Electronics 07 00018 PDF

electronics
Review
Digital Control Techniques Based on Voltage Source
Inverters in Renewable Energy Applications: A Review
Sohaib Tahir 1,2 , Jie Wang 1, *, Mazhar Hussain Baloch 1,3 and Ghulam Sarwar Kaloi 1,4
1 School of Electronic, Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai 200000, China; sohaibchauhdary@sjtu.edu.cn (S.T.); mazhar.hussain08ele@gmail.com (M.H.B.);
Sarwar.kaloi59@gmail.com (G.S.K.)
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal 58801, Pakistan
3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology,
Khairpur Mirs 67480, Pakistan
4 Department of Electrical Engineering, Quaid e Awam University of Engineering & Technology,
Larkana 77150, Pakistan
* Correspondence: jiewangxh@sjtu.edu.cn
Received: 4 December 2017; Accepted: 2 February 2018; Published: 7 February 2018
Abstract: In the modern era, distributed generation is considered as an alternative source for
power generation. Especially, need of the time is to provide the three-phase loads with smooth
sinusoidal voltages having fixed frequency and amplitude. A common solution is the integration
of power electronics converters in the systems for connecting distributed generation systems to
the stand-alone loads. Thus, the presence of suitable control techniques, in the power electronic
converters, for robust stability, abrupt response, optimal tracking ability and error eradication are
inevitable. A comprehensive review based on design, analysis, validation of the most suitable
digital control techniques and the options available for the researchers for improving the power
quality is presented in this paper with their pros and cons. Comparisons based on the cost, schemes,
performance, modulation techniques and coordinates system are also presented. Finally, the paper
describes the performance evaluation of the control schemes on a voltage source inverter (VSI) and
proposes the different aspects to be considered for selecting a power electronics inverter topology,
reference frames, filters, as well as control strategy.
Keywords: voltage source inverters (VSI); voltage control; current control; digital control;
predictive controllers; advanced controllers; stability; response time
1. Introduction
Nowadays, energy demand is getting increased with the passage of time and distributed
generation (DG) power systems especially through wind, solar and fuel cells as well as their related
power conversion systems are conferred immensely. Many problems like grid instability, low power
factor and power outage etc. for power distribution have also been increased with increase in energy
demand [1]. However, DG power systems are found to be a sensible solution for such problems as they
have relatively robust stability and causes additional flexibility balance. Moreover, their utilization
can also improve the distribution networks management and carbon release is also reduced. VSIs are
extensively necessitated for the commercial purpose as well as for the industrial applications as they
play a key role in converting the DC voltage and current, usually produced by various DG applications,
into AC before being discharged into the grid or consumed by the load. Several control systems are
introduced, various schemes are proposed and numerous techniques are updated in order to facilitate
the control of three-phase VSI. The objectives of these control schemes are to constrain the high and
low-frequency electromagnetic pollution and to inject the active power with zero power factor into the
Electronics 2018, 7, 18; doi:10.3390/electronics7020018 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2018, 7, 18 2 of 37
grid [2]. The smooth and steady sinusoidal waveform can be a good input to a load for getting the
most suitable response, therefore, the output of the inverter, which normally enjoys special standards
and characteristics, should be controlled for providing an aforementioned waveform to load and grid.
Generally, it is observed that several problems are caused in linking the DG power system to a grid
or grid to load in bidirectional inverters, i.e., grid instability, distortion in the waveform, attenuation as
well as major and minor disturbances. Hence, in order to overcome these problems and to provide
high-quality power, appropriate controllers with rapid response, compatible algorithm, ability to
remove stable errors, less transit time, high tracking ability, less total harmonic distortion, THD value
and smooth sinusoidal output should be designed. Various controllers are designed for achieving
these qualities. The cascade technologies are introduced in the literature comprises of an inner current
loop and outer voltage loop [3–12]. As the inner-loop current controller plays a fundamental role in
closed-loop performance, various control approaches like PI [3–6], H∞ [7,8], deadbeat [9–11,13] and
µ-synthesis [11] are extensively applied. Outer voltage loop in the aforementioned cases refines the
tracking ability and decreases the tracking error. In case of no input limitations, aforesaid PI controllers
are the best choice for stabilizing the inner loop performance. However, input constraints restrict
their performance and no optimization is usually observed by using PI controllers. The deadbeat
control method is proposed in [9] to enhance the closed-loop performance but unfortunately, it was
found highly sensitive to the disturbances, parameters mismatches and measurement noise. Later on,
some observed based deadbeat controllers are introduced in order to provide compensation for
these discrepancies, however, a trade-off was observed between phase margin and closed-loop
performance [9,10]. Afterwards, H∞ controllers in [7,8] are offering robust output response instead of
input constraints, however, guaranteeing only the local stability like the µ-synthesis controller in [12].
Several other manuscripts are also amalgamated with literature for fulfilling the demand of
electric power regarding fulfilling the environmental principles concerning green-house effects [14–18].
Various structures and topologies for interconnecting DGs are presented in [19–21] for parallel
operation and in [22–24] for independent operation. For this reason, various control strategies are
anticipated for stabilizing the system to control the voltage and frequency in case of unbalanced load
and nonlinear loads. Many researchers have proposed several schemes for designing the controller in
order to refine the quality of output voltage of DC to AC inverter. In [25], a control scheme is presented
for a DG unit in islanded mode, this control technique is suitable for balanced load conditions for a DG
unit when it is electronically coupled. However, this technique is constrained to small load variations
and remain unable to stabilize the system in large load variations. A robust controller is proposed
in [26] for balanced as well as unbalanced systems. However, it fails to address non-linear load properly.
