin inhibitor (15), hemaglutinin (14), phytates, and an
antithiamine factor (12). Fortunately, activity of these compounds is relatively low and can be inactivated by heat treatment (12). There appears to be little data
available regarding the impact, if any, that current commercial stabilization processes may have on the antinutritional factors present in raw bran.
Table 4 Dietary Fiber Contents of Stabilized and Parboiled Rice Bran
(dry basis)
Total dietary Soluble dietary
Bran type fiber (%) fiber (%)
Stabilized bran 20–25 1.8–2.6
Parboiled bran 31–33 2.0–2.5
Defatted stabilized bran 24–28 2.0–2.4
Defatted parboiled bran 44–51 2.4–2.9
Source: Ref. 13.
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H—
FullFat Stabilized Rice Bran
The majority of the commercially developed and available food grade stabilized rice bran is considered to be full fat stabilized rice bran, which is stabilized bran in
which the natural lipid content has not been reduced by further processing or extraction. The amount of lipids or fats present are partially dependent upon the nature of
the milling process. The impact that the milling process imparts to the quality of the bran is explored further in a later section of this chapter.
In an effort to protect and assure the integrity of food grade rice bran in the United States, the Rice Millers Association (16) in February 1990 adopted a definition and
minimum standard for fullfat stabilized and parboiled rice bran for food use (Table 5). Future standards and definitions will likely be established for defatted and
partially defatted rice bran, as these products are developed commercially.
Table 5 The Rice Millers Association FullFat Stabilized Rice Bran For Human Food
DEFINITION: Rice bran is the brown outer layer of the brown rice kernel that is removed when
milling brown rice to milled or white rice. The bran is comprised primarily of the pericarp,
aleurone, and subaleurone layers of the kernel, and typically includes the embryo or germ and a
small amount of the starchy endosperm.
FullFat Stabilized Rice Bran For Human Food shall be suitably treated after milling to deactivate
the naturally occurring lipase enzymes, which, if untreated, would rapidly deteriorate the oil in
the bran.
To assure its purity and suitability for human consumption, FullFat Stabilized Rice Bran For
Human Food shall meet or exceed the following minimum specifications as determined by the
corresponding analytical methods:
PRODUCT ANALYSIS APPROVED METHODS
AOAC AACC
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I—
Defatted or LowFat Stabilized Rice Bran
Currently there are few, if any, U.S. producers of sizable commercial quantities of rice bran oil and defatted or partially defatted rice bran. Most rice oil currently being
marketed in the United States is imported. However, a significant potential commercial market for these products appears to exist, and several major companies are
actively developing plans for commercial production.
III—
Rice Bran and the Healthy Diet
Due to rice bran's overall composition, nutritional profile, functional characteristics, and apparent hypoallergenicity, rice bran has many applications in a healthy diet that
is high in dietary fiber and low in saturated fat. It may be particularly beneficial to those individuals who are allergic to other cereal grains. However, there are strong
indications from recent research that the consumption of rice bran may be specifically beneficial in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and colon cancer.
Kahlon et al. (6,7) found that rice bran lowered serum cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic hamsters to the same extent as did oat bran (Table 6). This observation is
indirectly supported by earlier work from Japan (17–19) and India (20,21), where several studies indicated cholesterollowering activity by a number of components
present in rice bran (Table 7). The extent of the contribution by each individual component to the lowering of serum cholesterol has not been firmly established, but
results available point to rice bran oil as containing the bulk of hypercholesterolemic activity (13).
Table 6 Plasma Cholesterol of Hamsters Consuming Rice Bran or Oat Bran Diets
for 3 Weeks
Plasma cholesterol
Treatment (mg/dl)
Control (10% cellulose) 394.9 ± 15.6a
Stabilized bran (47.8% of diet) 269.5 ± 13.5b
Parboiled bran (31.8% of diet) 297.1 ± 18.3b
Defatted stabilized bran (31.1% of diet) 347.2 ± 16.0ac
Defatted parboiled bran (19.6% of diet) 376.8 ± 21.0ac
Oat bran (53.7% of diet) 288.9 ± 16.4b
n = 10, values with different superscripts (p < 0.05). All diets contained 0.5%
cholesterol, 10.7% fat, and 10% dietary fiber.
Source: Ref. 6.
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Table 7 Factors in Rice Bran That May Contribute to Lowering
Cholesterol
1. Tocotrienols
2. Oryzanols (ferulic acid ester)
3. Sitosterol
4. Hemicelluloses
5. Glucan
6. Oil unsaturation
7. Protein
Source: R. M. Saunders, personal communication.
Nestel and Kestin (8) conducted a doubleblind clinical study with 24 male subjects to compare the effects of rice bran, oat bran, and wheat bran on plasma lipids and
laxation. In the study, only oat bran led to a significant reduction in total plasma cholesterol, but rice bran equaled oat bran in increasing the high density lipoprotein
cholesterol (HDLC) to total cholesterol (TC) ratios, and the rice bran demonstrated the highest laxative effect of the three brans in terms of stool bulking and
decreased intestinal transit time.
Gerhardt and Gallo (9) concluded that:
1. Rice bran and germ produced significant cholesterol reduction in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects consuming their usual prudent diet, and the decline in
cholesterol was entirely due to decreased low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC) levels.
2. HDLC/TC and LDL/HDL ratios improved with rice bran and germ.
3. There was no statistical difference between the effectiveness of rice bran and germ and oat bran in producing cholesterol reduction.
4. Lipid levels for males and females responded equally to the addition of fiber products in the diet.
5. No conclusion could be drawn about which specific nutrient in the two bran products caused the cholesterol reduction.
Another study by Hegsted et al. (10) on 11 human subjects concluded that rice bran and oat bran were equally effective in lowering TC and LDLC levels.
Feeding studies on nonhuman primates conducted by Nicolosi et al. (22) indicated that the content of rice bran oil in the diet was the predominant factor influencing
serum TC, LDLC, and apolipoprotein B causing up to a 40% reduction in LDLC without affecting HDLC when rice bran oil was the sole dietary oil fed, and the
cholesterollowering capabilities or rice bran oil were not explained by its fatty acid composition. (For further
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information on the cholesterollowering properties of rice bran oil, see Chapter 18.)
Lampe et al. (unpublished) compared the laxative properties of rice bran to those of wheat bran in male human subjects. This research supported previous work in
Europe (11) and Australia (8), which showed that rice bran supplementation had effects similar to wheat bran in improving laxation and decreasing transit time. In this
study, rice bran was slightly more effective in increasing stool weight and decreasing transit time than was wheat bran on a per gram of total dietary fiber consumed
basis.
Additional work is underway in identifying and quantifying the active components present in rice bran and oil. Additionally, the impact that processing has on the
variability and concentration of these components needs further study.
IV—
Stabilization and Processing
A—
Milling and Purification
All U.S. rice mills of commercial significance utilize distinctly separate machines and processes for removing the hull prior to removing the bran layers and germ. In
many less developed areas of the world, these processes are performed by the same machine, rendering it nearly impossible to produce a rice bran that is suitable for
human consumption. However, merely separating these functions is only one of many steps necessary in producing rice bran that is truly food grade quality. The
systems and methods used for harvesting, drying, storing, and shipping the rough rice to the mill should be considered first.
In addition to the effects on the milling yield and quality of the rice itself, improper drying, inadequate aeration during storage, and abusive handling has a profound
impact on the quality of the bran. Excessive and prolonged heat during the drying process can negatively modify the flavor of the bran, and there are indications that
some of the natural antioxidants such as the tocopherols can be modified or destroyed even at this early stage of the process (23). It is generally recommended that
multipass drying processes be utilized and that grain temperatures not exceed 90°F, particularly as moisture content falls below 20% (w.b.)(24). Adequate cooling and
equilibration time should be provided between passes to minimize thermal and moisture gradient stresses.
Proper aeration during storage helps to prevent insect and microbiological activity, which can damage the kernel, affecting the quality and flavor. There is ample
research literature available on proper and commercially acceptable drying and aeration concepts. However, most of these relate to
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preserving the quality and milling yield of the rice as opposed to addressing the impact on the quality of the bran. It would seem that the two are somewhat interrelated
and inseparable, and that a process that preserves the quality and freshness of the rice will also do the same for the bran. Objectionable odors or flavors that appear in
the milled rice are usually the result of initial degradation or decomposition of the bran and its lipids due to improper storage conditions (25).
Abusive materialhandling systems for transporting and conveying can result in partial or total dehulling of some of the rough rice kernels. Although some dehulling is
unavoidable in conventional systems, precautions should be taken to minimize the occurrence. Mechanical damage to the bran layers of some of the kernels promotes
the hydrolytic and oxidative rancidity processes while in storage and prior to actual milling and could result in unacceptable bran quality. The author has generally found
that rice that is harvested, dried, handled, and stored in a proper commercial manner for up to 18 months will produce rice bran that contains less than 2% free fatty
acids in the lipid fraction at the time of milling.
As rice is a field crop generally grown under flooded conditions, the rough rice or paddy must undergo thorough precleaning prior to milling. Defects and foreign
materials such as stones, mud balls, straw, and weed seeds must be separated and removed with the proper use of screens, aspirators, and gravity separators.
After the rough rice is thoroughly cleaned, special attention should be paid to the combined shelling (or dehulling) and paddy separation processes. Most modern rice
mills utilize what are generically termed rubber roll shellers for removing the hull from the rice kernel to produce brown rice, although the rolls may be covered with
natural rubber or synthetic material such as urethane. These machines typically come equipped with, or are placed above, aspirators that remove the loose hulls from
the stream after shelling.
Shelling efficiency is a term generally used in the industry to describe the percentage of the rough rice that is actually dehulled or shelled in the process. It is difficult if
not undesirable economically to operate shellers at a shelling efficiency of greater than 90–95%. Exceeding this level usually results in reduced roll life, increased rice
breakage, and reduced capacity, each of which can have a significant economic impact on the operation and profitability of the mill. Therefore, it is generally more
efficient overall to utilize paddy separators in the process after the shellers to separate, by density, the unshelled kernels from the brown rice stream prior to the bran
removal or whitening process. The unshelled paddy kernels are recycled back to the shelling operation, and the relatively paddy free brown rice is then milled. It is
very important to utilize a very efficient combined
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shellingpaddy separation process to assure that a minimum amount of hulls or paddy enter the whitening process. It is recommended that the system be operated in a
manner that will maintain fewer than five paddy kernels per 500 g of brown rice. This level is significantly lower than the standards for a U.S. No. 1 brown rice for
reprocessing but will result in a much purer and consistent bran product. Additionally, a secondary aspiration system should be considered between the shellers and the
paddy separators to supplement the aspiration and loose hull removal capability that is typically provided with the shelling machine.
Two basic types of whitening machines are used in the United States: the abrasive type and the friction type. There are many variations within these categories, and
even some that combine the two principles within the same machine. There are a number of manufacturers worldwide, but most generally follow what is considered
modern Japanese ricemilling technology (see Chapter 10). The selection of the proper arrangement and combination of whitening machines in a rice mill is typically
dictated by the type and class of the rice that is processed and whether white rice or parboiled rice is being milled. The number of consecutive passes or breaks
installed in U.S. mills vary widely and range from one to six, although there is an evolution toward using more breaks as opposed to fewer, with three to four breaks
most prevalent.
The overwhelming emphasis in selecting the most efficient arrangement is in preserving the whole grain yield and minimizing the production of broken kernels, while
achieving the milling degree or quality specification at the lowest energy requirement. Achieving this goal also enhances the consistency and purity of the rice bran by
minimizing the amount of small broken pieces of rice that are removed with the bran.
Some rice mills, particularly those milling parboiled rice, utilize calcium carbonate as a milling aid to assist in the polishing of the kernel, and to aid the conveyability of
the oily bran after removal. To assure that the usage of calcium carbonate when milling to produce food grade rice bran does not exceed the minimum required, the
Rice Millers Association included maximum limits in the Full Fat Stabilized and Parboiled Rice Bran Standards (16).
As was mentioned in an earlier section, rice bran in the United States generally consists of the pericarp, aleurone, and subaleurone layers of the brown rice kernel,
along with the germ or embryo, and a small amount of the starchy endosperm (Fig. 2). The endosperm may be present in the bran either as small broken pieces or as a
flour resulting from the abrasive or friction whitening process. It is technically possible, although difficult due to the high oil content, to sift the raw bran through fine
screen mesh sizes to remove virtually all of the small broken rice. However, the germ is
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Figure 2
Rice kernel cross section.
(From Ref. 13.)
generally removed from the kernel as a relatively intact particle and is typically large enough to be retained on a U.S. 18 mesh screen. Therefore, sifting the raw bran
through screens finer than 18 mesh will result in removal of most of the germ where a large percentage of the desirable minerals, lipids, and vitamins reside. Although
processes are available and in use in Europe to separate the germ from the bran and broken rice, these processes are not widely employed in the U.S. as no significant
efforts have been made to market the germ separately.
A more desirable and economical approach to minimizing the grittiness resulting from the presence of the small broken pieces of rice may be to
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grind or reduce the particle size after stabilization. Again, due to the high oil content, this is not easily accomplished, but it is possible. Stabilized rice bran ground to
pass through 20, 40, and even 100 mesh sieves are commercially available today and may be more suitable for many food products.
Most rice milled today in the United States is milled to a degree that is defined as well milled, which means that most of the bran and germ and some of the endosperm
is removed, and the resulting lipid content of the milled kernel will be less than 1% and even as low as 0.5% by weight. Milling white rice to this degree will generally
result in rice bran that contains between 16 and 24% total lipids. The amount of lipids present in the bran is inversely proportional to the degree of milling and can be
lowered additionally by the presence of hulls, calcium carbonate, and excess broken rice pieces. Therefore lipid content is a good indicator of the quality and purity of
the bran.
As the bran is milled from the kernel, it is typically removed from the milling chamber by air suction and conveyed pneumatically. The bran is then separated from the
air by primary cyclone separators and then secondary cloth filters. It is generally not desirable to utilize the fine portion of the bran that is collected by the cloth filter, as
the residence time and sanitary aspects of such filters may lead to quality degradation. Additionally, the very fine portion that escapes the primary separator typically
consists of polish, which is primarily the flour portion of the endosperm and contains fewer of the fiberrelated traits generally associated with bran.
The freshly milled bran is then typically screened through a size 16 or 18 mesh to remove the majority of the small broken pieces of rice. Once the bran is removed
from the kernel, the lipase enzymes present are liberated and immediately begin to hydrolyze the lipids into free fatty acids. This process can be very rapid, and
accordingly the bran should be stabilized immediately to inactivate the lipase. As the free fatty acids can progress to levels exceeding 5% in just a few hours, it is
impractical and undesirable to accumulate or store raw bran for subsequent stabilization in a batch process. (For a more detailed description of the equipment involved
in rice milling, see Chapter 10.)
B—
Stabilization
Due to the rapid hydrolysis that occurs after milling, a proper stabilization process should be a continuous process, close coupled to the mill, and ideally the bran
should be treated within a few minutes after removal from the kernel. Conveying systems should be selfcleaning or otherwise designed to avoid accumulations and
buildup of old product.
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Although there are many potentially suitable means to stabilize or inactivate the lipase in rice bran, most commercial systems currently utilized in the United States use
the moistureadded or dry extrusion methods. These systems were generally selected due to relatively low energy requirements, low capital cost, and ease of
installation and operation.
Currently, a substantial amount of research is being performed evaluating alternative methods of stabilization which might better preserve or enhance the desirable
characteristics of rice bran (see Chapter 2). Stabilization by dry extrusion utilizes shear, friction, and pressure to generate the heat required to inactivate the lipase.
Depending upon the particular characteristics of and retention time in the extruder, the temperature of the bran must reach a minimum of 130–140°C for up to 3
seconds to assure inactivation of the lipase (2–4).
Although this system will adequately destroy or inactivate the lipase, there is growing evidence (23) that these conditions may also modify or destroy some of the
naturally occurring antioxidants, such as the tocopherols and tocotrienols, which are so abundantly present and desirable in rice bran. Since rice bran contains fairly
high levels of sucrose and other sugars, excessive shear and heat may also initiate certain Maillard reactions and even scorch the bran resulting in undesirable or bitter
flavor attributes.
Acceptable extrusion stabilization can be achieved under less harsh conditions by the direct addition of water or steam and the addition of a means to maintain the bran
temperature at 90–100°C after extrusion for 2–3 minutes prior to cooling. The lipase appears more heat sensitive at higher moisture and can therefore be inactivated at
somewhat lower extrusion temperatures (R. M. Saunders, personal communication). The addition of steam or moisture can also be beneficial in attempting to form
shapes or texture in the extruded bran. Due to the relatively low level of starch and the high lipid content of purer rice brans, very little expansion occurs upon exiting
the extruder, and the extrudate tends to be relatively fragile in terms of maintaining flakes or pellets.
Research in both the private and public sectors continues regarding the exploration and evaluation of alternative means to stabilize rice bran. As more is learned about
the composition as it relates to nutritional and health benefits and product functionality, other systems are likely to evolve and become commercially practical.
Residual peroxidase activity is generally used as the standard measure to assure that lipase has been deactivated in stabilized rice bran. Peroxidase is generally
considered to be more heat stable than lipase, and peroxidase activity tests are typically easier and more reliable than those procedures currently available for lipase.