In [27], a repetitive control is implemented for controlling the inverters but the relatively slow response
and absence of a systematical technique for stabilizing the error dynamics are the core problems. In [28],
the uncomplicatedly designed controller is used to mitigate the load disturbances up to a significant
extent through a feedforward compensation element, however, it is only restricted to balanced load
conditions. In [29], a spatial repetitive control technique is implemented for controlling the current
in a single-phase inverter. The results are satisfactory under non-linear load conditions; however,
it is not guaranteeing the optimal tracking ability for a three-phase inverter. In [30], a discrete-time
sliding mode current controller is proposed, it is optimally operating to control the system at a sudden
load change, an unbalanced load and a nonlinear load, however, the system is quite intricate. In [31],
the voltage and frequency controller is presented through a discrete-time mathematical model in
order to operate the distributed resource units. This technique is achieving good voltage regulations
under different load conditions but the results are not verified through the experimental setup. In [32],
a controller is proposed having an adaptive feedforward compensation method applied through
a Kalman filter for estimating the variation in parameters, the response was robust; however, tuning of
covariance matrices are not appropriately described in the paper. In [33], a corresponding controller
is recommended for distributed generation systems in grid applications, the anticipated controller is
good in handling the grid disturbances and handling the nonlinearities, however, it is not suitable
Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 37
variation in parameters, the response was robust; however, tuning of covariance matrices are not
appropriately described in the paper. In [33], a corresponding controller is recommended for
distributed generation systems in grid applications, the anticipated controller is good in handling the
grid disturbances and handling the nonlinearities, however, it is not suitable in stand-alone mode
due
in to the nonexistence
stand-alone mode due of to
voltage loop. In [34,35],
the nonexistence the adaptive
of voltage loop. controller
In [34,35],istheused and voltage
adaptive tracking
controller is
is achieved
used and voltageprecisely.
tracking Theis system
achievedisprecisely.
guaranteed Theunder
systemsystems parameter
is guaranteed undervariations, however,
systems parameter
complexityhowever,
variations, in computation
complexity existsinand a certain pre-defined
computation exists and a value
certainispre-defined
needed for value parameters.
is needed In [36],
for
an output voltage
parameters. In [36], controller
an output based voltageoncontroller
the resonantbasedharmonic filters is
on the resonant presented.
harmonic It measures
filters is presented. the
Itcapacitor
measures current and load
the capacitor current
current and inload
the same
currentsensor.
in theUnbalanced
same sensor.voltage condition
Unbalanced and condition
voltage harmonic
distortion
and harmonic are distortion
compensated are in this controller.
compensated However,
in this controller.THDHowever,
value is not THDdefined
value is appropriately,
not defined
therefore, it is complicated
appropriately, therefore, it is tocomplicated
assess the quality of the
to assess thecontroller.
quality ofAn theadaptive
controller. control technique
An adaptive based
control
proportional
technique based derivative
proportional controller is presented
derivative in [37],
controller for a pulseinwidth
is presented [37], modulated inverter
for a pulse width operation
modulated
in islanded
inverter distributed
operation in islandedgeneration system,
distributed voltage system,
generation regulation under
voltage numerous
regulation underload conditions
numerous loadis
evaluated,isthough
conditions it is not
evaluated, easyittois achieve
though not easythe suitablethe
to achieve control gains
suitable as pargains
control the designing
as par the procedure
designing
specified in
procedure the paper.
specified Moreover,
in the voltage and
paper. Moreover, frequency
voltage are optimally
and frequency controlled,
are optimally active and
controlled, reactive
active and
power unbalancing
reactive power unbalancingis aptly is compensated
aptly compensatedthroughthrough
small signal
smallmodeling of inverters
signal modeling in [38]. in [38].
of inverters
The key
The key purpose
purpose of of this
this study
study isis to to provide
provide aa comprehensive
comprehensive review review of of the
the digital
digital control
control
strategies for different
strategies differenttypes typesofof three-phase
three-phase inverters
inverters in stand-alone
in stand-alone as wellas as grid-connected
well as grid-connected modes.
Correspondingly,
modes. Correspondingly,explanation, discussion
explanation, and and
discussion comparison
comparison of ofthethevarious
variouscontrol
control strategies
strategies are are
describedin
described inthis
thismanuscript
manuscriptin indetail.
detail.
Themanuscript
The manuscriptisisorganized
organizedas: as:classification
classificationofofvoltage
voltagesource
source inverters
inverters is is described
described in in Section
Section 2.
2. Section
Section 3 discusses
3 discusses the characteristics
the characteristics of control
of control systems, systems, followed
followed by a depiction
by a depiction of reference
of reference frames
frames
in Sectionin Section 4. The control
4. The control strategy strategy in decoupled
in decoupled dq frame dq frame and time-delay
and time-delay samplingsampling
scheme scheme
for VSIfor
VSIdepicted
are are depicted in Sections
in Sections 5 and5 and 6 respectively.
6 respectively. AnAn overview
overview of of
thethe mostcommonly
most commonlyused usedfilters
filtersandand
dampingtechniques
damping techniques is illustrated
is illustrated in Sections
in Sections 7 and 87 respectively.
and 8 respectively. The grid synchronization
The grid synchronization techniques
techniques
followed byfollowed
modulation by modulation
techniques are techniques
describedare in described
Sections 9 in andSections 9 and
10 of the 10 of the respectively.
manuscript, manuscript,
respectively.
Moreover, Moreover,
control Techniques control Techniques
along with their along
pros.with theirare
& cons. pros. & cons. in
described areSection
described in Section
11. In Section 12,11.
In Section 12,analysis
comparative comparative
and future analysis
goals andforfuture goals for are
the researchers theelaborated.
researchersWhereas,
are elaborated. Whereas,
conclusions are
conclusions
drawn are drawn
in Section 13. in Section 13.
2.
2. Classification
Classificationof
ofVSIs
VSIs
There
There are
are various
various types,
types, in
inwhich
whichthe
theinverters
invertersare
arecategorized.
categorized. Figure
Figure 11 shows
shows the
the complete
complete
detail of categories in which voltage source inverters are classified.
detail of categories in which voltage source inverters are classified.
High Power
Drives
Indirect Direct
Conversion Conversion
Voltage Source Current Source Cycloconverters

Inverters Inverters
Multilevel Load Commutated

2-level High- PWM-CSI
VSI Inverter
Power VSI
Cascaded Neutral Point Flying Capacitor

H-Bridge VSI Diode Clamped VSI
VSI
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Classification
Classification of
of voltage
voltagesource
sourceinverters
inverters(VSIs)
(VSIs)in
inhigh
highpower
powerdrives.
drives.
2.1. Multilevel Diode Neutral-Point Clamped Inverter

Multilevel inverter (MLI) was proposed in 1975, its design was like a cascade inverter with
diodes facing the source. This inverter was later transformed into a Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverter,
2.1. Multilevel Diode Neutral-Point Clamped Inverter

Electronics 2018, 7, 18
Multilevel inverter (MLI) was proposed in 1975, its design was like a cascade inverter 4with of 37
diodes facing the source. This inverter was later transformed into a Diode Clamped Multilevel
Inverter, which
which is also named is also named as a Neutral-Point
as a Neutral-Point Clamped InverterClamped Inverter
(NPC) [39]. (NPC)
In this [39].
type of In thisinverters,
multilevel type of
multilevel inverters,
the integration the integration
of voltage clampingof voltage
diodes clamping diodes
is indispensable. Anis ordinary
indispensable.
DC-bus Anisordinary
separated DC-by
bus is separated by an even number of bulk capacitors connected in series with a neutral
an even number of bulk capacitors connected in series with a neutral point in the middle of the line point in the
middle of the line that
that is dependent is dependent
on the on the
voltage levels ofvoltage levels In
the inverter. of the inverter.
Figure In FigureNPC-MLI
2, a five-level 2, a five-level NPC-
is shown,
MLI
here is shown,
the clampingherediodes
the clamping diodes are
are interlinked interlinked
to M-1 to M-1
regulatory pairsregulatory pairs if M
if M is considered as is considered
voltage levelsasof
voltage levels
the inverter. of the inverter.
Vdc Sa
2
Ca Da Sb
Vdc
4 Sc
Db
Cb
Sd
Vdc
Load
Dc
n
S′a
D′a
D′b S′b
Cc
V
- dc
4
Dc′ S′c
Cd
Vdc
-
2 S′d
-
Figure
Figure2.
2.Five-level
Five-leveldiode
diodeneutral-point
neutral-pointclamped
clampedinverter.
inverter.
The neutral point converter was designed by Nabae, Takahashi and Akagi in 1981, this was
The neutral point converter was designed by Nabae, Takahashi and Akagi in 1981, this was
basically a three-level diode-clamped inverter [40]. A three-phase Three-level diode-clamped inverter
basically a three-level diode-clamped inverter [40]. A three-phase Three-level diode-clamped inverter
is shown in Figure 3.
is shown in Figure 3.
The NPC-MLI is considered as an important device in conventional high-power ac motor drive
The NPC-MLI is considered as an important device in conventional high-power ac motor drive
applications like mills, fans, pumps and conveyors, moreover, it also offers solutions for industries
applications like mills, fans, pumps and conveyors, moreover, it also offers solutions for industries
including chemicals, gas, power, metals, oil, marine, water and mining. The back-to-back
including chemicals, gas, power, metals, oil, marine, water and mining. The back-to-back configuration
configuration of inverters for reformative applications is also considered as a major plus point of this
of inverters for reformative applications is also considered as a major plus point of this topology, used,
topology, used, for example, in regenerative conveyors, mining industry and grid interfacing of
for example, in regenerative conveyors, mining industry and grid interfacing of renewable energy
renewable energy sources like wind power [41].
sources like wind power [41].