The process conditions required to inactivate peroxidase as well as lipase may also cause modifications to or loss of some
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or all of the antioxidants naturally present in the bran, leading to a product that is shelf stable to the formation of free fatty acids, but which may be more subject to
oxidative rancidity than raw bran (R. M. Saunders, personal communication). More research and evaluation of the optimum time, temperature, and moisture
relationships in stabilization is needed. Additionally, more accurate methods of lipase analysis would assist in refining and optimizing the stabilization processes.
Whatever the method of stabilization, as with most nutritious food products, rice bran is subject to invasion by mold, yeast, and bacteria. The stabilization process must
effectively sterilize the product, and the further processing and packaging systems used should prevent the recontamination of the product.
C—
Storage and Shelf Life
Currently, the predominant goals in stabilizing rice bran are microbial sterilization and destruction of the lipase enzyme to prevent the formation of free fatty acids.
Lipase and peroxidase activity, along with free fatty acid content, are the current standard measures of stability. Following the extrusion stabilization conditions
outlined, bran can be produced that will remain stable for up to 18 months or longer under normal warehouse storage conditions in terms of free fatty acid formation.
However, the bran lipids are subject to oxidation and decomposition during storage, and the effective shelf life of stabilized rice bran can be affected by oxidation as
well as the formation of free fatty acids. Generally, the maximum recommended shelf life is six months under normal warehouse conditions. Refrigerated storage will
extend the shelf life significantly (R. M. Saunders, personal communication).
D—
Packaging, Shipping, and Transportation
Due to the high lipid content, rice bran poses some challenges in bulk material handling and storage systems. Depending upon the granulation, it may have a relatively
high minimum chute angle and is subject to ratholing and forming stable arches in bulk storage systems. Minimum chute angle defines the minimum angle at which a
material will slide on a chute. Ratholing and stable arches define noflow conditions in a bin that result from the formation of stable vertical holes or arches over the bin
outlet. However, these difficulties can generally be overcome by utilizing storage and handling systems that promote mass flow. Rice bran can be conveyed readily in
conventional mechanical and pneumatic conveying systems but, again due to the oil and waxes present, tends to form deposits in those systems. Provisions should be
employed to allow routine cleaning.
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Although it may be possible to transport stabilized rice bran in bulk by truck or rail, most stabilized rice bran is currently marketed in the United States in 50lb
multiwall paper bags or in semibulk bags or totes containing up to 2000 lb.
V—
Use of Rice Bran in Food Products
There are virtually unlimited ways to incorporate rice bran into a healthy and balanced diet. These can range from simply sprinkling rice bran on a dinner salad to using
it as a major ingredient in a complex shredded or extruded, multigrain readytoeat cereal. The USA Rice Council for Market Development lists the development and
market introduction of 24 new products containing rice bran in 1989 in the United States, along with 45 new rice bran products introduced in 1990 (26).
The functional characteristics and performance of rice bran in processed food products are somewhat different and unique among the cereal brans. This is particularly
true of fullfat rice bran. As the utilization of rice bran in commercial food products is a relatively new and developing phenomenon, there is a limited amount of
information about specific formulations and processes available in the public domain. As with the rice kernel itself, a great deal more needs to be learned about its
composition as it relates to functionality and processing characteristics.
Even within the definition and new industry standards for rice bran (Table 5), there appears to be considerable variation in functional characteristics among the various
supplies available, due to variations in processing and varieties. Along with the need for further research in this area, more refinements to the definition and standards
appear desirable.
However, several excellent reviews are available that depict some of the more common measures of functionality. Luh et al. (12) describe flavor, color, protein,
extractability, solubility, water absorption, fat absorption, and foaming capacity as important factors. Water absorption in fullfat bran is reported to be approximately
200 g water/100 g bran. Fat absorption using corn germ oil was reported to be around 150 g oil/100 g bran, and the bran exhibited very low foaming capacity.
Stabilized rice bran has a characteristic but relatively bland flavor described as slightly toasted and nutty and is generally light tan to light brown in color.
A—
ReadytoEat Cereals
Currently, most of the stabilized rice bran in the United States is used as an ingredient in readytoeat cereals. Due primarily to its relatively high lipid content, rice bran
normally cannot be substituted for another ingredient in
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an already developed and formulated product. Some adjustments in formulation and processing are necessary to assure the texture, flavor, and durability desired in
most products.
Although the specific formulations for products on the market are generally proprietary and unavailable, rice bran is and can be utilized successfully in many rolled or
flaked, shredded, extruded, and mixed grain or nuggettype cereals. Formulations utilizing rice bran at levels of up to 40% of dry ingredients have been developed and
marketed.
B—
Baked Products
The nutritional and functional properties of rice bran appear well suited for a variety of baked products such as multigrain or high fiber breads and muffins, as well as
cookies, crackers, pastries, and pancakes or waffles. Again, experimentation and formula adjustments may be necessary to achieve the desired product
characteristics. Proteins from rice bran do not have the properties of wheat gluten, and therefore the amount rice bran incorporated into breads may be limited by the
final volume of the loaf (27).
In a recent study (H. Bright and W. T. Doerry, unpublished), stabilized rice bran was compared to a high quality oat bran in several baked products. The stabilized
rice bran was found to be a suitable high fiber ingredient for pan bread, cookies, and crackers. A ground sample of stabilized rice bran was testbaked in several
bakery products and compared with a commercially available oat bran. Although the rice bran contributed more color, aroma, and taste than oat bran did, the pan
bread and cake muffins prepared with rice bran had good appearance and eating qualities. Similar results were obtained in cookies and in a cheese and bacon
flavored cracker, where the performance of both ground and unground rice bran was compared to oat bran. Both samples of rice bran produced good crackers but
were slightly darker in color than the oat bran cracker. In chocolate chip and chewy cookie trials, the oat bran chocolate chip cookies spread slightly more than the
rice bran cookies, and there was no significant difference between oat bran and rice bran chewy cookie quality.
Sharp and Kitchens (28) replaced 15 and 30% of the wheat flour with rice bran in yeast bread and concluded that rice bran can be substituted successfully up to the
15% replacement level without affecting loaf weight, height, or volume. Sensory ratings for breads containing 15% rice bran were not significantly different from the
control.
C—
Pasta Products
Due to texture and availability of very finely ground stabilized rice bran, it can be incorporated into pasta products with relative ease to produce a
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higher fiber product. The finest grinds of rice bran are generally more suitable for extruded or thin and fragile pasta products. Additionally, rice bran has been added to
the seasoning component as a flavor and fiber enhancer for seasoned pasta and rice mixes.
D—
Healthy Snacks and Desserts
With its abundance of vitamins and minerals and overall nutritional properties, along with the wide variety of granulations available, stabilized rice bran is becoming a
popular ingredient in a number of high fiber and nutritious snacks and desserts. Products currently being developed or marketed include extruded snacks, granola bars
and cereals, pastry fillings and puddings, and health drinks.
E—
Stabilized Brown Rice Flour
With the growing emphasis on more healthy diets, brown rice and brown rice flour have many applications where a nonallergenic starch or flour is desired. Although
brown rice is reasonably stable if carefully dehulled and handled, once it is ground into flour, hydrolytic rancidity occurs rapidly as it does in raw bran. Therefore,
brown rice flour is difficult to obtain and utilize.
A stable, reconstituted brown rice flour may be produced by combining and blending approximately one part of fullfat stabilized rice bran to six parts of white rice
flour. The resulting product will have essentially the same nutritional profile as brown rice, assuming that the flour and the bran are derived from the same variety of rice.
VI—
Rice Bran As a Raw Material for Derivatives, Other Food Ingredients, and Pharmaceuticals
In addition to being a source of high quality vegetable oil, rice bran is an excellent, and in some cases unique, source of many valuable derivatives and concentrates.
Although a significant amount of activity is underway in the United States towards developing a few of these products, Japan appears to be the current world leader in
these processes and products.
A—
Rice Bran Oil
Perhaps the most significant product, in terms of potential volume and demand, is rice bran oil. Rice bran oil is generally considered to be one of the highest quality
vegetable oils available in terms of its cooking qualities, shelf life, and fatty acid composition (29). As more is known about the role
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Table 8 Typical Fatty Acid Composition of Rice Bran
Oil
Fatty acid %
of oils and fats in the diet, rice bran oil utilization and demand in the United States will likely increase significantly. The only limit to the demand may lie in its cost of
extraction and refining compared to other readily available vegetable oils. Tables 8 and 9 depict the typical fatty acid composition and characteristics of fully refined
rice bran oil.
The predominant commercial process for producing rice bran oil is solvent extraction with hexane followed by refining steps including bleaching, dewaxing,
winterization, and deodorization (see Chapter 18). However, there appears to be an interest developing in evaluating other means of extraction such as cold pressing
or expelling, propane extraction, and supercritical CO2. As more is known about the desirable components of rice bran oil and how they are affected by extraction and
refining, other processes may be better able to preserve and enhance the nutritional characteristics.
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B—
Defatted or LowFat Rice Bran
The predominant byproduct of rice bran oil extraction in terms of volume is, of course, the defatted bran. The marketability and value of the defatted bran plays an
important, if not overwhelming, role in the economics and resulting unit cost of the oil itself. Since there are currently few, if any, major U.S. producers of rice oil, the
market potential for defatted or lowfat bran has not been fully developed in the United States.
However, in many instances, the defatted bran may be more functionally desirable in many food products and is an good source of insoluble dietary fiber and protein.
Further, its shelf life is greatly extended as a result of removing all or most of the lipids. The flavor of defatted rice bran is also generally more bland and accordingly
somewhat easier to incorporate into many products.
C—
Secondary Products from Rice Bran and Oil
The distillates, soaps, and waxes produced in the oilrefining processes are sources for many potentially valuable and useful products used in pharmaceutical and other
applications. Among these are fatty acids, oryzanol, tocopherols, tocotrienols, gums and waxes, and inositol. Additionally, the defatted bran is a source of such
compounds as dibasic calcium phosphate, phytic acid, calciummagnesium phytate, inositol, vitamin B, and protein concentrates.
VII—
Feed and Other Uses of Rice Bran
Until the recent development of commercial stabilization processes for rice bran, the predominant use and market for rice bran in the United States has been as an
ingredient in livestock feed, particularly for dairy cattle, swine, and poultry. It is still very much in demand for those uses and provides a good source for protein, fiber,
minerals, vitamins, and vegetable fat. The nutritional and feed value of rice bran has been reviewed by Juliano (30) and Luh and Benedito de Barber (12).
In addition to the more traditional feed uses, rice bran is also being used in high quality dog and horse rations. Although not yet fully explained or scientifically validated,
there are indications that the rice bran contributes to significant improvement in the luster and quality of the coat in these animals (J. Baldiviez, personal communication).
The oryzanol present in rice bran is reported to have functions similar to vitamin E in promoting growth, facilitating capillary growth in the skin, and improving blood
circulation, along with stimulating hormonal secretion (12). Additionally, there
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is growing interest in using rice bran as an ingredient in commercial catfish food (J. Baldiviez, personal communication).
When blended with sawdust or other components, rice bran is used as a culture medium for the growing of mushrooms (30,32). Koji malt obtained from deoiled bran
is suitable for the manufacture of miso (bean paste) and shoy (soy sauce) (30,31). Additionally, a paste made from rice bran and salt water is used in Japan for pickling
vegetables and fish (12,32).
VIII—
Conclusions
The foundation appears well established for the growth of rice bran as a food and as a source for many potentially valuable byproducts and compounds. The evolution
from an underutilized byproduct of one of the world's largest cereal grain crops to a commodity of great commercial importance is long overdue and continues slowly
but surely. However, the processing and utilization of rice bran is far from a mature technology. Many opportunities appear to exist to expand upon present knowledge
in areas such as processing, functionality, nutrition and health benefits, product development, and analytical methodology.
Acknowledgments
The U.S. ricemilling industry owes a debt of gratitude to the many preeminent researchers in the field who have dedicated a significant portion of their careers to
expand the utilization of rice bran. The list is long and includes such notable authorities as S. Barber and C. Benedito de Barber of the Instituto de Agroquimica y
Tecnologia de Alimentos, Valencia, Spain; M. M. Bean, A. A. Betschart, D. F. Houston (retired), T. S. Kahlon, J. M. Randall, R. M. Saunders (deceased), and R.
N. Sayre of the USDA, ARS, WRRC, Albany, California; B. O. Juliano of the International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; B. S. Luh of the
University of California, Davis, California; J. M. Harper and R. E. Tribblehorn of Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, Colorado; among many others in many
nations.
In addition to acknowledging the contributions to the field by those listed above, the author wishes to extend his gratitude to Robert N. Sayre and Frank Orthoefer for
kindly reading this chapter.
Dedication
This chapter is dedicated to the memory of Robin M. Saunders, Ph.D. (1940–1990).
Page 403
References
1. Barber, S., and Benedito de Barber, C. (1985). Rice Bran: An Underutilized Raw Material. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Publication E, 84. II. B.3.
2. Enochian, R. V., Saunders, R. M., Schultz, W. G., Beagle, E. C., and Crowley, P. R. (1981). Stabilization of Rice Bran With Extruder Cookers and Recovery
of Edible Oil. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Agric. Res. Service, Marketing Research Report No. 1120: 18 pp.
3. Sayre, R. N., Saunders, R. M., Enochian, R. V., Schultz, W. G., and Beagle, E. C. (1982). Review of rice bran stabilization systems with emphasis on extrusion
cooking. Cereal Foods World, 27:318.
4. Randall, J. M., Sayre, R. N., Schultz, W. G., Fong, R. Y., Mossman, A. P., Tribblehorn, R. E., and Saunders, R. M. (1985). Rice bran stabilization by extrusion
cooking for extraction of edible oil. J. Food Sci., 50:361.
5. Saunders, R. M. (1985). Rice bran: Composition and potential food uses. Food Rev. Int., 1:465.
6. Kahlon, T. S., Saunders, R. M., Chon, F. I., Chiu, M. C., and Betschart, A. A. (1989). Effect of rice bran and oat bran on plasma cholesterol in hamsters. Cereal
Foods World, 34:768.
7. Kahlon, T. S., Saunders, R. M., Chow, F. I., Chiu, M. M., and Betschart, A. A. (1990). Influence of rice bran, oat bran, and wheat bran on cholesterol and
triglycerides in hamsters. Cereal Chem., 67:439.
8. Nestel, P., and Kestin, M. (1990). Comparative effects of three cereal brans on plasma lipids, blood pressure, and glucose metabolism in mildly
hypercholesterolemic men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 52:661.
9. Gerhardt, A. L., and Gallo, N. B. (1989). Effect of a processed medium grain rice bran and germ on hypocholesterolemia. American Association of Cereal
Chemists Annual Meeting, Washington D. C. (poster presentation).
10. Hegsted, M., Windhauser, M. M., Lester, F. B., and Morris, S. K. (1990). Stabilized rice bran and oat bran lower cholesterol in humans. FASEB J., 4:A386.
11. Tomlin, J., and Read, N. W. (1988). Comparison of the effects on colonic function caused by feeding rice bran and wheat bran. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 42:857.
12. Luh, B. S., Barber, S., and Benedito de Barber, C. (1991). Rice bran: chemistry and technology, Rice Production and Utilization, Vol. II (B.S. Luh, ed.), Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 313.
13. Saunders, R. M. (1990). The properties of rice bran as a foodstuff. Cereal Foods World, 35:632.
14. Benedito de Barber, C., and Barber, S. (1978). Toxic constituents of rice bran. Rev. Agroquim. Technol. Aliment., 18:89.
15. Mitsuda, H., Kawai, F., Suzuki, A., and Hondo, J. (1977). Studies on the production of a protein rich fraction from rice bran by means of fractional sedimentation
in nhexane, Rice Report 1976 (S. Barber, H. Mitsuda, H.S.R. Desikachar, and E. Tortosa, eds.), International Union of Food Science and
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Technology. Working Party on Rice Utilization. Institute for Agricultural Chemistry and Food Technology, Valencia, Spain.
16. (1990). Committee of Rice Millers Association defines and standardizes rice bran. Cereal Foods World, 34:614.
17. Suzuki, M. (1982). Repressive effect of dietary fiber fractions in unpolished rice on the increase of cholesterol and triglyceride. J. Nutr. Food, 35:155.
18. Suzuki, S., Tezuka, T., and Oshima, S. (1984). Cholesterol lowering effect of rice bran oil. Oil Fat Japan, 37:59.
19. Aoe, S., Ohta, F., and Ayano, Y. (1989). Effect of rice bran hemicellulose on cholesterol metabolism in rats. Nippon Eiyoshokuryo Gakkaishi, 42:55.
20. Seetharamaiah, G. S., and Chandrasekara, D. (1988). Hypocholesterolemic activity of oryzanol in rats. Nutr. Rep. Int., 38:927.
21. Sharma, R. D., and Rukmini, C. (1987). Hypocholesterolemic activity of unsaponifiable matter of rice bran oil. Indian J. Med. Res., 85:278.
22. Nicolosi, R. J., Ausman, L. M., and Hegsted, D. M. (1991). Rice bran oil lowers serum total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol and apo B levels in
nonhuman primates. Atherosclerosis, 88:133.
23. Herting, D. C., and Drury, E. E. (1969). Alphatocopherol content of cereal grains and processed cereals. J. Agric. Food Chem., 17:785.
24. Wang, C. Y., and Luh, B. S. (1991). Harvest, drying, and storage of rough rice, Rice Production and Utilization, Vol. I (B. S. Luh, ed.), Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, p. 311.
25. Juliano, B. O. (1985). Criteria and tests for rice grain qualities, Rice Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.) AACC, St. Paul, MN, p. 495.