There are several benefits as well as drawbacks of multilevel diode-clamped [39,42]. A common
There are several benefits as well as drawbacks of multilevel diode-clamped [39,42]. A common dc
dc bus is shared by all the phases, this results in the reduction of capacitance requirements of the
bus is shared by all the phases, this results in the reduction of capacitance requirements of the inverter.
inverter. Due to this reason, implementation of a back-to-back topology is not only credible but can
Due to this reason, implementation of a back-to-back topology is not only credible but can also be
also be applied practically for performing different operations in an adjustable speed drive and a
applied practically for performing different operations in an adjustable speed drive and a high-voltage
high-voltage back-to-back inter-connection. The capacitors can be recharged as a group. On
back-to-back inter-connection. The capacitors can be recharged as a group. On fundamental frequency,
switching efficacy is relatively higher. However, real power flow is problematic in case of a single
fundamental frequency, switching efficacy is relatively higher. However, real power flow is
problematic in case of a single inverter as the intermediate dc levels will tend to overcharge or
inverter asdue
discharge the to
intermediate dc levels
inappropriate will tend
monitoring andtocontrol.
overcharge
The or discharge
number due to inappropriate
of clamping diodes are
monitoring and control. The number of clamping diodes are quadratically associated
quadratically associated with the number of levels, which can be unwieldy for units with with the number
a high
of levels,ofwhich
number levels.can be unwieldy for units with a high number of levels.
Vdc Sa Sa Sa
C1
2
Sb Sb Sb
n
Vdc
Sc Sc Sc
Vdc Sd Sd
- C2 Sd
2
-
a b c
Figure
Figure3.3.Three-level
Three-leveldiode
diodeneutral-point
neutral-pointclamped
clampedinverter.
inverter.
2.2.
2.2. Multilevel
MultilevelCapacitor
CapacitorClamped/Flying
Clamped/Flying Capacitor
Capacitor Inverter
Inverter
AAcorresponding
corresponding topology
topology for for the
the NPC-MLI
NPC-MLI topology
topologyisisthe theFlying
FlyingCapacitor
Capacitor(FC), (FC),or orCapacitor
Capacitor
Clamped,
Clamped, MLI MLI topology,
topology, ititisisdepicted
depictedininFigureFigure4.4.As Asanan alternative
alternative to to clamping
clamping diodes,
diodes, capacitors
capacitors are
are used for holding the voltages to the referred values. In the NPC-MLI,
used for holding the voltages to the referred values. In the NPC-MLI, M − 1 number of capacitors are M − 1 number of capacitors
are integrated
integrated on aon a shared
shared DC-bus,
DC-bus, where where
M is M theislevel
the level
numbernumber
of theofinverter
the inverter
and 2(M and−2(M − 1) switch-
1) switch-diode
diode regulatory
regulatory pairs
pairs are used.areThough,
used. Though, for the FC-MLI,
for the FC-MLI, instead of instead
clampingof clamping
diodes, one diodes,
or more onecapacitors
or more
capacitors are used to produce the output voltages depends upon
are used to produce the output voltages depends upon the position and the level of the inverter. the position and the level of the
inverter. They are coupled to the midpoints of two regulatory pairs
They are coupled to the midpoints of two regulatory pairs on the same position on each side on the same position on each sideof
of a midpoint [42], see capacitors C a , C b and
a midpoint [42], see capacitors Ca , Cb and Cc in Figure 5. C c in Figure 5.
The
The basic
basic difference
difference is is the
the usage
usage of of clamping
clamping capacitors
capacitors in in place
place of of clamping
clamping diodes,diodes, as as using
using
them
them increases
increases thethe number
numberofofswitching
switchingcombinations
combinations asas capacitors
capacitors dodo notnot
block block reverse
reverse voltages
voltages [42].
[42]. Numerous switching states would be able to produce the
Numerous switching states would be able to produce the same voltage level and the redundantsame voltage level and the redundant
switching
switching states
states would
would also also bebe available.
available.
DC
DCside
sidecapacitors
capacitorsin inthis
thistopology
topologyhave haveaaladder-like
ladder-likestructure
structureand andthethevoltage
voltageon oneach
eachcapacitor
capacitor
deviates
deviates from that of the other capacitor. The voltage increment between two adjacent legs of
from that of the other capacitor. The voltage increment between two adjacent legs of the
the
capacitors provides the size of the voltage steps in the output waveform.
capacitors provides the size of the voltage steps in the output waveform. One advantage of the One advantage of the flying-
capacitor-based
flying-capacitor-basedinverter is the isredundancies
inverter the redundancies for inner voltage
for inner voltagelevels; i.e.,i.e.,
levels; twotwoorormore
moreeffective
effective
switching amalgamations can produce
switching amalgamations can produce an output voltage. an output voltage.
Unlike the diode-clamped
Unlike the diode-clampedinverter, inverter, thethe flying-capacitor
flying-capacitor inverter
inverter nevernever
requires requires
all of theallswitches
of the
switches to be on (conducting state) in a consecutive series. Moreover,
to be on (conducting state) in a consecutive series. Moreover, the flying-capacitor inverter has the flying-capacitor inverter
has
phasephase redundancies,
redundancies, while
while thethe diode-clampedinverters
diode-clamped invertershave haveonly
only the
the line-line
line-line redundancies
redundancies[40]. [40].
These
These redundancies
redundancies provideprovide selective
selectivecharging
chargingand anddischarging
dischargingof ofspecific
specific capacitors
capacitorsand anditit can
can bebe
incorporated in the control system for the voltage balancing
incorporated in the control system for the voltage balancing across the various levels. across the various levels.