26. Rice as an Ingredient, 1989–1990. Gorman's New Prod. News. Gorman Publishing Co., Chicago, Ill.
27. Barber, S., Benedito de Barber, C., and Martinez, J. (1981). Rice bran proteins. II. Potential value of rice bran fractions as protein food ingredients. Rev.
Agroquim. Techno. Aliment., 21:247.
28. Sharp, C. Q., and Kitchens, K. J. (1990). Using rice bran in yeast bread in a home baker. Cereal Foods World, 35:1021.
29. Sayre, R. N., and Saunders, R. M. (1990). Rice bran and rice bran oil. Lipid Technol., 2:72.
30. Juliano, B. O. (1985). Rice bran, Rice Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), AACC, St. Paul, MN, p. 647.
31. Yokochi, K. (1977). Rice bran processing for the production of rice bran oil and characteristics and uses of the oil and deoiled bran. Proceedings of Rice By
Products Utilization, International Conference, 1974, Valencia, Spain. Vol. III. Rice Bran Utilization (S. Barber and E. Tortosa, eds.), Institute for Agricultural
Chemistry and Food Technology, Valencia, Spain.
32. Sakurai, J. (1977). Utilization of rice byproducts in Japan. Proceedings of Rice ByProducts Utilization, International Conference, 1974, Valencia, Spain. Vol.
IV. Rice Bran Utilization: Food and Feed (S. Barber and E. Tortosa, eds.), Inst. Agroquim. Techno. Aliment., Valencia.
Page 405
17—
Food Applications for Modified Rice Starches
Roy N. Sharp* and Carolyn Q. Sharp
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
I—
Introduction
Starch accounts for the greatest quantity of all the food consumed by mankind. Its functional properties exert great influence on the consumer's acceptance of the food.
The way food starch functions in a food system depends on its source. There are four general groupings of starch primarily based on their source: tubers, cereal grains,
waxy cereal grains (starch fraction contains less than 2% amylose) grains, and legumes. Functional properties of cereal starches differ distinctly from those of legumes
and tubers. Moreover, differences have been reported not only among cereals but also among varieties of the same nonwaxy cereal.
The ability of starch to form a viscous paste when heated in water is its most important property. Therefore, starch performs several different functions in foods:
1. Binding agent for batters, breadings, and ice cream cones
2. Coating and glazing agent for nut meats and candies
3. Colloidal stabilizer for oilinwater emulsions such as salad dressing
4. Drydusting of bakery products and certain candies
5. Fat substitute in salad dressings
6. Gelforming agent in such confections as gum drops
*Deceased.
Page 406
7. Moistureretention agent, as in toppings and icings for cakes
8. Thickening agent for piefillings, sauces, and soups.
The two major sources of starch in the United States are corn, which is native, and cassava (starch known as tapioca), which is imported. Early food processors
sought starch supplies according to the commodity source. As the consumer's textural expectations and quality consciousness increased, functional properties of the
starch became more important. The need to improve the functionality of starch and expand its usefulness brought about the search for ways to modify the properties of
native starch. Modified starches of today are designed to overcome the limitations of native starch in providing controlled hydration, waterholding capacity, gel
formation, clarity and stability during aging.
II—
Modified Starches
Modification is the altering of the physical and/or chemical properties of starch. Modified starches are often referred to, in general, as converted starch, but may be
defined by source, prior treatment, amylose and amylopectin content or ratio, degree of polymerization or molecular weight, degree of substitution, physical form, type
of derivative, and associated constituents. Because rice is the focus of this publication, other sources of starch will not be addressed except where appropriate for
comparative purposes. It is outside the scope of this chapter to describe the detailed mechanisms of starch modification. We will concentrate here on procedures to
accomplish certain changes and the applications of those alterations in food products.
As indicated above, rice is not one of the primary sources of modified food grade starch. On a global basis, the majority of rice is consumed for food as intact kernels
in the country of origin. While the United States produces only 1.3% (6.5 million metric tons [MMT]) of the world's rice, it is a major exporter and supplies almost
20% of the rice that is traded internationally (1). The amount of corn produced in the United States (approximately 181.5 MMT) and the utilization pattern (2) present
a very different economic picture. Approximately 80% of the corn is used for animal feed, providing a situation especially suitable to valueadded processing
techniques, such as starch modification for food purposes.
It is understandable that the literature is lacking in information reporting specific processes for the modification of rich starch. This in itself does not mean that
techniques have not been developed for rice starch modification. No doubt there have been proprietary investigations that were not published, and many of the
processes developed to modify other starch sources are appropriate for rice.
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In accordance with paragraph 172.892, Part 21, Code of Federal Regulations (3), food starch modified under certain specified conditions ''may be safely used in
food. The quantity of any substance employed to effect such modification shall not exceed the amount reasonably required to accomplish the intended physical or
technical effect nor exceed any limitation prescribed." Food starch may be modified by treatments prescribed in Table 1.
Table 1 CFR Requirements for Effecting the Modification of Food Starch
Maximum
Reactant allowable reactant Limitations
Acid modified
Hydrochloric acid and/or Sulfuric acid
Bleached (may use one or more reactants)
Active oxygen from hydrogen peroxide 0.45% active oxygen
and/or peracetic acid
Ammonium persulfate and sulfur 0.075%
dioxide 0.05%
Chlorine as sodium hypochlorite 0.0082 lb. per. lb dry
starch
Sodium chlorite 0.5%
Oxidized
Chlorine, as sodium hypochlorite 0.055 lb. per lb. dry
starch
Esterified
Acetic anhydride 2.5% acetyl groups in finished
starch
Monosodium orthophosphate 0.4% P in finished starch
1Octenyl succinic anhydride 3%
1Octenyl succinic anhydride 2%
and aluminum sulfate 2%
(table continued on next page)
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Table 1 Continued
Maximum
Reactant allowable reactant Limitations
Phosphorus oxychloride 0.1%
Phosphorus oxychloride followed by 0.1% 2.5% acetyl groups in finished
acetic anhydride 8% starch
Sodium trimetaphosphate 0.4% P in finished starch
Sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium 0.4% P in finished starch
trimetaphosphate
Succinic anhydride 4%
Vinyl acetate 2.5% acetyl groups in finished
starch
Etherified
Acrolein 0.6%
Epichlorohydrin 0.3%
Epichlorohydrin and propylene 0.1% 5 ppm propylene chlorohydrin in
oxide 10% in combination finished starch
or in any sequence
Epichlorohydrin and succinic anhydride 0.3%
4%
Phosphorus oxychloride and propylene 0.1% 5 ppm propylene chlorohydrin in
oxide 10% finished starch
Modified
Chlorine as sodium hypochlorite, active 0.005 lb per lb dry 5 ppm propylene chlorohydrin in
oxygen from hydrogen peroxide and starch finished starch
propylene oxide 0.45%
25%
Sodium hydroxide 1%
Other
Modification may also be accomplished by combinations of the treatments shown under the
above sections of acidmodified and/or bleached and any one of oxidized, esterified,
etherified, esterified and etherified, or modified, provided all limitations are respected.
Source: Ref. 3.
Page 409
III—
Starch Modification Methods
A—
CrossLinking
Starch is a polymer of anhydroglucose units; therefore, hydroxyls (OH) are abundantly available for potential chemical reactions. There are several compounds
capable of forming chemical bonds with starch at these sites. Specific compounds, such as epichlorohydrin, phosphorus oxychloride, and sodium trimetaphosphate
(Fig. 1), contain two or more active sites capable of reacting with hydroxyls and therefore may react with hydroxyls from different starch molecules to yield a cross
linking effect (Fig. 2).
Figure 1
Molecular structure of (A)
sodium trimetaphosphate, (B)
phosphorus oxychloride, and (C)
epichlorohydrin.
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Figure 2
Chemical reaction between starch and the crosslinking agent epichlorohydrin.
(From Ref. 4.)
Crosslinked rice starch products are not easily found. The process of crosslinking rice starch should follow the same procedure as any other starch. However, there
is little mention in the literature of studies using rice starch. This leads one to conclude either that rice starch does not respond to typical crosslinking conditions and/or
that the majority of the rice starch crosslinking experiments were conducted as proprietary work.
The most highly publicized rice crosslinking experiments were conducted on milled, intact rice kernels to effect greater canning stability (4–7). Milled longgrain rice
(Starbonnet, cv.) is rinsed with water to remove any talc and glucose applied for commercial purposes, then treated as shown in Figure 3 to achieve crosslinking of
starch in the rice kernel. Treatment of the rice with NaOH increases the pH sufficiently to activate the hydroxyl groups of the starch. The entire procedure is conducted
at room temperature and is quite time consuming in order to achieve swelling without gelatinizing the starch granules. A closed system is required to prevent loss of the
volatile epichlorohydrin. The high pH required for activation of the starch causes a yellow discoloration of the rice kernel. This
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Figure 3
Treatment scheme for using epichlorohydrin to crosslink rice.
(From Ref. 4.)
visual defect is apparently pH dependent and disappears when the pH of the kernel is reduced during neutralization.
Neutralization must be conducted under carefully controlled conditions to ensure that the pH of the liquid media surrounding the kernels remains above pH 4 to prevent
acid modification of the starch (5), which would
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result in excessive leaching of solids. Once the crosslinking process is complete, the treated rice exhibits approximately 68% less starch leaching than the untreated
rice at pH 5 (6).
Rutledge et al. (4) explained that many starches are crosslinking by reacting epichlorohydrin with hydroxyl groups of starch to form mono and diethers, which may be
either inter or intramolecular. Therefore, they assumed that the chemical reactions would be the same for rice. Rice so treated is reported to have marked changes in
the swelling behavior and overcooking resistance, with 78% lower solids loss than normally found in parboiled rice. These changes reportedly eliminate the need for
parboiling rice prior to thermal processing of canned soups.
Phosphorus oxycholoride and sodium trimetaphosphate are ineffective crosslinking reactants for white rice (7). These same reactants are effective when used on
parboiled rice, with sodium trimetaphosphate and epichlorohydrintreated parboiled rice being superior to that treated with phosphorus oxychloride (5).
A greater degree of crystallinity in the ungelatinized kernel of nonparboiled rice, in comparison to parboiled rice, reportedly is why sodium trimetaphosphate and
phosphorus oxychloride fail as reactants for crosslinking nonparboiled rice (8). Two factors have been proposed to explain why epichlorohydrin effectively cross
linked nonparboiled rice kernels while the other two compounds failed: (a) the relative molecular structure of the three reactants (see Fig. 1), and (b) the condition of
the rice when it is subjected to the reactant.
Storage studies of canned crosslinked rice indicated that a considerable amount of solids continues to leach from the kernel during storage. Furthermore, the loss is
greater at pH 5 than at pH 7 (9). Whether rice is hydrated before or after the can is sealed, the crosslinked rice loses less solids and is less sticky than the untreated
rice (10).
In addition to the compounds mentioned above, polyhydric alcohols have been used to crosslink rice starch. Patents were issued for a procedure for preparing
canned rice that included treatment of milled rice with polyhydric alcohols partially esterified with higher fatty acids (11,12). This treatment probably modifies the starch
on the surface of the rice kernel by chemical esterification to reduce the degree of stickiness.
Rice flours modified by either acetic or succinic anhydride treatment yielded products with varied functional characteristics (13). Increased loaf volume, softer crumb
texture, and bettertasting bread were reported as advantages attained by using modifed rice flour. Amylographic viscosity profiles produced from modified rice starch
slurries (Fig. 4) indicate that functional properties of rice starch can be manipulated to increase the viscosity, but greater degrees of crosslinking decrease the viscosity
(14).
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Figure 4
Amylographic viscosity profiles of rice starches modified by adipic anhydride
and acetic anhydride esterification. Adipic acid contents of the modified
starches from reactions A, B, C, and D were 0.008, 0.023, 0.065, and 0.167%,
respectively.
The starch was modified by a joint acetylation and crosslinking reaction using adipic acid and acetic anhydride.
B—
Retrogradation
Retrogradation is the recrystallization of gelatinized starch. This term is normally used to indicate the thickening phenomenon that occurs during the cooling of cooked
starch. Retrogradation occurs in most starches and in general is not considered as a starch modifying process. In the context of altering the starch component of food
(such as a rice kernel), retrogradation can be used as a method to change the functionality of the starch.
During cooling, carbohydrate molecules become physically aligned in a somewhat parallel manner due to hydrogen bonding among the hydroxyl groups in one
molecule of amylose and those in another (15). Therefore, recrystallization of starch is essentially a crosslinking process driven by
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electrostatic interactions rather than covalent bonding. In this sense, deliberate, controlled retrogradation of the starch in rice kernels may be considered as starch
modification, especially when it is used for a specific effect.
Domoto (16) induced a firming action on milled rice kernels by chilling cooked rice to approximately 37°F (3°C). Roseman (17) reported that structural alteration of
rice resulted from the freezing of rice, which had been hydrated to a minimum of 60% water. Such treatment changes the water uptake of the rice. Retrogradation of
the rice starch promotes the development of a firmer kernel surface maintaining a greater degree of kernel integrity and individuality. This surface firming allows the
development of a method for canning rice that employs a freezing step immediately following thermal processing to prevent the rice from forming a solid body in the
can and provides a product that pours more easily from the can (18). Freezing and thawing the rice before canning (19) results in canned rice with retarded water
uptake during and increased solids loss following canning. The net effect of freezing and thawing treatments is canned rice with a more acceptable appearance and less
stickiness.
The ability to alter rice functionality by retrogradation depends on the amylose content of the rice. The higher the amylose content of the rice starch, the greater the
degree of retrogradation as evidence by amylographic cold paste viscosity (20) and amylographic consistency (21) of rice flour (Table 2).
Xray diffraction has shown that freezing induces the same effect on rice starch as found in normal retrogradation of cooked rice (22).
C—
Parboiling
The method most used to alter the functional properties of rice starch may be the one that is most overlooked. Parboiling (partially cooking) is a
Table 2 Influence of Amylose Content on Amylographica
Consistency and Cold Paste Viscosity (50°C)
Cold pastec
Amylose type Consistencyb viscosity
High 560 1135
Intermediate 275 765
Low 185 555
Waxy 73 450
a
10% slurry.
bCold paste (50°C) viscosity minus hot paste (95°C) viscosity.
cSlurry cooled to 50°C.
Source: Ref. 21.
Page 415
process by which the texture of rice is physically altered by applying heat to highmoisture rough rice. Procedures by which parboiling may be accomplished are
extremely varied. There are several excellent reviews of parboiling (23–25) addressing the development of the technology and its impact on human nutrition. Parboiling
is thought to have originated in ancient India (24) and spread throughout the general area of India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka as a home preparation technique and no
doubt was later adapted to the village level to meet needs of trading.
The high incidence of beriberi (thiamine deficiency) in areas of the Orient where the diet was composed largely of milled rice, and the absence of the disease in specific
areas where parboiled rice was consumed, called attention in the early nineteenth century to the nutritional benefits of the process. An improved parboiling process
developed in England became known as the "conversion process." The use of this process was acquired and put into production in Houston, Texas, about 1941. War
World II greatly influenced the development of the parboiling industry in the United States. Military operations needed rice with greater resistance to adverse storage
conditions and increased nutritional value. Parboiling imparted these qualities to the rice.
Modification of rice starch due to parboiling specifically results in the entrapment of protein, B vitamins, and minerals that were translocated from the outer layers of the
rice kernel and dispersed throughout the endosperm. Up to 80% of the original thiamine has been found in the endosperm of milled parboiled rice (26). Parboiling
changes the visual appearance of the rice kernel from opaque and dull to translucent and shiny. The grain structure is more compact, imparting a greater resistance to
insect attacks, greater resistance to water uptake during cooking, and a firmer texture after cooking (24,25). Along with the these advantages come disadvantages.
Watersoluble pigments are also carried from the outer layers during soaking and are subsequently trapped in the endosperm upon starch gelatinization. It took many
years to understand that thiamine, being water soluble, migrated from the outer layer into the endosperm of the kernel and became trapped there when the starch
became disordered (denatured, modified, or also referred to as converted).
Regardless of the original purpose for parboiling rice, we can look back on the process as being one of the earlier methods of modifying starch. In addition to
gelatinization and reassociation, thermal degradation of the starch must be considered as a contributor to the peculiar properties of parboiled rice (27).
Commercially prepared rice and rice flour can be obtained with varied degrees of parboiling. The trademark of the process may vary depending of the processor.
Some of the commercial terms indicating that rice has undergone a parboiling process are "conditioned," "converted," and "parboiled."
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The firming effect of parboiling on the kernel was recognized early in the history of the U.S. riceprocessing industry. This provided greater incentive for refining
parboiling methodologies (28,29). Later documentation substantiated that parboiling prevented the deterioration of rice kernels during canning as evidence by reduced
solids loss and increased firmness (30).
Xray diffraction spectra and differential scanning calorimetry of parboiled and nonparboiled rices indicate that parboiled rice is largely amorphous with only minor
crystallinity (31).
D—
Dry Heating
Rapid heating of milled rice using preheated air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or superheated steam (32) can be used to alleviate stickiness of canned rice. The application
of dry heat to parboiled rice to develop a distinct toasted flavor results in an increased water uptake ratio (water uptake at 60°C divided by water uptake at 96°C), a
reduction in the amylographic viscosity (32), and a greater degree of firmness in kernels of canned rice (33,34) (Table 3).
Pyrolysis of starch to pyrodextrins, sometimes called British gums, has applications for the food, paper, and textile industries. Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of
starch without the use of added catalyst. Pyrodextrinization (35) increased the solubility of starches from wheat, jowar (maize), ragi, and rice. The much lower
solubility for rice starch is attributed to the nature of associative bonding forces within the granules, the composition of starch (particularly amylose: amylopectin ratio),
and their crystalline structures. Prolonged pyrodextrinization (greater than 10 hours) results in reduced (
Table 3 Effects of Dry Heat on Water Inhibition, Firmness, and Amylographic
Viscosity of Parboiled Rice
Amylographic viscosity (BU)c
Toasting Water
time at 170°C uptake Shear
(min) ratioa valueb (lb) Peak Hot paste Cold paste
0 .41 44 520 465 1165
15 .46 59 185 250 570
30 .47 67 155 240 535
45 .49 70 125 215 500
60 .51 76 110 180 450
a
Water uptake 60°C/water uptake 96°C.
b100 g canned rice product using a 13 blade Kramer shear cell.
cBrabender units.
Source: Ref. 33.
Page 417
amylolysis in all four starches indicating the likelihood of increased branching due to a transglycosidation reaction during pyrolysis.
E—
Acidification
The knowledge that dispersed starch can be acid hydrolyzed to produce sugars and syrups dates back to the early 1800s. The use of controlled acid concentrations
and processing temperatures to produce modified starches on a commercial basis began about the turn of this century (36).
Comparative acid modification of various starches (37) has shown that the susceptibility of starch granules to acid attack differs widely depending on the original
source. These findings suggest that cereal starches behave almost as one group and yield thinner (lower viscosity) liquids than starch from chickpea or potato under
similar treatment conditions. The degree of vulnerability is also suggestive of the differences in the molecular and granular makeup of different starches.
The most significant application of the acidification process for rice appears to have been to the rice kernel rather that to dispersed starch. Normally the purpose of
acidification is to reduce the hot paste viscosity of native starch. However, when used on intact rice kernels it can provide a very different effect. Willison (38)
prepared milled rice for canning by rinsing it with cold water, then boiling it for 20 minutes in acidified (phosphoric acid) water. Rice treated in this manner retains
kernel individuality. Gallenkamp (39) reversed the steps of Willison and still attained the desired effect of a firmer textured kernel. Tollefson and Bice (40) steeped
parboiled rice in acidified (glacial acetic acid) water to attain a 55–60% moisture content with no actual inactivation step to prepare rice for canning and attained the
same effect as Willison. Gallenkamp (39) and Wilbur (41), working to produce a commercially sterile canned rice product, attained the same benefit of firmer texture
and greater kernel individuality though decreased pH.
Parboiled rice canned in acidified (food grade citric acid) water, to yield increasingly lower final product pH, exhibits the greatest degree of firmness in the 6.1–5.2 pH
range; thereafter, the shear value decreases steadily as final pH decreases (42). When the acidulant is malic acid, a similar trend is found but the texture values are not
statistically different. When parboiled rice is toasted to develop a prominent toasted flavor, the initial firming effect due to pH decrease is not demonstrated using either
citric or malic acid.
IV—
Future for New Rice Starch Modifications
Both academic and industrial research have focused on the modification of corn starch. Therefore, a great variety of modified starches from corn are
Page 418
already commercially available. Price comparison of corn and rice indicates that rice is at an economic disadvantage for direct competition. However, as food
manufacturing becomes more complex, starch products with different characteristics are needed. Differences in the functional quality of nonmodified rice starches
signify potential for great variability in modified starches, and marketing opportunities can be enormous if new modified rice starches are developed to meet specific
needs.
V—
Conclusions
Rice starch provides significant nutritional benefits in many cultures. The modification of rice starch can extend its nutritional benefit and provide products with very
different functional properties. New uses for modified rice starch continue to be developed, with functions ranging from colloidal stabilizers to fat replacers to dusting
agents. Although not a major source of starch in the United States, many rice products are the result of rice starch modification. The most important modification from
an economic standpoint and often the most overlooked is the process of parboiling. Rice is one of the few commodities in which starch modification is practical in both
the intact kernel and in the extracted starch.
References
1. Sharp, R. N. (1991). Rice: production, processing, and utilization, Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology (K. J. Lorenz and K. Kulp, eds.), Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, p. 301.
2. OTA. (1989). U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Enhancing the Quality of U.S. Grain for International Trade, OTAF399, Washington, DC.
3. FDA. (1988). Food starchmodified. Code of Federal Regulation, Title 21, Sec. 172.892.
4. Rutledge, J. E., Islam, M. N., and James, W. H. (1972). Improved canning stability of rice by chemical modification. Cereal Chem., 49:430.
5. Rutledge, J. E., Islam, M. N., and James, W. H. (1974). Improved canning stability of parboiled rice through crosslinking. Cereal Chem., 51:46.
6. Rutledge, J. E., and Islam, M. N. (1973). Canning and pH stability of epichlorohydrintreated parboiled rice. J. Agr. Food Chem., 21:458.
7. Islam, M. N. (1973). Improved canning stability of rice by chemical modification. Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 33 (12, Part I):5900.
8. Islam, M. N., Rutledge, J. E., and James, W. H. (1974). Influence of rice crystallinity on crosslinking. Cereal Chem., 51:51.
9. Rutledge, J. E., and Islam, M. N. (1976). Improved shelflife at room temperature of canned rice modified by crosslinking. Cereal Chem., 53:862.
Page 419
10. Rutledge, J. E., and Islam, M. N. (1976). Limited moisture canning of rice—Effects of crosslinking. Cereal Chem., 53:982.
11. Ferrel, R. E. (1959). Procedure for preparing canned rice. U.S. Patent 2,898,214. August 4, 1959.
12. Ferrel, R. E. (1959). Method of canning rice. U.S. Patent 2,898,215. August 4, 1959.
13. Alhusaini, S. S. (1985). Modification of rice flour and its potential in the food industry. Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 46 (6):1758.
14. Van Devender, D., and Sharp, R. N. (1990). Development of a freezethaw stable crosslinked rice flour. Proc. Rice Tech. Working Group, Biloxi, MS,
February 26–28, 1990, p. 80.
15. Dengate, H. N. (1984). Swelling, pasting, and gelling of wheat starch, Advances in Cereal Science and Technology (Y. Pomeranz, ed.), American Association
of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul, MN, p. 49.
16. Domoto, T. (1936). Process of canning rice. U.S. Patent 2.055,120. September 22, 1936.
17. Roseman, A. S. (1958). The effect of freezing on the hydration characteristics of rice. Food Technol., 12:464.
18. Verity, N. S., and Allen, R. C. (1964). Method of canning rice. U.S. Patent 3,132,030. May 5, 1964.
19. Loustaunau, J. H. (1976). Retrogradation of rice starch for improved canning stability. Dis. Abstr. Int. B, 36 (12, Part I):6050.
20. Webb, B. D. (1985). Criteria of rice quality in the United States, Rice Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), American Association of Cereal
Chemists, Inc., St. Paul, MN, p. 403.
21. Juliano, B. O. (1985). Criteria of rice quality, Rice Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul.
MN, p. 443.
22. Roseman, A. S., and Deobald, H. J. (1959). Effect of freezeprocessing on amyloclastic susceptibility, crystallinity, and hydration characteristics of rice. J. Agr.
Food Chem., 7:774.
23. Kik, M. C., and Williams, R. R. (1945). The nutritional improvement of white rice. Bull. No. 112, National Research Council, Washington, D. C.
24. Bhattacharya, K. R. (1985). Parboiling of rice, Rice Chemistry and Technology (B. O. Juliano, ed.), American Association of Cereal Chemistry, Inc., St. Paul,
MN, p. 289.
25. Luh, B. S., and Mickus, R. R. (1991). Parboiling rice, Rice: Vol. II, Utilization, 2d ed. (B. S. Luh, ed.), Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 51.
26. Kik, M. C. (1943). The story of rice conversion. Rice J., 46 (3):7.
27. Mahanta, C. L., and Bhattacharya, K. R. (1989). Thermal degradation of starch in parboiled rice. Starch, 41:91.
28. YonanMalek, M. (1943). Control system of boiling and canning rice. U.S. Patent 2,334,665. November 16, 1943.
29. YonanMalek, M. (1943). Control system of boiling and canning rice. U.S. Patent 2,334,666. November 16, 1943.
Page 420
30. Demont, J. I., and Burns, E. E. (1968). Effects of certain variables on canned rice quality. Food Technol., 22:1186.
31. Mahanta, C. L., Ali, S. Z., Bhattacharya, K. R., and Mukherjee, P. S. (1989). Nature of starch crystallinity in parboiled rice. Starch, 41:171.
32. Ott, M. (1970). Treatment of rice. U.S. Patent 3,532,508. October 6, 1970.
33. Sharp, R. N., Kattan, M. W., and Sharp, C. Q. (1985). The effects of toasting on the quality of canned rice. J. Food Sci., 50:340, 381.
34. Sharp, R. N., Kattan, A. A., and Sharp, C. Q. (1984). Effects of toasting on rice cooking quality. Ark. Farm Res., 33 (4):11.
35. Wankhede, D. B., and Umadevi, S. (1982). Preparation and some physicochemical properties of pyrodextrins of ragi, wheat, jowar and rice starches. Starch,
34:162.
36. Wurzburg, O. B. (1986). Converted starches, Modified Starches: Properties and Uses (O. B. Wurzburg, ed.), CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL, p. 18.
37. Singh, V., and Zakiuddin Ali, S. (1987). Comparative acid modification of various starches. Starch, 39:402.
38. Willison, W. W. (1926). Method of preparing rice for canning. U.S. Patent 1,589,672. June 22, 1926.
39. Gallenkamp, N. (1952). Process for canning rice. U.S. Patent 2,616,810. November 4, 1952.
40. Tollefson, C. I., and Bice, C. W. (1972). Method of preparing canned cooked rice. U.S. Patent 3,647,486. March 7, 1972.
41. Wilbur, P. C. (1940). Rice product and process. U.S. Patent 2,187,718. January 23, 1940.
42. Sharp, R. N. (1981). Process control requirements, quality attributes and nutritive characteristics of thermally processed rice and its fortification with soy protein.
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, p. 28.
Page 421
18—
Rice Bran Oil and Its Health Benefits
Robert J. Nicolosi and Eugene J. Rogers
University of MassachusettsLowell, Lowell, Massachusetts
Lynne M. Ausman
Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts
Frank T. Orthoefer
Riceland Foods, Inc., Stuttgart, Arkansas
I—
Introduction
Many studies have been performed on the effect of various oils on serum cholesterol. An oil is often identified by its source such as rice, corn, soybean, or coconut oil.
Often the oil is insufficiently characterized as to its composition, degree of oxidation, or nontriglyceride components. Only recently have investigators become more
aware of the nontriglyceride components beyond the fatty acid composition. This chapter attempts to bring together the composition of rice bran oil, the effect of
processing on the nontriglyceride components of the oil, and the health benefits derived from rice bran oil, including the oil as part of the diet.
II—
Rice Bran Oil and Its Stabilization
Rough rice contains 0.6–3.5% oil. The oil is concentrated primarily in the germ but is present in the bran as well. About 80% of the lipids of brown rice are in the bran
and polish. About one third is in the embryo. Rice bran includes, in the United States, the soft germ and several histologically identifiable soft layers surrounding the
hard starchy endosperm. Rice bran and germ contain the oil referred to as rice bran oil. Bran contains 15–20% oil.
Rice bran also contains a highly reactive lipase enzyme. When the bran layers are removed from the endosperm during milling, the individual cells
Page 422
are disrupted and the rice lipids come into contact with the lipase enzyme. Hydrolysis of the ester occurs with a rapid increase in the free fatty acid content of the bran.
Bran from parboiled rice is stable due to the deactivation of the enzyme during the parboiling process.
Extrusion cooking, a lowcost stabilization technique, is increasingly used because of its positive effects on nutritional value. Extrusion is generally practiced immediately
after milling to minimize the extent of hydrolytic rancidity. Extrusionstabilized bran possesses several months of storage stability. Both nonstabilized bran and extrusion
stabilized bran have been used for oil extraction. Once extracted, the oil is stable and may be stored for subsequent processing through the conventional steps to an
acceptable oil.
III—
Composition of Rice Bran Oil
A—
Triglycerides
The main component of crude rice bran oil, the triglycerides, make up approximately 80% of the oil. For a typical fatty acid composition of rice bran oil, an oleic acid
oil, see Table 1. The triglyceride content varies but is primarily dependent on the extent of hydrolysis that occurred prior to stabilization of the bran (Table 2). Partial
esters present as mono and diglycerides and the free fatty acids are a reflection of the hydrolysis that has occurred.
B—
Minor Constituents
The minor constituents of an oil consist of phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols, waxes, and tocopherols. The phospholipids present are phos
Table 1 Composition of Rice Bran Oil
Chain length:
No. of
Fatty acid double bonds Percent
Myristic 14:0 0.1– 1.0
Palmitic 16:0 12.0–18.0
Palmitoleic 16:1 0.2– 0.6
Stearic 18:0 1.0– 3.0
Oleic 18:1 40.0–50.0
Linoleic 18:2 20.0–42.0
Linolenic 18:3 0.0– 1.0
Arachidic 20.0 0.0– 1.0
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Table 2 Composition of Crude Rice Bran Oil
Triglycerides 80%
Phospholipids 2%
Glycolipids 1%
Sterols 5%
Waxes 2–5%
phatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol. The glycolipids are mainly galactose and glucose derivatives.
The broad class of unsaponifiable matter of rice bran oil consists of approximately 42% sterols, 24% higher alcohols, 20% ferulic acid esters, 10% hydrocarbons, and
2% unknown. The unsaponifiables are generally represented by the sterol fraction of the oils. These include free sterols, sterol esters, sterylglycosides, and acylsteryl
glycosides. Sitosterol is the most abundant sterol present. Oxyzanol, present at 0.96–2.9% of bran oil, is a ferulic acid ester of triterpenoid alcohols and is present in
the sterol fraction removed primarily during caustic refining of the oil. Oxyzanol is reported to have antioxidant properties similar to that of vitamin E.
Wax concentration in the crude oil is dependent on the extraction method and origin of the bran. Wax may comprise about 3–9% of rice bran oil. Generally, the higher
the extraction temperature, the greater the quantity of wax removed from the bran when hexane is used as the extraction solvent. Waxes have low iodine values (10–
12) and high melting points (82–84°C). Waxes have been classified into hard and soft fractions. The fatty alcohols of the hard fraction were found to be C24, C26,
and C30. The saturated fatty acids were C22, C24, and C26, and normal alkanes of C29 and C31. Soft wax contained C24 and C30 alcohols, C16 and C
24 saturated fatty acids, and C21 and C29 normal alkanes.
IV—
Extraction of Rice Bran Oil
The process flow of rice bran for oil extraction and oil refining is shown in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. Bran from freshly milled rice has an initial free fatty acid level
of 1.5–2% for milled rice and 2–5% for parboiled. Free fatty acid level of the bran for oil extraction should be as low as possible for ease of extraction and efficiency
of refining of the oil as well as for yield considerations.
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Figure 1
Process flow chart for rice bran oil extraction starting with rice bran from the
mill.
Oil may be removed from the bran using hydraulic pressing and/or solvent extraction. Hydraulic pressing is limited to approximately a 50% oil recovery. Pressed oil
generally contains significant quantities of fines requiring filtration prior to refining of the oil.
Extraction of the oil may be carried out with a variety of solvents, although hexane is generally used. Rice bran for solvent extraction may be steamed for stabilization
and to facilitate pellet or collet formation. The steam treatment also assists freeing the oil from other bran components. Bran in a pellet or collet form has a significantly
higher solvent percolation rate leading to shorter extraction times. Extrusionstabilized bran can be stored without degradation prior to oil removal. The extraction may
be carried out in a batchtype or continuous extractor. The temperature of extraction influences the quantity of wax removed. The solvent plus oil, referred to as
micella, is filtered prior to distillation of the solvent. The wet defatted bran is desolventized, dried, and cooled. Solvents are recovered throughout the process. The
micella may undergo dewaxing and refining prior to desolventizing. Solvent dewaxing facilitates wax removal with mini
Page 425
Figure 2
Process flow chart for conventional oil refining starting with crude rice bran
oil.
mal loss of neutral oil. Crystallization times are minimized also. Solvent refining offers similar yield advantages. Desolventizing is accomplished through distillation. The
products of extraction may consist of defatted bran, crude rice bran oil, wax, and soaps of fatty acids.
V—
Processing of Rice Bran Oil
The degree of processing of the oil depends upon its intended uses. Generally, food applications require only the triglyceride portion of the crude oil. Various
components are more difficult to remove from the crude oil and do not detract from food utilization. These usually consist of unsaponifiables, pigments, and limited
quantities of partial esters. The processes used for preparation of food oils consist of dewaxing, degumming, neutralization, bleaching, winterization, and deodorization,
as described below.
Page 426
A—
Dewaxing
Dewaxing of the rice bran oil while still in micella form is the most efficient dewaxing method. Other methods consist simply of cooling the oil and allowing the waxes to
crystallize and settle. Suspended waxes may be removed by filtration or centrifugation. Micella dewaxing consists of cooling the oilsolvent mixture to about 15°C,
allowing crystallization to occur, and centrifugation or filtration for wax removal.
B—
Degumming
Gums consist of polar lipids having surfaceactive properties. Gums from soybean oil when dried are the lecithin emulsifiers of industry. Rice oil degumming generally
requires the use of degumming agents such as phosphoric or citric acids to hydrolyze the gums, ensuring complete hydration. The oil is heated to 60–80°C, a small
amount of the acid is added along with water for hydration. The wet gums are separated from the oil by centrifugation. Acidic degumming is usually combined with
neutralization or refining.