Vdc Sa
2
Sb
Cd Sc
Vdc
Cc
4 Cd
Cb Sd
Vdc
n Cc Ca Load
Cb S′a
Cd
V
- dc
4 Cc
Cd S′b
S′c
Vdc
-
2
S′d
-
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Multilevel
Multilevel (Five-level) capacitor clamped/flying
(Five-level) capacitor clamped/flying capacitor
capacitor inverter.
inverter.
There are several advantages and disadvantages of multilevel flying capacitor inverters [41,43].
There are several advantages and disadvantages of multilevel flying capacitor inverters [41,43].
Phase redundancies are offered for balancing the voltage levels between the capacitors. Active and
Phase redundancies are offered for balancing the voltage levels between the capacitors. Active and
reactive power flow can be regulated. The presence of various capacitors allows the inverter to ride
reactive power flow can be regulated. The presence of various capacitors allows the inverter to ride
through outages for short duration and deep voltage sags. However, the control system is complex
through outages for short duration and deep voltage sags. However, the control system is complex for
for tracking the voltage levels for all of the capacitors. Correspondingly, recharging all the capacitors
tracking the voltage levels for all of the capacitors. Correspondingly, recharging all the capacitors to
to the same voltage level and startup are complex. Switching operation and efficacy are poor for real
the same voltage level and startup are complex. Switching operation and efficacy are poor for real
power transmission. The installation of large numbers of capacitors is not much economical and it
power transmission. The installation of large numbers of capacitors is not much economical and it also
also makes the system bulky as compared to the clamping diodes in multilevel diode-clamped
makes the system bulky as compared to the clamping diodes in multilevel diode-clamped converters.
converters. Likewise, packing is also tougher in the inverters with a higher number of levels. The
Likewise, packing is also tougher in the inverters with a higher number of levels. The five-level and
five-level and three-level FC-MLIs are represented in Figures 4 and 5 respectively.
three-level FC-MLIs are represented in Figures 4 and 5 respectively.

+
Sa Sa Sa
Vdc +
Sa Sa Sa
2 C1
Vdc
2 C1
Sb Sb Sb
Vdc
Sb Sb Sb
Vdc Ca Cb Cc
n
Ca Cb Cc
n Sc Sc Sc
Sc Sc Sc
Vdc C2
- C2
2V
- dc Sd Sd Sd
2-
Sd Sd Sd
-
a b c
a b c
Figure5.5.Three-level
Figure Three-levelcapacitor
capacitorclamped/flying
clamped/flying capacitor
capacitor inverter.
inverter.
Figure 5. Three-level capacitor clamped/flying capacitor inverter.
2.3. Cascaded
2.3. Cascaded H-Bridge
H-BridgeInverter
Inverter
2.3. Cascaded H-Bridge Inverter
Thereare
There areminimum
minimum three
three voltage
voltage levels
levels for
for for a multilevel
a multilevel inverter
inverter using using cascaded
cascaded topologies.
topologies. In orderIn
There are minimum three voltage levels a multilevel inverter using cascaded topologies. In
order
to attain to attain a
a three-level three-level
waveform, waveform, a single
a single full-bridge full-bridge
or H-bridge or H-bridge
inverter is inverter
considered.is considered.
Each inverter Each
order to attain a three-level waveform, a single full-bridge or H-bridge inverter is considered. Each is
inverter is
provided provided
with a separate withDC a separate
source. ADC source. Acascaded
three-level three-level cascaded
inverter is inverter
shown in is shown
Figure 6. in Figure 6.
inverter is provided with a separate DC source. A three-level cascaded inverter is shown in Figure 6.
By using
By usingdifferent
differentcombinations
combinations ofthe the fourswitches,
switches, Sa, Sb, Sc and and SSdd,, each
each inverter
inverter levellevel can
can
By using different combinationsof of thefour
four switches, SSaa,, SSbb, ,SSc cand Sd, each inverter level can
produce three different outputs
outputsofof voltage, i.e.,VV V , 0, and
0 and −
−Vdc dcV by by connecting thethe dc source to the
dc , 0 and −V
produce
produce three
three different
different outputs ofvoltage,
voltage,i.e.,
i.e., dcdc connecting dc source to the ac
dc by connecting the dc source to the
output.−V
−
V V,dca ,
output. V can be obtained by turning on switches S and S whereas for obtaining V , switches S
acacoutput. dc
−V
dcdc can canbe be obtained
obtained by by turning
turning on on switches
switches
b c
SSb band
andScScwhereas
whereasforfor obtaining
dc
obtaining
and Sd can be turned on. However, for achieving the output voltage on 0 level either Sa and Sb dc or Sc
switches
switchesSaSand a andSd Sdcancanbe beturned
turned on. on. However,
However, for for achieving
achievingthe theoutput
outputvoltage
voltage onon 0 level
0 level either
either Sa Sa
and Sd can be turned on. The different full-bridge inverters must be connected in series in the way that
and S or S and S can be turned on. The different full-bridge inverters
and Sb or Sc and Sd can be turned on. The different full-bridge inverters must be connected in series
b c d must be connected in series
the finally produced voltage waveform should be the sum of the inverter outputs. Multilevel cascaded
in in
the
thewaywaythat thatthethefinally
finallyproduced
produced voltage waveform waveformshould shouldbebethe thesumsumofof thethe inverter
inverter outputs.
outputs.