C—
Neutralization
Neutralization or refining of the rice oil consists simply of neutralizing the free fatty acids present. Caustic soda (NaOH) is generally used for the neutralization. Free
fatty acids present are converted to sodium soaps, which are hydratable and removable by centrifugation. A small excess of caustic (0.5% excess of a 18% caustic
solution) ensures neutralization of both the free fatty acids and acidic degumming agents. Temperature is kept low, less than 65°C, for rice bran oil as severe darkening
occurs at higher temperatures.
High refining losses are often encountered with rice bran oil because of high free fatty acid levels in the oil. Micella refining results in decreased losses due to
entrainment of oil. Rice oil, having high levels of free fatty acids, may be double refined using conventional methods to reduce oil losses yet ensure free fatty acid
removal.
D—
Bleaching
Bleaching of the oil is carried out to remove pigments, oxidized lipids, and polar components from the oil. Acidactivated bleaching clays are added to the oil at 1–3%,
the mixture is agitated and heated under vacuum, and the clay is removed by filtration.
Page 427
E—
Deodorization
Final removal of odors, flavors, and free fatty acids occurs during deodorization. Deodorization, a steam distillation process, consists of a combination of high vacuum,
steam purging, and highheat treatment of the oil. Continuous and batchtype systems are employed. Actual conditions used were 220–250°C, 4–8 mmHg, and 3–5%
steam. Volatile compounds removed include aldehydes, ketones, and peroxides along with a portion of the tocopherols and sterols present in the oil. After
deodorization, the oil is cooled to 70–90°F prior to storage or shipping.
F—
Winterization
Winterization is performed to remove the high melting triglycerides from that fraction that remains liquid at refrigeration temperature. The oil is winterized by slowly
cooling the oil to 5°C and holding for up to several days. The saturated glycerides that crystallize may be removed by filtration producing a stearine (high melting
fraction) and oil (low melting fraction). The stearine fraction may be used in formulation of high stability blended fats. Winterization is normally performed prior to
deodorization.
VI—
Effect of Processing on Oil Composition
Processing of rice oil can cause significant variation in the levels of unsaponifiables seen in commercially available rice bran oil. Pilot plant processed oils followed the
conditions shown in Table 3. Analysis of tocotrienols (Table 4) and oryzanol (Table 5) from commercially available rice bran oil is highly variable. When the processing
steps that lead to losses in total unsaponifiables are investigated, one notes up to 50% losses of these components from the crude to refined, bleached, deodorized,
and winterized procedures (Table 6). However, there are more striking selective losses of individual unsaponifiable components. For example, during processing, up to
90% of the oryzanol (Table 5) and tocotrienols (Table 7) can be lost during processing. Obviously, this implies the need to develop new methods of processing that
will optimize recovery of these active ingredients.
While we have focused on the losses that can occur during the processing of rice bran oil, it is important to note that significant differences exist in the active
unsaponifiable ingredients in the rice bran itself. For example, during extraction of the rice bran, we observed very striking differences in the levels of tocotrienols
(Table 8), suggesting that not all fullfat rice brans are created equally. This might suggest that differences in the stabilization procedure of rice bran can result in variable
recoveries of the unsaponi
Page 428
Table 3 Conditions Used for Preparation of Pilot Plant
Quantities of Rice Oil
Rice bran
Fresh from rice mill
FFA 2.0–2.5%
Stabilization
To peroxidase negative by bubble test
Anderson VOX 88 Expander
Water to 25–28%
Sparge steam (130°C)
Drying
Forcedair, gasfired dryer
Final moisture 8–10%
Extraction and desolventizing
Crown extractor similar to conditions for soybean oil.
Refining
Pretreat: 0.25% phosphoric
Neutralization: 0.5% excess, 18% NaOH
Temperature: 120°F
Bleaching
1.5–2% acidactivated bleaching earth
Winterization
5°C, 48 hr
Deodorization
Temperature: 490–500°F
Vacuum: 7 mmHg
Steam: 2–3%
Table 4 Tocotrienol Content of Commercially Available
Rice Oil
Brand 1: 500 ppm
Brand 2: 595 ppm
Brand 3: 353 ppm
Brand 4: 78 ppm
Brand 5: 407 ppm
Brand 6: 487 ppm
Brand 7: 288 ppm
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Table 5 Oryzanol Content of Rice Oil
Crude: 12221 ppm
Commercially available: 1000 ppm (Brand 1)
2000 ppm (Brand 2)
720 ppm (Brand 3)
200 ppm (Brand 4)
Table 6 Unsaponifiable Content of Rice Oil
Oil type Percent
Crude 3.98
Refined and bleached 2.85
Refined, bleached, and deodorized 2.51
Refined, bleached, deodorized, and winterized 1.99
Table 7 Tocotrienol Content of Rice Oil
Oil type ppm
Crude 713
Refined and bleached 683
Refined, bleached, and deodorized 87
Refined, bleached, deodorized, and winterized 70
Table 8 Tocotrienol and Tocopherol Content of Two Different Rice Bran Products
Tocotrienols (ppm) Tocopherols (ppm)
/ Total / Total
fiable components. While processing plays a major role in determining the final concentration of these components, one cannot rule out the contribution that varietal
differences of rice can play in determining the levels of unsaponifiables and the active ingredients that make up rice bran oil.
Page 430
VII—
Health Benefits of Rice Oil
A—
Effects of Fatty Acids
Numerous studies have demonstrated that diets enriched in saturated fatty acids raise serum total cholesterol and, in particular, low density lipoprotein cholesterol
(LDLC) levels (1–3), while those enriched in unsaturated fatty acids (4–15) lower LDLC when replacing saturated fat. The mechanism(s) involved in the
hypocholesterolemic action of the unsaturated fatty acids are not well understood, although studies from our laboratory (16,17) and those of others (18,19) would
suggest that unsaturated fatty acids prevent the downregulation of the LDL receptor normally observed during intakes of saturated fat and cholesterol. In general, the
predictive equations of Keys et al. (8,9) and Hegsted et al. (10) have demonstrated that the fatty acid component in the diet and, in particular, saturated fatty acids are
considered the primary determinants of dietinduced hypercholesterolemia.
B—
Effects of Unsaponifiable Components
A role for certain unsaponifiable components of dietary oils is reemerging. For example, in a review article by Grundy (20), observations were cited from the recent
investigations by Grundy and Mok (21), Lees et al. (22), and Heinemann et al. (23), which indicated that unsaponifiable sterols such as phytosterols can have
significant effects on LDLC levels even at relatively low intakes. Along these lines, Best et al. (24) fed the plant sterol sitosterol on top of an unrestricted diet and
demonstrated sustained reductions of serum total cholesterol.
The beneficial effects of other unsaponifiables have also been demonstrated. For example, recent studies by Qureshi et al. in humans (25) and various animal models
(26–28) suggest that tocotrienol (Fig. 3), an analog of tocopherol (vitamin E) and an unsaponifiable component of palm oil, inhibits cholesterol synthesis and lowers
serum cholesterol. Tocotrienols have also been shown to influence certain parameters of hemostasis (29)
Figure 3
Chemical structure for tocotrienol.
Page 431
and alter the occurrence of chemically induced tumors in rodent models (30,31).
Another group of unsaponifiables, oryzanol, which is a group of ferulic acid esters of triterpene alcohols and plant sterols (Fig. 4), have also been demonstrated to
have certain beneficial effects. For example, the feeding of the unsaponifiable fraction of soybean had a hypocholesterolemic effect in primary type II
hyperlipoproteinemia (32). Similarly, when the unsaponifiable fraction of soy sterol was further purified and fractionated, both cyloartenol and 24methylene
cyloartenol, which are main constituents of the triterpene alcohols in soybean oil unsaponifiable matter, reduced plasma cholesterol and enhanced cholesterol excretion
when fed to rats (33). Similar lipidlowering effects of oryzanol have been noted by others (34–37) in both humans and animals as have inhibitory effects on platelet
aggregation (38).
Particularly germane is the finding that rice bran oil contains an unusually high content of the same unsaponifiable matter (up to 4.4%) described above, which is
severalfold greater than most other vegetable oils. In addition, rice bran oil, depending on source and degree of processing, can contain up to 20% saturated fatty acids
and approximately equal amounts of polyunsaturated (40%) and monounsaturated fatty acids (40%), a fatty acid profile quite different from other oftenutilized
hypocholesterolemic vegetable oils (Table 9). Equally important is the recently reported studies in which the hypocholesterolemic action of rice bran oil has been
attributed to its unsaponifiable fraction. For example, Sharma and Rukmini (39) showed that rice bran oil fed to rats at a 10% level significantly lowered total
cholesterol (37%), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) + LDLC (52%) and raised high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) (+82%) compared to groundnut
oil. These alterations in lipoprotein cholesterol were associated with a 136% increase in neutral steroids and a 47% in
Figure 4
Chemical structure for oryzanol (24methylenecycloartanol ester
of ferulic acid).
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Table 9 Distribution of Major Fatty Acids of Dietary Oils (%)
C<12 C12 C14 C16 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3
C—
Dietary Studies with Rice Bran Oil
One study in humans fed 35–40 g of either rice bran oil or some combination of coconut oil, palm oil, or groundnut oil, which showed 25–30% reductions in total
serum cholesterol levels in the rice bran oil group, is also very interesting but needs to be qualified because of the highly saturated fatty acid nature of coconut oil and
the sparse information on peanut oil (4). However, a preliminary report in humans that compared rice bran oil to other vegetable oils as part of a blend of oils that are
more normally consumed, confirmed the cholesterollowering properties of rice bran oil (42). They also suggested that factors other than fatty acids in rice oil were
responsible for its cholesterollowering effects.
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More recently, our laboratory has investigated the effects of rice bran oil in nonhuman primates fed 0–35% of calories as fat as part of a blend of several vegetable oils
(43). One of the diet treatments consisted of a combination of oils that had the same fatty acid composition as rice bran oil but did not contain rice bran oil. From the
studies, we concluded that (a) the rice bran oil content of the diet was the primary determinant of the degree of dietinduced hypocholesterolemia, (b) the reductions in
serum total and VLDL + LDLC with rice bran oil feeding were not associated with significant changes in HDLC, and (c) a component of rice bran oil other than its
fatty acid composition was responsible for hypocholesterolemic action.
In a preliminary report (44) from our laboratory in nonhuman primates, rice bran oil, corn oil, and canola oil fed at 20% of calories (total calories from fat was 30%)
when compared to a blend of oils that approximated the average American diet, at 36% calories as fat, all reduced total and VLDL + LDLC approximately 30%.
HDLC levels were least effected in the rice bran oil group. Thus, despite the high saturated fatty acid and lower polyunsaturated fatty acid profile of rice bran oil
compared to the other unsaturated vegetable oils, reductions in serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels were comparable, suggesting an important contribution of the non
fatty acid component of rice bran oil to its cholesterollowering properties. This is supported by the observation that, while a predictive equation for cholesterol
lowering based on fatty acid composition derived from 60 diet studies in monkeys correctly approximated the expected response to both the corn and canola diet, it
was not able to accurately predict the response to rice bran oil (44).
Another preliminary report (45) from our laboratory demonstrated that rice oil fed to hamsters not only showed cholesterollowering properties but, in addition,
antioxidant characteristics and a striking reduction in aortic fatty streaks, the initiating event of atherosclerosis.
D—
Conclusions
The explanation for the hypocholesterolemic action of rice bran oil is unknown, but many of its unsaponifiable components have cholesterollowering activity due to
various mechanisms. For example, ferulate esters of plant sterols and triterpene alcohols such as oryzanol can inhibit dietary cholesterol absorption and enhance fecal
sterol and bile acid secretion. The high content of tocotrienols in rice bran oil suggests that cholesterol synthesis may be inhibited in individuals fed rice bran oil. Either
one of these mechanistic responses can result in the unregulation of the LDL receptor, thereby increasing hepatic uptake of circulating LDL and decreasing serum LDL
levels. This suggests the possibility of inducing mechanistic synergism
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in response to the feeding of blends of oils low in saturated and high in unsaturated fatty acids, which, when combined with rice bran oil, could alter membrane fluidity
and cholesterol absorption and metabolism, and therefore LDL receptor activity. Thus, one might speculate that a blend of the appropriate vegetable oil with rice bran
oil would yield a hypocholesterolemic response greater than either oil alone.
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of sterol balance. Atherosclerosis, 28:325.
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Atherosclerosis, 61:219.
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Japan J. Pharmacol., 45:559.
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39. Sharma, R. D., and Rukmini, C. (1986). Rice bran oil and hypocholesterolemia in rats. Lipids, 21:715.
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42. Lichtenstein, A. H., Ausman, L. M., Lenner, J. L., et al. (1991). Effect of the consumption of rice bran, corn, canola, and olive oils on plasma lipids and
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and fatty streak formation in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. Arteriosclerosis, 11:1603a.
Page 439
19—
Changing Market Demands for Rice and Rice Products
Richard A. Meyers
U.S.A. Rice Council, Houston, Texas
I—
Introduction
Both total and per capita consumption of rice have increased substantially over the last 10 years in the United States. Total domestic consumption rose from 26.9
million hundredweight (cwt) in 1978/79 to almost 47.5 million cwt in 1988/89, a 77% increase, based on USDA's biannual milled rice distribution surveys, Department
of Treasury data for brewers' use, and Foreign Agricultural Service data on imports. Per capita use rose 60% from about 12 pounds to 19.2 pounds.
Rice consumption is divided into three categories: direct food use, processed foods, and brewers' use. However, not all categories of rice consumption have grown
equally. Analysis of USDA's biannual milled rice distribution survey results from 1978/79 to 1988/89 yields several significant changes in domestic riceconsumption
patterns.
First, the percentage of domestic rice consumed in processed food has grown from about 14% or 3.7 million cwt in 1978/79 to over 18% or 8.6 million cwt in
1988/89. Much of this growth is accounted for by new products such as rice cakes, pet foods, and candy. Second, specialty rices (parboiled, precooked, and brown
rice) have grown as a share of direct food use, more than doubling from 2.9 million cwt to over 5.7 million in 10 years. Among the specialty rices, parboiled and
brown rice shares have risen, while precooked share has declined. Third, while increasing over the
Page 440
10year period, brewers' use of rice has declined as a share of domestic rice consumption, from almost 30% in 1978/79 to under 24% in 1988/89 according to
Department of Treasury statistics. Use of rice in beer rose from 7.9 million cwt to 11.1 million cwt, a much slower increase than found for either direct food use or
processed food. Finally, rice consumption is growing most rapidly in regions where per capita use is well above the national average, such as the Pacific coast, Middle
Atlantic states, and certain states along the South Atlantic. These three regions accounted for over 72% of direct food use of rice in the United States in 1988/89, up
from about 64% 10 years earlier. Growth in per capita consumption in most other regions has been much slower or even absent.
Use of rice in processed foods more than doubled between 1978/79 and 1988/89, from 3.7 million cwt to 8.6 million cwt, up over 130% in 10 years. In contrast,
direct food use rose about 65% over the decade. Direct food use's share of domestic rice consumption has declined from about 60% in 1980/81 to 58% in 1988/89.
Growth in processedfood use of rice can be divided into two components: expansion in consumption of old products and development of new products. In the early
part of the decade, most growth in processed rice use was by established products, principally cereal, baby food, and soup. But since the 1986/87 survey, new
products such as pet food, rice cakes, and new package mixes accounted for most of the growth in processedfood use of rice.
Use of rice in cereals more than doubled between 1978/79 and 1986/87, from 2 to 4.8 million cwt, and consistently accounted for over half of process food use of
rice. No other product reported this large an absolute increase in consumption. However, reported shipments declined in 1988/89, and cereals share of processed rice
dropped to about 45%. Likewise, reported use of soup and baby foods both increased early in the decade, peaking in the 1984/85 survey. But use of rice in these
product categories has declined since 1986/87. Soup and baby food each account for about 1–2% of processedfood use of rice, and their share declined over the 10
years examined.
Since 1986/87, most of the growth in processedfood use of rice has been by new products. Pet food, which uses less expensive brewers' rice, soared from 426,000
cwt in 1986/87 to almost 1.4 million cwt in 1988/89. Pet food is the third largest use of processed rice behind cereal and package mixes. Rice cakes, typically viewed
as a lowcalorie snack, climbed from 288,000 cwt in 1986/87 to over 700,000 cwt in 1988/89 and is the fourth largest use of processed rice. Pet food and rice cakes
have shown the largest percentage growth of any processed rice products tracked by this survey since 1986/87.
Package mixes, available in many flavors, is the second largest processedfood use of rice. Reported shipments were a mere 222,000 cwt in 1982/83 but
Page 441
steadily grew to over 1.7 million cwt in 1988/89 and accounted for over 20% of processed food use of rice. In addition, use of rice in candy and frozen dinners has
increased by over 30% since 1986/87, but their share of processedfood use is less than 1% each.
Specialty rice's share of direct food use has grown from about 19% in 1978/79 to 23% in 1988/89. Reported shipments of specialty rice doubled in 10 years.
Consumption of regular milled white rice, the only other component of direct food use, grew 56% in 10 years, and its share of direct food use dropped 4 percentage
points.
The largest absolute increase in specialty rice shipments has been in parboiled rice, which grew from 1.8 million cwt in 1978/79 to almost 4.4 million cwt in 1988/89.
And parboiled rice's share of specialty rice shipments rose from 60 to 75%. Brown rice shipments exhibited the largest percentage increase, expanding from just
237,000 cwt to almost 700,000 cwt. Much of the increase in brown rice use occurred in the second half of the 10year reporting period.
In contrast to parboiled and brown rice, precooked shipments have actually declined since 1978/79 and are only slightly above reported brown rice shipments.
Precooked shipments totaled almost a million cwt in 1978/79 but were only 670,000 cwt in 1988/89 and declined steadily over the 10year period.
II—
Trends Behind the Numbers
The steady growth of rice consumption over the last decade is due to a variety of factors, including:
Increased awareness of rice as a healthful food, i.e., cholesterolfree, sodiumfree, and very low in fat and calories.
Influx of recent immigrants from traditional riceconsuming countries.
Increasing visibility given rice by food service operators during a time when more and more Americans are eating/purchasing food away from home.
Rising popularity of ethnic foods, especially Cajun, Mexican, Indian, and Thai.
New product introductions, e.g., microwaveable rice products, boilinbag, single servings.
A growing consensus among regulators, health professionals, and consumers that rice should be a staple of the dinner plate.
While rice dishes are not new to the U.S. market, recent events and trends suggest that consumption of rice, as both a side and a main dish, will increase significantly
during the 1990s.
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A—
Population and Lifestyle Changes
Growing HispanicAmerican and AsianAmerican populations, the issuance of recent government nutritional guidelines, a public becoming committed to healthy
lifestyles, and an increasing incidence of menuing and serving rice as both an entree and a side dish among food service operations all point to the growth of the rice
industry in the future.
However, these demographic and attitudinal changes are just part of what is going on in the American marketplace. Underlying product preferences is a movement
toward a simpler lifestyle. While it is unlikely that American women will leave the workforce in great numbers or that Americans in general will find more leisure time, it
is true that there are—and will continue to be—changes in the types of products and services purchased and the way leisure time is spent.
Americans are placing less emphasis on status and more on quality. According to Time magazine, ''the pursuit of a simpler life with deeper meaning is a major shift in
America's private agenda" (1). The writers of the April 8, 1991 cover story support this finding with a variety of testimony from experts and survey research that
concludes that Americans want to slow down and live a more relaxed life (69%), spend more time with family (69%), and find more time for hobbies and personal
interests (56%). Just 13% of the survey sample thought it important to keep up with fashion and trends (1).
Those demographic changes that are altering the geographic distribution of the U.S. population and changing the makeup of the American family household are detailed
in this chapter. Also, the psychographic and lifestyle trends that are affecting the way Americans purchase, prepare and consume food are described. Specific
emphasis is placed on the direct or indirect effects these trends will have on the growth of the rice industry in the U.S. marketplace.
B—
Demographic Trends
The most important demographic changes that will affect, either directly or indirectly, the way rice and other foods are sold, purchased, prepared, and eaten during the
1990s are:
1. Increasingly nontraditional families, e.g., twoincome couples; later marriages, later childbirth; increased singleparent households; greater numbers of men as single
parents; increased numbers of people living alone.
2. The continued importance of the baby boom generation, who will be moving into middle age and into their peak earning years during the 1990s.
Page 443
3. An aging population that brings with it a fairly predictable set of psychological and physiological stages.
4. Working women.
5. Rapid growth of immigration from countries with ricebased diets; changes in the geographic distribution of older people and AsianAmericans and Hispanic
Americans.
III—
Nontraditional Families
While the number of adults is forecast to increase by just 10.4% between 1988 and 2000, the number of households is expected to grow by 15.9% (2). This disparity
is influenced in part by the continuing decline in household size that has decreased uninterrupted for the last 25 years. The number of nonfamily and singleperson
households is increasing. So, too, has the number of male homemakers. During the next decade, male homemakers will increase at triple the rate (37.2%) of female
homemakers (12.1%).
Industry analysts forecast increased sales of food products based on research findings that smaller families tend to spend more on groceries than large families. For
example, a singleperson household spends an average of $40 a week on groceries compared to just $19 per person for a family of five (3).
IV—
Baby Boomers
Baby boomers are moving into middle age. By 1995, the first group of the 76 million individuals defined as baby boomers (i.e., born between 1946 and 1964) will
reach the age of 50 (4). As shown in Figure 1, the number of middleaged people will grow rapidly in the 1990s, with 40 to 49yearolds and 50 to 59yearolds
representing the growth areas of the population.
A—
Health
People who are now age 45 can expect to live another 33 years (5). Consequently, their health and nutrition will be of critical concern. For example, according to the
National Center for Health Statistics, chronic conditions, including heart disease and high blood pressure, become more prevalent after the age of 45.
Older baby boomers are expected to enjoy better health than their predecessors because this generation has information not available before. Also, research has
shown that baby boomers have shifted attitudes about responsibility for good health from the physician to themselves.
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Figure 1
Estimated U.S. population trends for the 1990s.
B—
Work/Lifestyle
This segment of the population works longer hours, juggles family obligations (most will have children living with them through the next decade), and complains about a
lack of free time (4). Increasingly, baby boomers are seeking goods and services that save time and offer convenience, such as businesses that offer extended shopping
hours and home delivery.
A University of Maryland study (6) shows that while all age groups perceive themselves as more rushed today than they were in 1965 and 1975, men and women
between the ages of 35 and 54 tend to feel the most rushed. American Demographics reports (7) that half of dualearner parents and one third of singleearner
parents say that shopping for products and services is stressful.
C—
Discretionary Income
The baby boomer's biggest financial advantage is education. This is especially true for women who are far more likely than their predecessors to have gone to college.
Also, baby boomers are more likely than their par
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ents to live in dualincome homes. These factors translate into increased discretionary income for this population.
According to American Demographics (5):
As baby boomers age, they will accumulate wealth through property ownership and investment. In 1986, the net worth of householders under the age of 35 averaged only
$40,000 . . . while the average net worth of householders aged 35–44 was over $100,000. Those aged 45 to 54 averaged nearly $175,000. And households ages 55 to 64 averaged
$200,000 in net worth.
Labor shortages are expected to keep baby boomers in the workforce longer, thus adding to their accumulated wealth. Currently, 25.6 million people aged 45–54 are
in their peak income years (5). When all the baby boomers pass their 45th birthday in 2010, that number will increase by 47% to 37.7 million prompting analysts to
forecast "staggering" affluence through the 1990s.
D—
Food Expenditures
The population aged 35–64 will account for two thirds of U.S. food dollars by the year 2000 (8). Overall, food spending by this group is forecast to increase 36%
during the decade, acccounting for a 24% projected rise in the nation's overall food spending.
V—
The Older Population
Social scientists predict that the aging of the U.S. population will have farreaching effects across all sectors of the U.S. economy throughout this and the next decade.
The older population has financial influence. Today, those over 50 years old have 60% of commercial banking deposits and 80% of thrift deposits. They own nearly
half of all corporate stocks and two thirds of all portfolios over $25,000.
Key to changing food habits is the increasing migration of Americans aged 65 and over suburbs and cities. Through the 1970s and early 1980s, the proportion of the
U.S. population living in metropolitan areas remained steady at around 64%. In 1986, however, following the Census Bureau's redrawing of metro cases, that number
increased to 73%.
Where older people relocate should have an impact on increased consumption of rice in mature households. Increasing numbers of older Americans are moving to
warmer regions, areas of the United States where rice consumption is traditionally the most prevalent (9).
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As the population ages, the dwindling under24 age group (representing the majority of potential food service employees) is expected to diminish by the year 2000 to
less than 34% of the total population, a drop of 5 or 6 million individuals (10). Food service operators can no longer depend on a vast labor pool. Therefore, food and
food service equipment manufacturers are being called upon to provide products that will minimize this labor shortage.
According to food service operators, rice is one of the simplest foods to prepare, filling this growing need to offer convenient and easytoprepare food offerings that
are not labor intensive.
VI—
Working Women
Working women will continue to represent the most significant change in the American workforce and culture during the 1990s. Currently, 65% of women with
children under 18 have jobs—almost three times as many as in 1960. Some predict that by the year 2000, 75% of U.S. children will have working mothers.
Women are still the primary grocery shoppers for the family, thereby providing the greatest influence on family eating habits. However, other family members are
beginning to play an increasingly important role in shopping and meal preparation. According to the New Traditional Homemaker survey (11) sponsored by the
American Frozen Food Institute based in New York City, nearly two thirds of American children under age 13 prepare at least one meal on their own each week.
In an era of dual working parents, children exercise a far greater influence over meal selection. For example, according to a study (12) conducted by Selina Guber,
president of Children's Market Research:
Fortynine percent of children either buy their own food or help select specific brands and products.
The family shopper, i.e., mother, will often purchase brands requested by children. However, the busy mother's choice can be driven by convenience of foods, while
children's choices are most often driven by taste.
Teenagers exercise an evergreater influence over a number of household decisions, e.g., food shopping as well as electronics and auto purchases. This is due in large
part to increasing discretionary income and greater household responsibilities for teens.
Preparing dinner is still largely the function of women. According to a 1990 readership study (13), on weekdays and weekends, 86% and 81% of women,
respectively, prepare the evening meal. On weekends, women,
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too, are most likely to prepare breakfast (58%) and lunch (44%). Not surprisingly, breakfast and lunch are meals individuals are most likely to make for themselves.
This nation of working mothers is expected to speed the increase of new food products and preparation technology that offers both convenience and health benefits for
their families.
VII—
Immigration/Geographic Trends
During the 1980s, immigration accounted for more than one third of U.S. growth and should remain key to further population expansion throughout the next decade.
Probably the greatest boost to rice consumption in the United States will come from continued increases in minority groups for whom rice is a diet staple.
A—
HispanicAmericans
To illustrate just how significant that growth should be, consider these recent population projections:
Hispanics now make up about 8% of the U.S. population. That share is forecast to increase steadily to 11% by the year 2000 (14).
More Hispanics now reside in "California, Texas, New York, and Florida than lived in the entire country in 1980" (9).
Los Angeles, New York, and Miami each are already home to over one million Hispanics, soon to be joined by San Antonio, San Francisco, and Houston.
B—
AsianAmericans
AsianAmericans are the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States and will double their population in the next 20 years. Since 1980, AsianAmericans have
grown from 1.7 to 2.8% of the U.S. population. Regionally, the numbers are even more dramatic. Fiftysix percent of Asians live in the West, compared with 21% of
all Americans. Twelve states are home to over 100,000 AsianAmericans: California, Hawaii, New York, Illinois, New Jersey, Texas, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, Florida, Michigan, and Washington (15).
The impact that Asian immigrants are having on U.S. rice consumption is dramatically apparent in reviewing the trend of rice imports, which virtually parallels that of
Asian immigration. As can be seen in Figure 2, rice imports have increased more than 10fold during the 1980s. Approximately 90% of the rice imported into the
United States comes from Thailand. This
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Figure 2
Changes in rice imports for the 10year period 1981–1990.
Jasmine aromatic variety is very much favored by recent Southeast Asian immigrants. While the overall imported quantity of rice is still relatively small compared to the
total consumed in the domestic market, it is apparent that Asian immigration will play an important role in future rice consumption in this country.
In those regions where rice consumption is likely to be the heaviest, some conversion among nonusers can be expected. For example, in regions where large number of
either Hispanics or Asians reside, you can expect to see more restaurants, grocery stores, and new product introductions that incorporate native tastes utilizing rice.
As shown in Figure 3, we are eating more ethnic foods. More and more Americans are experiencing Mexican, Italian, Chinese, Cajun, and Japanese cuisines, all of
which incorporate a liberal amount of rice in their dishes.
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Figure 3
Changes in ethnic food consumption patterns.
C—
Lifestyle Changes/Social Trends
Four basic trends will continue to affect the way Americans purchase and consume food throughout the 1990s (14):
1. Faster food: Busy lifestyles will continue to foster the U.S. industry for faster, more convenient foods.
2. Healthy foods: While Americans have not yet fully become acclimated to healthier diets, there will continue to be strong demand for food products with pure
ingredients and less cholesterol and fat.
3. Pleasure eating: Preparing quality meals or eating away from home is expected to become one of the luxuries of the 1990s.
4. Environmental concerns: U.S. consumers will express their "green" behavior by continuing in larger numbers to demand food packaged in environmentallyfriendly
containers.
Marketers of foods and services are starting to realize that each of these trends can exist alone or cross lines for successful marketing strategies.
VIII—
Faster Food
A—
Purchase Behavior
According to Roper's Public Pulse (16), three major factors are contributing to changes in the purchase behavior of U.S. consumers:
A lessening of "conspicuous consumption"
Time demands and a decrease in discretionary income
An increased "practicalmindedness" in a middleaged nation
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Specifically, conspicuous consumption of the past is being replaced by a more calculated pattern of spending. The purchasing patterns of new "multiprofile" consumers
will reflect their values and lifestyles. For these consumers, "thrift and luxury neatly coexist." For example, a consumer who spends extravagantly on gourmet foods may
scrimp on paper products for the home (16).
B—
Convenience Trends
Today, 70% of American mothers work full or part time versus 30% in 1980. This statistic alone accounts for much of the public demand for products and services
that offer convenience as a feature.
Probably the greatest symbol of Americans' demand for products that fit their busy lifestyles has been the assimilation of the microwave into the U.S. household.
Currently, 8 in 10 U.S. households have a microwave, and about half of the rest plan to purchase one within the next year (17). Supporting this partnership of busy
lifestyles and convenience appliances, a recent survey (18) found the microwave and the convection oven to be the appliances used most often to make dinner.
According to another recent survey (20), while the number one use of a microwave is to reheat frozen leftovers, the second most common use of a microwave is to
prepare side dishes and snacks.
Additionally, the growing number of children of working parents has prompted manufacturers to latch onto the convenience trend by introducing microwaveable and
nutritionally correct singleserving meals. According to a study (12) conducted by Selina Guber, president of Children's Market Research, 81% of children prepare
food for themselves at least two or three times a week, usually using a microwave. Thus, with the increasing penetration of microwave ovens into U.S. households and
the ready acceptance of consumers to use them to prepare side dishes, a category where rice plays an important role, a promising future seems inevitable for rice
mixes and ricebased dryfrozen packaged dinners.
C—
Cooking from Scratch
With the trend toward faster food, there is an ongoing decline in preparing meals from scratch and a corresponding decline in basic cooking skills. For example, baking
a cake today for most American cooks starts with opening a cake mix package.
A nationwide survey of newspaper food editors (20) in the major metropolitan markets conducted by the USA Rice Council found a high level of interest among
editors in receiving quicktofix recipes as well as doahead
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recipes and salad/nocook recipes, with only moderate to low interest in receiving preparefromscratch recipes. At the same time, more and more prepared foods are
being incorporated into family meal preparation, a fact that is driving increased consumption of rice mixes.
In the Suppertime USA Survey (18), of the 73% of women who said they cooked the previous evening's meal, 72% used some type of prepared food. Products used
included:
Canned foods—36%
Frozen foods—36%
Packaged mixes—16%
Prepackaged foods—9%
Supermarket salad bar–3%
D—
Carryout Foods and Home Delivery
The "need for speed" fosters the continuing growth of buying food away from home. Nearly one half of the meals people buy at restaurants are eaten somewhere else.
This is up from one third in 1983 (14). During the 1990s this proportion is forecast to increase as the takeout industry continues to expand from simple to gourmet
(21). New services, e.g., home delivery, are expected to increase to meet a growing demand for ease and convenience in food preparation.
In the early 1980s, supermarkets suffered a decline in retail sales and blamed it on foodawayfromhome establishments. Recognizing an opportunity to recapture
food sales share and meeting the needs of the changing American consumer, who demands fast, easy, and convenient ways to fit eating into a busy lifestyle,
supermarkets began investing in prepared food sections for both hot and cold items, instore bakeries, and expanding deli sections.
Today, according to Progressive Grocer (22), 91% of supermarkets have service deli departments, 19% have sitdown eating areas, 38% have salad bars, and 32%
have soup bars. Refrigerated entrees are growing in popularity, along with takeout, home delivery, and drivethru. Sixtythree percent of the 65+ consumer and single
people surveyed indicated they brought partially prepared entrees in 1986. By 1990, it had jumped up to 83%.
Rice is participating in this carryout and home delivery trend. As a food that travels well, maintaining textual integrity, rice is well suited for use in all applications
requiring packaged meals to go. Rice is even used for travel to outer space. NASA incorporates rice into several of the prepared meals the astronauts take with them
on the space shuttle missions.
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IX—
Healthful Food
In the latter part of the 1980s and continuing into the 1990s, nutrition has become a core part of the marketing strategy for most U.S. food companies. As increasing
numbers of the population move into middle age and become more concerned and aware of health issues, nutrition has taken on increasing importance. For example,
63% of women and 49% of men have changed their diet in the past year to eat more healthful foods (23). Fortyfour percent of Americans say they have changed
their eating habits in the last 2 years in order to lower their cholesterol level (24). And the number two selection as ''Yesterday's Main Entree" in the Suppertime USA
Survey (18) was a vegetable dish. A study (25) of shoppers' concerns about the nutritional content of foods, conducted by the Food Marketing Institute, comparing
attitudinal changes since 1988 shows fat and cholesterol to be the biggest areas of concern.
A 1989 study (26) by the National Restaurant Association found that the restaurantgoing public can be categorized into three distinct groups: unconcerned,
committed, and vacillators. Unconcerned eaters describe themselves as meatandpotato eaters, having whatever they want regardless of its health effects. This group
declined from 38% of the adult population in 1986 to 32% in 1989. Committed eaters believes that a good diet can prevent illness. The members of the group eat
healthful foods most of the time. This is the largest group, increasing from 35% of all adults in 1986 to 39% in 1989. The last group, vacillators, is concerned about
nutrition and health but still goes for taste when eating out. This group grew slightly, from 27% of all adults in 1986 to 29% in 1989.