inverters are proposed for the applications such as static VAR generation (reactive power control),
Multilevel
Multilevelcascaded
cascaded inverters
inverters are are proposed
proposed for for the
the applications
applicationssuch suchasasstatic
staticVAR VAR generation
generation
an interface with renewable energy sources and for battery-based applications. The main reasons
(reactive
(reactivepowerpower control),
control), an an interface with renewable
interface with renewable energy energy sources
sourcesand andforforbattery-based
battery-based
forapplications.
preferring a The cascaded multilevel
main reasons
reasons for
H-bridge
for preferring
inverter
preferring aa cascaded
are the availability of possible output levels
applications. The main cascaded multilevel
multilevelH-bridge
H-bridgeinverter
inverter areare
thethe
more than twice
availability the number of dc sources [42–44]. The series of H-bridges enables the manufacturing
availability ofofpossible
possible output
output levels
levels more than
than twice
twicethe thenumber
numberofofdcdcsources
sources [42–44].
[42–44]. The Theseries of of
series
and packaging
H-bridges process
enables themore easy, quick and
manufacturing and economical.process However, the requirement ofeconomical.
a separate dc
H-bridges enables the manufacturing and packaging
packaging processmore moreeasy,
easy,quick
quickand and economical.
source for each
However, H-bridge
therequirement
requirement constrains the applications
of aa separate
separate dc of these inverters to the products having multiple
However, the of dc source
source for foreach
eachH-bridge
H-bridgeconstrains
constrains thetheapplications
applications of of
separate
these DC sources
inverters to already
the products or readily
having available.
multiple separate DC sources already or readily available.
these inverters to the products having multiple separate DC sources already or readily available.
S S Sa Sc Sa Sc
Sa a Scc Sa Sc Sa Sc
C1 C2 C3
C1 A B C2 A B C3 A B
A B A B A B
Sb Sd Sb Sd Sb Sd
Sb Sd Sb Sd Sb Sd
Figure6.6.Cascaded
Figure Cascaded H-bridge
H-bridge multilevel
multilevelinverter.
inverter.
Figure 6. Cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter.
Electronics 2018,
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FOR PEER REVIEW 88of
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37
2.4. Two-Level Three Phase VSI with an Output Filter

2.4. Two-Level Three Phase VSI with an Output Filter
A simple two-level inverter is used to convert dc to ac output. It consists of six switches, IGBTs
A simple two-level inverter is used to convert dc to ac output. It consists of six switches, IGBTs and
and MOSFETs are the two most suitable switching components for these inverters. Due to simplicity
MOSFETs are the two most suitable switching components for these inverters. Due to simplicity in
in their structure and ability to handle the voltage by keeping the system stable, they are preferred
their structure and ability to handle the voltage by keeping the system stable, they are preferred
utmost in the industry and for commercial purpose due to their support in uninterruptible power
utmost in the industry and for commercial purpose due to their support in uninterruptible power
supply applications. These are usually connected to the load or the grid by using LC or LCL filter.
supply applications. These are usually connected to the load or the grid by using LC or LCL filter.
Various types of control systems are implemented by the researchers to improve their performance,
Various types of control systems are implemented by the researchers to improve their performance,
robustness and stabilization, compensating the power losses and lowering the THD value. SPWM or
robustness and stabilization, compensating the power losses and lowering the THD value. SPWM
SVPWM are mostly applied to these types of inverters for getting appropriate values. Two level three
or SVPWM are mostly applied to these types of inverters for getting appropriate values. Two level
phase VSI is shown in Figure 7. In Figure 7, the S1 to S3 and S1′ to0 S3′ 0shows the switches of the
three phase VSI is shown in Figure 7. In Figure 7, the S1 to S3 and S1 to S3 shows the switches of the
inverter. Whereas, uucc represents
inverter. Whereas, representsthe
thevoltage
voltageacross
acrossthe
thecapacitors,
capacitors,C.C.
S1 S2 S3
LC Filter
u1
Vdc+ u2 iL Three-Phase
- L Load
u3
S′1 S′2 S′3 Uc
Figure
Figure7.7.Two-level
Two-levelthree
threephase
phaseVSI
VSI with
with an
an output
output LC
LC filter.
filter.
2.5. Three Phase Four-Leg VSI with an Output Filter

2.5. Three Phase Four-Leg VSI with an Output Filter
Nowadays, a growing interest in using the three-phase four-leg inverters is observed from the
Nowadays, a growing interest in using the three-phase four-leg inverters is observed from
researchers’ due to their ability to handle the unbalanced loads efficaciously in four-wire systems
the researchers’ due to their ability to handle the unbalanced loads efficaciously in four-wire
[45,46]. In this topology, the neutral point is proposed by connecting the neutral path to the mid-point
systems [45,46]. In this topology, the neutral point is proposed by connecting the neutral path to
of
thethe additional
mid-point fourth
of the leg, as shown
additional in Figure
fourth leg, as shown Figure8,8. uIn
8. IninFigure represents
o Figure 8, u the output voltage
representso
of
the output
the
voltage LC filter,
of thewhereas
LC filter,M represents
whereas the pointthe
M represents neutral
pointpoint
neutral between two switches,
point between SM and
two switches, ′ .