Consumer interest in nutrition has not been lost on American food processors. Table 1 shows the number of new products introduced since 1988 claiming various
health benefits. With the exception of calcium, healthfood marketing trends continue to look upward. Nor is there an end in sight to this trend. In a survey (27) of 352
U.S. food processors to determine their intentions to develop products with health claims, 76% of the companies plan to increase development of reducedcalorie,
reducedfat, or diet food products, and 57% plan to increase development of reducedcholesterol products. Among the respondents, 46% said they planned to
increase development of "all natural" products, and 43% responded that they intended to beef up efforts to reformulate ingredients with "additive" connotations out of
existing products—a 36% increase over those surveyed in 1989.
There can be little doubt that rice is benefiting from this growing trend in nutritional marketing. As one of the premier complex carbohydrates in the food chain, rice is
cholesterolfree and contains only a trace of fat. Low
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Table 1 New Products Bearing Health Benefit Claims
% change
1988 1989 1990 1989–1990
Reduced/Lowcalorie/Lite 475 962 1,165 +21%
Reduced/Low fat 275 626 1,024 +64%
All natural 215 274 754 +175%
Reduced/Low salt 202 378 517 +37%
No additives/No preservatives 153 186 371 +99%
Low/No cholesterol 126 390 694 +78%
Added/High fiber 56 73 84 +15%
Reduced/Low sugar 52 188 331 +76%
Added/High calcium 4 27 20 26%
Organic 98 140 324 +131%
Category totals are not additive. New products may carry more than one claim.
in sodium, glutenfree and nonallergenic, easy to digest, with only 82 calories per halfcup serving of white rice (89 calories per halfcup serving of brown), 90% of the
calories in rice come from carbohydrates.
In the last couple of years, sales of brown rice in the United States have increased dramatically. In addition to the excellent taste of brown rice, much of the reason for
this growth is due to the additional fiber found in the bran. With ongoing medical research being conducted on rice bran and rice bran oil and the publicity of the
positive results of these studies, consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the nutritional benefits of eating rice and rice bran.
While the introduction of rice bran for human consumption suffered a temporary setback due to recent research denouncing oat bran, American consumers continue to
seek legitimate food fiber sources. Thus, while no one source will likely offer a "magic bullet" cureall and oat bran or any other bran may never reach the sales levels
of late 1989, sales of many cereal brans, including rice, are beginning to build steadily. The ongoing research with rice bran and rice bran oil, which is intended to
continue the steady documentation of the efficacy of rice as a healthy food rather than to provide banner headline newspaper copy announcements, will continue to
create interest in rice as a healthy staple of the American diet, as it has long been in much of the world.
A—
Association with White Meats
The 1980s has seen the decline in per capita consumption of red meats and the rise in popularity of the perceived more healthful white meats. The
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acceptance of poultry during the past decade by the American consumer has been remarkable. While not as dramatic, per capita consumption of fish has also
increased. At the same time, the popularity of beef, the traditional mainstay of the American diet, has plateaued and even declined somewhat. Losing even more favor
with consumers, as evidenced by its slide in per capita consumption, has been pork.
These changes in the centeroftheplate protein that American consumers are demanding have had important implications for rice. USA Rice Council research with
both consumers and food service operators during this period indicates a high correlation between the association of rice with poultry and fish and, conversely, a high
correlation between meat (beef) and potatoes.
In a survey (20) of newspaper food editors in the major metropolitan markets, USA Rice Council Research indicated that 75% of the editors would recommend to
their readers the serving of rice and chicken together, whereas fewer (29%) of the food editors said they would recommend serving rice with beef. Thus, rice has
benefited from its perceived association with poultry and fish during this decade when consumers switched dramatically to these alternative proteins. Table 2, which
shows the per capita consumption changes for various meats as well as for rice, potatoes, and pasta, demonstrates clearly the beneficial association of rice, poultry,
and seafood.
Table 2 Changes in Per Capita Consumption of Various Foods
(1987 vs. 1980)
Food % change
Meat
Beef 4
Pork 14
Poultry +28
Seafood +20
Complex Carbohydrates
Rice +46
Pasta +27
Potatoes +5
B—
Consumers Are Torn between Nutrition and Convenience
While Americans remain unsure about the makeup of a proper diet, they increasingly embrace the concept of wellness and will continue to take more responsibility for
their own health during the 1990s. In larger numbers, Americans are expected to:
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Diagnose their own ailments. This trend toward selfcare is due to a number of factors, including increased costs of traditional medical care and access to drugs
formerly only available through prescription but now sold over the counter.
Exercise, particularly in a moderate but frequent fashion.
Adhere to healthier diets.
Focus on relieving stress as an element of good health.
However, as is often the case, a person's behavior is often inconsistent with attitudes on a subject. Two recent surveys (28) conducted by the NPD Group found that
"while food attitudes have changed dramatically, the impact on behavior has been relatively minor." It is clear that the busy lifestyles of Americans have much to do with
their inability to adhere to healthy menus.
According to a discussion of the two NPD studies (28), "dietary concerns are clearly on the rise, but competing needs—such as the need for convenience—may
lessen the impact." While Americans say they are eating right, according to industry surveys, snack foods outperformed the average volume growth for all grocery
products in 1989 (29)! For example, sales of potato chips increased by 8.9% to approximately $3.9 billion.
There is some indication, however, that Americans, while continuing to snack at record levels, are looking for healthier substitutes. For example, sales of popcorn,
popularly perceived as a lowcalorie snack food, increased 22% during 1989, totaling sales of $368 million. Growth among healthier snack categories—coupled with
Americans' desire to return to homebased socializing—increases the likelihood of consumer interest in snack foods such as flavored minirice cakes—a grocery
category that has realized strong growth in the past year.
C—
Professionals Are Turning to Rice
Among nutritionists and those involved in menu planning in food preparation away from home, rice is becoming more and more the grain of choice. In nationwide
surveys (30) among 204 school food service directors, 152 college and university food service directors, and 300 dietitians, the USA Rice Council found that rice is
increasing in popularity among these audiences and that rice was perceived to be healthier than either potatoes or pasta by 38% of the school foodservice directors,
53% of the college and university foodservice directors, and 25% of the dietitians.
When food service operators were asked to name their top concerns as they enter the 1990s, operators ranked "offering healthful menu items" at the top of their list
(31). Seventynine percent indicated that rice is very applicable to healthful menus. Similarly, in another study (32), 57% of
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foodservice operators surveyed said that rice has an image of a light, healthy food.
X—
Pleasure Eating
A—
Family Dinners
The family meal, "once the centerpiece of American family life," became slightly less popular in the mid1980s(33). But that appears to be changing. For example, in
1989 people prepared an average of 225 dinners per year in the home, still down from 246 in 1984, but up slightly from 223 in 1988.
Gourmet cooking will become an affluent person's status symbol during the 1990s. Cooking "gourmet style" for guests says that the "host has the time and taste to
spend the time preparing meals themselves" (33).
Dining must meet the needs of a population that demands time and laborsaving convenience in a more relaxed and comfortable lifestyle. Longer work weeks, working
mothers, microwave ovens, and less leisure time have made cooking large and timeconsuming meals at home a thing of the past. As people look to alternative ways to
dine, food service has responded beyond the traditional establishments by expanding its focus on takeout, home delivery, catering, convenience stores, and
supermarket food service.
B—
Dining Out
According to the Tastes of America survey (36), the percentage of households eating out (79%) is at the highest level it has been in recent years. The survey also
reported that 28% of households surveyed said they are eating out more often in 1991 than in 1989. The types of restaurants that will be most popular with Americans
during the 1990s include fast food, homestyle, and specialty or ethnic.
Working mothers wanting to spend more time with their children are having a positive impact on family food establishments. Fifteen years ago, 54% of mothers said
they often went out to eat with their children, compared to 72% today (35). Less and less leisure time has prompted the continuous growth of fastfood restaurants.
Over half of Americans (56%) now say they eat at a fastfood restaurant at least once a week.
Aging baby boomers will have a major impact on the current age distribution of the population. As this segment of society grows older, the average age of the entire
population will increase, affecting not only the labor force of the food service industry, but the age of its patrons as well. As they continue to increase their net worth,
producing more discretionary income for the economy, much of the baby boomers' food dollars will go into food
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service. By the year 2000, this 35–54 age group will account for the largest percentage (46%) of the total population (10). Longterm estimates indicate that this group
will grow by 11.3 million individuals between now and the year 2000 (an increase of 32%). This group will spend more on food away from home than any other
demographic group.
The next trend to watch is the rapid increase in the number of older, wealthier households. The food service industry can expect to be the beneficiary of discretionary
dollars of 55 to 64yearolds as the industry continues to expand to meet their needs for convenience and good value (10).
C—
Food Service Industry Overview
In the 1960s, food service was viewed as a luxury and reserved for only special occasions or as a necessity of travel. At the time, the industry totaled about $19 billion
in sales, with 27% of all food expenditures going to awayfromhome consumption, while 73% still went to food consumption at home.
By the 1990s, food service had matured into an integral part of the American way of life. Previously, the definition of food service was "food eaten away from home."
Today, the more appropriate, accepted definition has become "any food prepared away from home." This definition now includes takeout foods consumed at home,
which has become a way of life in the United States.
More food dollars move through food service than ever before. In 1991, supermarkets will compete for these dollars as food service gets about 48% (36). Changing
consumer lifestyles in America, with redefined eating habits, have caused the industry to triple in total number of establishments with sales exceeding $256 billion to fill
the demand (10).
These establishments comprise no less than 18 different service segments that have emerged with their own market audience, menu needs, and personality. The
industry defines two major segment categories: commercial establishments, which include restaurants, hotels, cafeterias, and all other retail outlets. This group
represents about 70% of all sales volume generated in the industry. The second grouping is the noncommercial, institutional feeding segments, comprised of hospitals,
schools, colleges, universities, military, and employee feeders, to name a few. This group represents the other 30% of the industry volume (10).
The largest segment is defined as the commercial full service and fast food restaurant segment, representing over 480,000 total unit establishments. These become even
more fragmented as the industry defines the difference between the upscale, fine dining or white tablecloth segment, the midscale, casual or theme operation, and the
fast food feeders.
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Hotels, colleges, schools, hospitals, and nursing homes, business employee cafeterias, theme parks, transportation food outlets, specialty retail outlets, such as cookie
or muffin stores, and even the military feeding installations are also specific segments serving the food service market. Food service now even encompasses
supermarket delis, convenience stores, and drivethroughs to contribute to food service sales volume.
D—
Segment Trends Influencing Rice Usage
Rice is among the grains capturing more billing on restaurant menus, indicating that rice is growing in popularity among food service operators, especially in the
commercial segments. In the Tastes of America survey (34), 48% of households said they ordered rice away from home in the past year, compared to 44% in 1988.
The USA Rice Council initiated a rice benchmark tracking study (32) to measure changes in food service usage from year to year. Data collected in these annual
studies indicate that the proportion of food service operators offering rice on a daily basis has increased from 68% in 1988 to 74% in 1990. Additionally, the survey
found that the proportion of food service operators using rice more frequently has increased, with 54% responding that their usage has increased in 1990 versus 43%
in 1988.
Restaurant Business, in an independent study (37), found that the greatest increase in consumption of rice has occurred in highdollar volume, fullservice independent
operations in the Northeast and South. USA Rice Council reports (32) that 61% of rice users in the commercial restaurant, hotel, and cafeteria segments served more
rice in 1989 than the previous year, indicating growing patron popularity of rice and rice dishes.
A 1990 study (30) among college and university food service directors reported ranking rice over pasta or potatoes as the healthiest and most costefficient complex
carbohydrate choice available. Seventyeight percent of those queried confirmed that rice usage in their operations has grown in the past year. More ethnic dishes, light
and healthy entrees, and vegetarian selections are being offered. Rice was chosen as an important ingredient consideration by 83% of those who are preparing more
ethnic dishes, 88% of those adding light and healthy entrees, and 80% of those serving vegetarian meals. In addition, 79% of the survey respondents reported that rice
plays an important role in their salad selections.
Among elementary and secondary school food service directors surveyed by the USA Rice Council (30), 99% indicate they serve rice since it is a commodity product
offered by the government. However, many agree that without positive student acceptance of rice, it would not be on the school lunch menu. Other reasons cited for
the high menu incidence, ac
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cording to school directors, include ease of preparation, menu versatility, nutritional benefits, and cost efficiency. Results show that 60% of school food service
directors serve rice as part of an entree rather than only a side dish, with nearly 50% substituting rice for potatoes and 30% for pasta.
Another important survey in 1990 (30) on attitudes of dietitians towards rice found that 44% stated they were receiving more patron and patient requests for menu
options and recipes using rice over the previous year, compared to 39% for pasta and 19% for potatoes.
E—
Menu Trends Influencing Rice Usage
According to a recent survey (38), Pacific rim cuisines, i.e., Japanese, Chinese, and Thai, will continue to rise in popularity "due to their healthful nature and exotic
appeal." The survey also predicts that U.S. diners will discover Philippine and Korean cuisines in the next decade.
Much of the 19.2 pounds of rice that Americans now consume per person per year comes from food service, where ethnic and regional trends have increased demand
for ricebased main dishes, salads, and soups. The various food service segments are forced to watch and react to menu trends or suffer extinction in a highly saturated
marketplace of food service establishments. Each segment continues to plan menu changes that offer their patrons variety, good value, and a reason to repeat the
dining experience. The "blurring" of the segments is evident as schools compete to keep children on school premises during lunch period by adding items like pizza,
tacos, burritos, and chicken nuggets; hospitals alter their image of offering "institutional" food by upscaling their menus to satisfy more sophisticated patients and visitors
onsite; casual restaurants and fastfood feeders expand their breakfast offerings to include a variety of "fresh" baked goods served all day; and fullservice restaurants
offer appetizers as minimeals so that patrons can sample and taste a variety of items.
Eight out of 10 people in the world depend on rice for 40% of their energy needs. With the influx of immigrants from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean into the
United States, items such as Middle Eastern rice pilaf, Spanish paella, arroz con pollo, Indian curries, and Oriental fried rice have flourished on American food service
menus.
In a survey (39) of food service operators regarding the performance of rice in various areas, it was found that 67.6% of the operators surveyed felt that rice was "very
applicable" in its versatility for its use in ethnic menuing, with an additional 26.7% rating rice as "somewhat applicable."
Rice dishes are integral to regional American cuisines, too. With its many varieties and its ability to complement other ingredients and flavors, rice makes a perfect
menu choice as an accompaniment, a component of
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the main dish entree, as a soup ingredient, in salads, and as a dessert. Rice can also form the base for many vegetarian dishes. A hearty brown rice blended with beans,
seeds, and a variety of vegetables is a healthful meatless entree. It is especially popular on college campuses and with health care workers.
USA Rice Councilsponsored studies (32) show that 70% of food service operators rate rice as excellent when served with chicken and 43% when served with
seafood. Thirtyfive percent report that rice is excellent when served with pork and 26% with beef. According to these studies, over 54% of all operators surveyed
used rice more frequently in 1990 than in 1989. The average number of pounds purchased weekly is about 41, compared to 23 pounds of pasta. The studies also
indicate that one third of all meals served continue to use rice, with about 36% serving rice at lunch and 43% at dinner. Figures from this same research (32) also
indicated that 74% of operators serve rice daily, with the highest percentage serving rice as a side dish at 64%. Fiftyone percent serve rice as an accompaniment to
the main dish item, and 35% use rice as an ingredient in an entree or soup.
In addition to increases of onmenu incidence of parboiled white rice in long and medium grain, Restaurants & Institutions 1989 menu census research (40) reports a
variety of other types of rices being served by both commercial and institutional operations. Included in these varieties are brown rice (19%), fried rice (22.5%), rice
pilaf (46%), Spanish rice (32%), and wild rice (32%).
F—
Other Factors Influencing Rice Usage
Operators agree that rice is easy to plate. In fact, research (32) indicates that operators perceive rice as outperforming pasta on ability to plate since it can be easily
scooped or portioned. Rice is also perceived as being highly suitable for batch cooking ahead of time, offering portion controllability and the ability to be held
throughout peak meal periods on a steam table.
Food service operators recognized that unused rice can be refrigerated and used again by adding water and reheating (32). Leftover rice is added to omelets, frittatas,
quiches, soups, pancake and waffle batters, stuffings, stews, or turned into cold salad presentations. It can be cooked with milk and cinnamon for a new hot breakfast
cereal. It may be sprinkled into soups and salad. Rice is also used instead of bread as a base for stuffings for meats or vegetables. Above all, rice is versatile enough to
combine well with chicken, beef, pork, seafood, vegetables, and countless seasonings. Compared to pasta, rice is perceived by operators to have greater menu
versatility.
Rice is also perceived to be an economical food carrier. As restaurateurs experience mounting pressures to hold the line on check averages despite
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rising wholesale prices, rice is viewed as inexpensive enough for food service operators to use as a plate extender and act as an ideal stretcher for costly meat and fish
proteins. When food service operators were asked to rank their most important concerns entering the 1990s, "finding ways to increase profits while controlling food
costs" was also top on their list (31). Sixtyseven percent indicate that rice is very applicable for helping to control food costs and improve plate profitability.
Compared to either pasta or potatoes, one third of all operators independently surveyed believe rice offers a better perceived price/value relationship (32).
XI—
New Products
The 1980s saw a dramatic change in the supermarket rice aisle with the emergence of entirely new rice categories. Rice mixes began to be a significant factor in 1984
as consumers sought convenience to accommodate the rapid increase in working women. Rice also became a key ingredient in many of the new dry packaged dinners,
a category that also evolved to meet the need for added convenience. Rice moved to another aisle with the introduction of rice cakes, an alternative healthy snack. The
common element among these new rice categories is that they are all valueadded processed foods. While the more traditional forms of rice presently account for the
dominant portion of the tonnage sold and will continue to be for the foreseeable future, it is apparent that valueadded rice products will continue to represent the
fastestgrowing segment.
In an analysis (41) prepared for the USA Rice Council, Gorman's New Product News identified 508 new products introduced between 1989 and 1990 that
contained rice as a principal ingredient. Of these, 30% were prepared rice mixes, 24% snacks/crackers, 13% desserts/candies/cookies, 10% bakery products (either
freshbaked or mixes), 10% entrees (to which some type of protein is added), 7% cereals/breakfast items, 2% baby foods, 1% drinks, 1% dog foods, and 2%
miscellaneous products. Recently, brewers' rice has been appearing in many new premium varieties of pet food (42). Rice is recognized for its positive nutritional image
among pet food manufacturers as well as pet owners. With 54 million dogs and 60 million cats in America, there is a substantial market here for rice.
Rice processors and spice companies have boosted rice's potential in food service with a broad array of convenient, topquality flavored and premixed rice/spice
blends that let any operator add an ethnic or regional touch to the menu (31). This category has grown tremendously in the past 5 years in response to operators' need
for variety and convenience. Over 50% of these operators are using prepackaged seasoned rice mixes, valueadded items that command a higher price by the
manufacturer and distribu
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tor. Rice pilaf is among the most popular flavored blends. Mexicanstyle rice, Spanish rice, rice pilaf, Cajunstyle rice, and wild rice/rice blends offer fast, easy
preparation, consistency, and low portion costs (12–23 cents per halfcup serving). Operators can also create rice side dishes customblended to accompany specific
menu items. Adding nuts, fruits, vegetables, meats, and seafoods or unusual spices greatly increases the perceived value of the rice dish by consumers.
According to Restaurant Hospitality's 1989 MenuTrak Research of food service operations (43), both bulk bag and box forms are available. Fortyeight percent of
all rice products are purchased in box bulk form, with 52% purchasing bag bulk. This compares with over 80% that purchase rice mixes in box bulk form, with only
20% buying in bag bulk. Only about 1.5% is offered in singleserve form. In this same study, figures indicate that 71% of all food service operations offered rice in the
past 12 months, with 27% using rice mixes. Fourteen percent indicated that their operation had added rice during the past 12 months, with another 14% adding a rice
mix.
Research conducted by Restaurant Business (31) found that 46% of all operators surveyed are currently blending or mixing white rice with other rices, like brown or
wild, or with pastas. Of those who serve a blended rice mix, 50% buy it preblended, while 75% prepare these blends from scratch.
With promising ongoing reseach on rice bran (see Chapter 16) and rice bran oil (see Chapter 18), it is likely that a variety of products incorporating these rice
byproducts as key ingredients will be introduced in the future.
XII—
Conclusions
There is considerable reason for optimism about the future of rice consumption within the United States. According to Supermarket Business (2):
Currently 12.1% of female homemakers say they are heavy users of rice, and 10.0% of that same group say they are heavy users of flavored or seasoned rice.
Rice usage is expected to increase by almost 12% by the year 2000. Heavier usage will likely be fueled by those currently between the ages of 18 and 24 (+33%) and
those between the ages of 35 and 44 (+12%).
For flavored or seasoned rice, heavy usage is forecast to increase 9.8% by the year 2000.
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank Nathan W. Childs, USDA, Economic Research Service, Washington, D.C., for the data used in the introductory section of this chapter.
Page 463
References
1. Castro, J. (1991). Goodbye to having it all: Americans are embracing the simple life. Time, 137:58.
2. Dietrich, R. (1989). Looking toward the 1990s: What's heating up; what's cooling off. Supermarket Bus., 44:33.
3. (1990). Lifestyles america: 1990's. Res. Alert, 8:41.
4. Naisbitt, J. (1991). As baby boomers approach midlife, their impact continues. John Naisbitt's Trend Letter, 10:1.
5. (1990). Money's in the middle: Projected consumer spending in the 90's. Prevention
6. Waldrop, J. (1991). The baby boom turns 45. Am. Demographics, January.
7. (1990). American's use of time project. Am. Demographics, February:33.
8. (1990). Shopping for stress. Am. Demographics, October:45.
9. Naisbitt, J. (1991). Immigration flood, suburban movement transforms U.S. John Naisbitt's Trend Letter, 10:1.
10. (1991). 1991 foodservice forecast. Cahners Bureau of Foodservice Research.
11. (1990). New traditional homemaker survey. Am. Demographics, December:17.
12. Guber, S. (1991). Children of the 1990s. Marketing Rev., 8:16.
13. (1990). Who's cooking now! Res. Alert, 8:2.
14. (1990). Lifestyles america: 1990s. Res. Alert, 8:6, 39.
15. O'Hare, W. (1990). A new look at asian americans. Am. Demographics, October.
16. Miller, T. A. W. (1991). Thirtyone trends shaping the future of american business. Public Pulse, 2:1.
17. Rubbright, H., et al. (1989). The 1990s . . . The microwave decade. Packag. Strategies (Special Report).
18. (1991). Suppertime USA survey. Food & Beverage Market, May:50, 54.
19. Mullins, M. E. (1990). Why microwaves are hot. USA Today, May.
20. (1990). Food Editor Recipe Survey. USA Rice Council.
21. (1990). Consumer Data: Why we use the microwave. Adweek Market. Week, 31:10.
22. (1990). Foodservice supermarkets. Prog. Grocer, April.
23. (1991). Maritz marketing research, Fenton, Missouri. Am. Demographics, February:4.
24. (1990). Gallup survey for voluntary hospitals of America, Irving, Texas. Am. Demographics, January.
25. (1991). Nature of shopper's concern about the nutritional content of food: 1988–1990. Food Marketing Institute.
26. Marsh, E. (1990). 1989 study by the National Restaurant Association. Am. Demographics, July.
27. Hoehberg, K. (1991). Health claims shift into high gear. Prep. Foods New Prod. Ann.:47.
28. (1991). Consumers don't always do what they say, Am. Demographics, April:
29. (1990). State of the industry report, Snack World Mag., June.
Page 464
30. USA Rice Council Survey of School Foodservice Directors, College and University Foodservive Directors, and Dietitians.
31. 1990. Advertising Awareness Surveys done for the USA Rice Council by Restaurant Business and Restaurant & Institutions.
32. (1991). Rice image and usage studies 1988–1991. ComSci Systems, Inc., Chicago, IL.
33. (1989). 4th annual report on national eating trends. The NPD Group, July.
34. (1990). Tastes of America: 1990 national consumer survey. Restaurants & Institutions.
35. Maritz Marketing Research, July 1989.
36. 1991 Annual Foodservice Forecast and Outlook, IFMA.
37. (1989). 1989 sideoftheplate monitor. Restaurant Bus.
38. (1991). The changing mood of America. The Good Housekeeping/Roper Survey, first quarter.
39. (1990). How rice performs in various areas. Restaurants & Institutions.
40. (1989). 1989 Menu Census. Restaurants & Institutions.
41. (1990). Rice as an ingredient 1989–1990. Gorman's New Product News.
42. (1991). Pedigreed pet foods. Food & Beverage Market., May.
43. (1989). 1989 Menu Trak. Restaurant Hospitality.
Page 465
INDEX
Bran:
composition, 383388
antinutritional compounds, 386
carbohydrates, 385386
dietary fiber, 386
lipids, 384
minerals, 384
protein, 383384
vitamins, 384385
dietary considerations, 37
in food products, 40, 397401
baked products, 398
defatted or lowfat bran, 401
pasta products, 398399
readytoeat cereals, 397398
rice bran oil, 399401 (see also Bran oil)
snacks and desserts, 399
stabilized brown rice flour, 399
food types, 387388
defatted or lowfat stabilized, 388
fullfat stabilized, 387
in nonfood applications, 401402
animal feed, 401402
derivatives and pharmaceuticals, 401
nutritional benefits, 388390
laxation effects, 389390
plasma cholesterol reduction, 388390
potential as a food source, 381383
health benefits, 382
stabilized bran, 381382
quality, 37
stabilization, 3941, 394396 (see also Brown rice)
enzyme inhibition, 3940
lipolysis, 4041
methods of, 39
oxidative deterioration, 4041
processing effects, 39
stabilization and processing, 390397
milling and purification, 390394
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packaging, shipping, and transportation, 396397
storage and shelf life, 396
storage study, 4147
discussion, 4647
materials and methods used, 4143
results, 4346
Bran oil:
composition, 422423
minor constituents, 423
triglycerides, 422
effect of processing, 427429
loss of unsaponifiables, 427429
extraction, 423425
health benefits, 430434
dietary studies, 432433
effects of fatty acids, 430
effects of unsaponifiables, 430432
metabolic considerations, 433434
refining, 425427
bleaching, 426
degumming, 426
deodorization, 427
dewaxing, 426
neutralization, 426
winterization, 427
stabilization, 421422
extraction cooking, 422
parboiling, 422
Breeding:
market types, 8998
long grain, 90, 9294
medium and short grains, 9497
special purpose, 9798
methods, 8687
induced mutation, 8687
pedigree breeding, 86
new techniques, 102104
anther culture, 102
genome mapping, 103
protoplast fusion, 103
tissue culture, 102
objectives, 8789
disease and insect resistance, 8788
grain yield, 87
quality characteristics, 8889
stress resistance, 88
programs, 8486
Breeding, ecogeographic races, 83
Breeding for high milling yield, 99101
Breeding for new market types, 104106
Brown rice:
consumption, 17
deterrents to, 17
lipolytic hydrolysis, 18
lipolytic oxidation, 1820
enzymatic, 19
nonenzymatic, 1920
nutritional value, 17
stabilization, 2031
ethanol processes, 2529
future prospects, 31
heat processes, 2023
to oxidation, 3031
products from, 2930
solvent extraction process, 2325
Degree of milling:
definition, 140
economic aspects, 140141
grading, 140
head yield, 140141
moisture content, 141
estimation of, 147152
chemical methods, 150
colored bran balance, 149
differential dye staining, 148
New May Grünwald, 149
physical methods, 151
qualitative descriptors, 147
visual, 148
by weight, 147
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lipid analysis, 170172
near infrared spectroscopy, 152173
calibration, 162170
computer software, 153
curve normalization, 154, 161162
equipment, 153
math transformations, 155
sample preparation, 156161
quality and nutrition, 141147
brown rice, 142
composition, 141
deep milling, 144147
insect infestation, 144
milling fractions, 141, 143, 145
undermilled rice, 142
uniformity of, 150
Drying:
breakage, 299, 313, 329
combined solar and biomass, 292293
comparison of drying systems, 293294
continuousflow dryers, 301
conventional, mechanism of, 302
deepbed dryers, 300
microwavevacuum, 303338
drying curves, 317
drying rate, 309311, 321323
efficiency, 312313, 323328
equipment, 305308
green rice, 305315
kernel density, 328329, 334
mechanism of, 303
milling yields, 313314, 329331
parboiled rice, 315332
rice quality, 333338
onthefarm, 276280
drying conditions, 277278
energy use, 278280
equipment, 277
problems associated with, 276277
solar, 280288
drying conditions, 282288
equipment, 280282
rough rice drying, 280
use of agricultural residues, 288292
energy potential, 288
equipment, 288289
rough rice drying, 289292
Eating trends:
convenience foods, 449451
carryout and home delivery, 451
convenience trends, 450
cooking from scratch, 450451
purchase behavior, 449450
healthful foods, 452456
consumer interest in rice, 452453
nutrition versus convenience, 454455
rice as a healthy food, 455456
white meats and rice, 453454
new rice food products, 461462
pleasure eating, 456461
dining out, 456457
family dinners, 456
food service industry, 457458
food service rice usage, 458461
Food enrichment:
dietary implications, 196
enrichment versus fortification, 195
health implications, 196197
nutritional benefits, 203204
Grain drying:
energy considerations, 275276
nonconventional methods, 293
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Head yield:
definition, 341
economic impact, 341
environmental effects, 350352
harvest moisture, 343
milling moisture, 364371
moisture adsorption/desorption, 355364
head yield model, 360
rates, 356359
moisture variation effect, 347350, 352355
Marketing trends:
baby boomers, 443445
discretionary income, 444445
food expenditures, 445
health issues, 443
work/lifestyle, 444
demographic trends, 442443
immigration/geographic trends, 447449
AsianAmericans, 447, 448
HispanicAmericans, 447
nontraditional families, 443
older population, 445446
population and lifestyle changes, 442
working women, 446447
Microwave parboiling:
development of, 265266
process features, 266270
cooking, 268269
drying, 269270
soaking, 266268
versus conventional parboiling, 271273
energy use, 272
equipment costs, 271
product quality, 272273
space considerations, 271
Milling:
equipment, 230249
abrasivetype mill, 231234
bran removal, 230234, 236
coneshaped mill, 234
effects of rotor cross section, 240
effects of watermist injection, 242246
frictiontype mill, 230232
historical development, 234236
hullermill, 235
hull removal, 235
humidifier, 251
mill speed, 232
multiple break, 242
pressurized moisture conditioner, 251
rice washer, 258259
rotors, 242
vertical mill, 236242
water mill, 242249
yields, 246248
test milling, 364376
degree of milling, 364366
McGill mill, 364366
mill settings, 375376
moisture content, 366, 375
sample size, 371375
statistical analysis of , 366371
uniformity, 143144
Modified starch:
CFR requirements, 407408
future applications, 417418
modification methods, 409417
acidification, 417
crosslinking, 409413
dry heating, 416417
parboiling, 414416
retrogradation, 413414
Moisture content:
adsorption model, 357
distribution, 349
effect on head yield, 341380
environmental effects, 350352
grain development, 342243, 345
harvest, 342343
hysteresis, 377
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individual kernel measurement, 345
individual kernel variation, 345347, 352355
maturity, 344
postharvest equilibration, 347
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 376377
Parboiling (see also Microwave parboiling):
process, 263265
research needs, 264265
Processing:
combined friction/abrasive milling, 235
milling action, 230236
milling pressure, 237
miling ratio, 236
moisture conditioning, 250256
washing technology, 256261
''Jiff" process, 259261
traditional, 256
waste water treatment, 260
water mist polishing, 242249
benefits, 246
mold growth, 249
storage stability, 246
Quality:
influence of aging on, 189190
influence of protein on, 177178
methods and terminology, 179180
microwavedried rice, 333338
alkali spreading, 334
amylographic analysis, 334335
organoleptic evaluation, 335338
water uptake, 335
moisture conditioning, 250256
new methods to evaluate, 117133
calorimetry, 127128
computer data systems, 132
cooking tests, 118119
molecular level methods, 132133
NIR spectrometry, 128129
texture analysis, 120125
viscosity analysis, 125127
vision systems, 129132
old methods to evaluate, 114117
breeder tests, 114115
FGIS standards, 115116
ingredient rice tests, 117
table rice tests, 116117
washing of rice, 256262
Rice:
composition of, 3
consumption, 513, 439441
brewing, 439440
direct food use, 439, 441
export market, 68
processed foods, 439441
United States, 1013
world, 56
current research and development, 1415
deterioration, 3839
mechanism of, 3839
development, 342347
historical perspective, 1
moisture adsorption/desorption, 355364
head yield, 361364
production, 513
United States, 810
world, 56
structure, 25, 139
caryopsis, 35, 139
embryo, 139
endosperm, 139
hull, 3
pericarp, 139
Rice bran (see Bran)
Page 470
Rice bran oil (see Bran oil)
Rice enrichment:
application techniques, 202
coated kernel process, 201
other enrichment processes, 202
powder enrichment process, 200201
rinse, cook, and wash resistance, 203
standards, 197200
Rice grain (see Rice)
Rice kernel (see Rice)
Rice protein:
classification, 178179
effect on texture, 180183
grain development, 182183
nitrogen fertilizer, 181182
grain content, 178
protein bodies, 179
starch granule associated, 179
Rice quality (see Quality)
Rice storage (see Storage)
Starch:
function in foods, 405406
improvement by modification, 406
Starch gelatinization:
related to grain structure, 213225
effects of cracks and fissures, 213216
effect of milling, 216218
effect of particle size, 218223
structural barriers, 223225
determined by DSC, 206208, 225226
applied to starchbased foods, 226
experimental conditions, 206207
practical applications, 225
thermal parameters, 207208
in milled rice, 208213
gelatinization models, 210213
thermal curves, 208120
in milled rice flour, 208213
thermal curves, 208210
monitored during rice cooking, 205206
Starchprotein interaction, 183189
effect on starch gelatinization, 183189
relation to texture, 183
starchoryzenin model, 183
Storage:
changes due to, 49, 51
correlations among physicochemical and quality factors, 7275
physicochemical changes, 5159
carbohydrates, 51
enzymes, 5355
lipids, 5559
protein, 53 (see also Rice protein)
starch, 5153
vitamins, 59
quality factor changes, 59, 6172
cooking properties, 6667, 70
kernel hardness and swelling, 6364
odor and flavor, 7072
starch properties, 62
storage gases and color, 59, 61
water uptake and solids loss, 61