SMSand
M
0
S
Even
M . Even though the configuration in this topology does not need expensive
though the configuration in this topology does not need expensive and large capacitors andand large capacitors and
produces lower
produces lower ripple
ripple on
on the
the DC
DC link
link voltage,
voltage, however,
however, using
using twotwo extra
extra switches
switches lead
lead to
to aa complex
complex
control system [47]. Additionally, the split DC-link voltage is about 15% less
control system [47]. Additionally, the split DC-link voltage is about 15% less as compared to the as compared to the AC
AC
voltage in this configuration
voltage in this configuration [48]. [48].
Another topology
Another topologycan canbe beusing
usingsplit
splitDC
DClink,
link,which
whichisisthe themost
mostcommon
common waywayof of providing
providing a
a neutral point to three-phase VSIs. This configuration can be provided
neutral point to three-phase VSIs. This configuration can be provided by using two capacitors i.e.,by using two capacitors
i.e., splitting
splitting the DC-bus
the DC-bus intoparts
into two two byparts by ausing
using a pair
pair of of capacitors
capacitors and by and by connecting
connecting a neutrala path
neutral
to
path to the mid-point of these capacitors, as shown in Figure 9. Both
the mid-point of these capacitors, as shown in Figure 9. Both these configurations have several these configurations have
several advantages
advantages and disadvantages,
and disadvantages, however,however, the split
the split dc-link
dc-link is found
is found unsuitablefor
unsuitable forhandling
handling the the
unbalanced loads,
unbalanced loads, whereas,
whereas, three-phase
three-phase four
four leg
leg inverter
inverter is
is found
found most
most appropriate
appropriate forfor handling
handling the the
non-linear and unbalanced load conditions. A comparison of different types
non-linear and unbalanced load conditions. A comparison of different types of VSIs with respect to of VSIs with respect to
their characteristics, control contents and complexity is described
their characteristics, control contents and complexity is described in Table 1. in Table 1.
Electronics
Electronics 2018,
2018, 7, x7,FOR
x FOR PEER
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REVIEW 9 of9 37
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+ +
SMSM S1 S1 S 2S 2 S3 S3
I Load
I Load
LCLC Filter
Filter
MM u1 u1 Three-Phase
CC u2 u2 iL iL Three-Phase
Load
VV
dc dc u3 u3 LL Load
U oU o
S M′S M′ S′1S′1 S′2S′2 S′3S′3 U Uc c
- - CC
Neutral
Neutral Wire
Wire
Figure 8. Three-phase four-leg inverter with an output LC filter.

Figure
Figure 8. Three-phase
8. Three-phase four-leg
four-leg inverter
inverter with
with anan output
output LCLC filter.
filter.
a a
+ + C
C 1
1
Three-phase
Three-phase four
four
Vdc
Vdc legleg inverter
inverter in in b b
stand
stand alone
alone mode
mode
C C2 c c
- - 2
Figure
Figure 9. Schematic
9. Schematic of of a Three-phase
a Three-phase four-leg
four-leg
four-leg inverter
inverter
inverter with
with
with split
split
split DC-link.
DC-link.
DC-link.
Table
Table
Table 1. 1. Comparison
1. Comparison
Comparison of of
of different
different
different types
types
types of of
of VSI
VSIVSI
in in terms
in terms
terms of of design,
of design,
design, implementation
implementation
implementation & & complexity.
& complexity.
complexity.
Cascaded
Cascaded H-H- NP-Diode
NP-Diode Flying
Flying
Characteristic
Characteristic Cascaded NP-Diode Flying 2L-VSI
2L-VSI
Characteristic Bridge VSI Clamped VSI Capacitor VSI 2L-VSI
Bridge VSI
H-Bridge VSI Clamped
Clamped VSI
VSI Capacitor
Capacitor VSIVSI
Design
Design && implementation
implementation
Design & implementation High
High Low
Low Medium
Medium Low
complexity High Low Medium LowLow
complexity
complexity
SeparateDC
Separate
SeparateDC
DC Additional
Additional
Additional
Specific
Specific
Specific Requirements
Requirements
Requirements Clamping
Clamping
Clamping diodes
diodes
diodes IGBTs/MOSFETs
IGBTs/MOSFETs
sources
sources
sources capacitors IGBTs/MOSFETs
capacitors
capacitors
Voltage/current
Voltage/current
Control
Control
Control Concerns
Concerns
Concerns Power
Power Sharing
Sharing
Power Voltage
Voltage
SharingVoltage balancing Voltage
balancing
balancing Voltage
Voltage SetupVoltage/current
Setup
Setup regulation
regulation
regulation
Modularity
Modularity
Modularity High
High
High Low
LowLow High
High
High LowLow Low
Fault
Faulttolerance
tolerance ability
ability
Fault tolerance ability Easy
Easy
Easy Difficult
Difficult
Difficult Easy Easy
Easy Easy Easy
Easy
Reliability
Reliability Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium-High
Medium-High High High
Reliability Medium Medium Medium-High High
Converter Complexity
Converter Complexity Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Low-Medium
Low-Medium High High
Converter Complexity
Controller Complexity Medium
Medium-High Medium
Medium-High Low-Medium
Medium-High MediumHigh
Controller
Controller
Power Complexity
Complexity
Quality Medium-High
Medium-High
Good Medium-High
Medium-High
Good Medium-High Medium
Medium-High
Good Medium
Medium
Power
Operational Quality
Power (MW)
Power Quality Good
3–6
Good Good
3–7
Good 3–6 Good
Good Medium
3Medium
Operational
Operational Power
Power
Switching
(MW)
(MW)
devices 3–63–6IGCT
MV-IGBT, 3–73–7
MV-IGBT, IGCT 3–63–6
MV-IGBT,
LV-IGBT3
3
Switching devices MV-IGBT, IGCT MV-IGBT, IGCT IGCT
MV-IGBT, IGCT LV-IGBT
Switching devices MV-IGBT, IGCT MV-IGBT, IGCT MV-IGBT, IGCT LV-IGBT
3. 3.
Characteristics
Characteristicsof of
Control
ControlSystems
Systems
3. Characteristics of Control Systems
There areare
There several
severalparameters
parameters and characteristics
and through
characteristics throughwhich
whicha particular
a particular control system
control systemis is
There are several parameters and characteristics through which a particular control system is
identified. Mainly,
identified. Mainly,there are
there two
are twocharacteristics of
characteristics a
of control
a system
control are
system found
are foundi.e., analog
i.e., analogor digital
or digital
identified. Mainly, there are two characteristics of a control system are found i.e., analog or digital
control systems.
control systems.Both areare
Both having
havingsome advantages
some advantages andanddisadvantages, described
disadvantages, describedas as
follows:
follows:
control systems. Both are having some advantages and disadvantages, described as follows:
3.1.
3.1. Analog
Analog Control
Control System
System
3.1. Analog Control System

The control systems in which the input and output are designed and analyzed by continuous
time analysis or Laplace transform (in s-domain) using state-space formulations. In analog control
systems, the representation of the time domain variable is assumed to have infinite precision. Hence,
the equations of state space model are differential equations. These systems can be designed without
using a computer, microcontrollers or a programmable logic control (PLC). Implementation of analog
signals is generally done by using Op-amps, capacitors etc. Robustness against crash or breakdown,
having a wide dynamic range, analytical composition accessibility and continuous processing indicate
numerous advantages of the analog control systems. However, slow processing speed, interference,
complicated implementation in comparative logic, intelligent control systems, neural networks and
MIMO are several disadvantages of analog control systems.
3.2. Digital Control System

In digital control systems, modeling, designing, implementation and analysis is carried out in
discrete-time or z-transformation domain. In digital control systems, as the name depicts that digital
signals are analyzed. Therefore, time is sampled and quantized for state space equations. Additionally,
as a digital computer has finite precision, extra attention is needed to ensure that error in coefficients,
i.e., A/D conversion, D/A conversion etc. are not producing any disturbances or inadequate effects.
In a digital controller, the output is a weighted sum of current as well as previous input and output
samples, therefore, its implementation requires the storage of relevant values in a digital controller.
Mostly, a digital controller is implemented via a computer, so, found most economical to control
the plants. Moreover, it is relatively easier to constitute and reconstitute through software. Likewise,
programs can be leveled to the confines of storage without any additional cost. Correspondingly, digital
controllers are compliant with constraints of the program can be changed. Furthermore, the digital
controllers are less responsive to the changes in environmental conditions, unlike the analog controllers.
Flexibility, swift expansion, uncomplicated implementation in comparative logic, intelligent systems
and MIMO, high accuracy as well as robustness against interference are several advantages of these
systems. Though, low processing speed, low dynamic range and non-user-friendly interface are the
several drawbacks of the digital control systems. The digital controllers are implemented with various
technologies which are classified into three categories expressed as follows:
1. Microcontroller Based implementation (MC) [49–51]

2. Digital Signal processing-based implementation (DSP) [52–54]
3. Field programmable gate array-based implementation (FPGA) [55–57]
In reliable scientific research, generally, DSP is used. Fixed point arithmetic and floating-point
algorithms are mostly used in implementing the digital control technique by DSP. A traditional slow
microprocessor is used normally in slow applications. However, an FPGA is found adequate in fast
controllers, due to its abilities of bug fixing and to be reprogrammed in complex structures.
A general structure of a closed loop grid connected digital control system, with an inner current
loop and an outer voltage loop, is depicted in Figure 10. In this figure, a voltage source inverter with
an output filter is considered. An AC bus is connected to point of common coupling, PCC. Moreover,
coordinates transformation from abc to dq is achieved by a phase angle, PH. However, PLL represents
the phase locked loop. The symbols S1 , S2 , S3 , S10 , S20 and S30 represents the switches, responsible for
positive and negative sequences of the inverter output.
The vdre f . and vqre f . represents the reference voltages in dq frame. SVPWM shows the space vector
pulse width modulation technique for generating drive signals for a voltage source inverter.
The voltage across capacitors, uc and current across inductors, i L are measured and transformed
into a synchronized dq reference frame. The input voltage is computed in the dq frame on the basis of
vre f . in the three-phase reference frame. The computed data is then transformed from rotating dq to
abc reference frame. Afterward, the PWM technique would be selected accordingly.
on the basis of v in the three-phase reference frame. The computed data is then transformed from
Electronics 2018, 7, 18 ref . 11 of 37
rotating dq to abc reference frame. Afterward, the PWM technique would be selected accordingly.
S1 S2 S3
u1 iL LCL Filter
Vdc + P
AC Bus
- u2 C
u3 L
C
S′1 S′2 S′3 ia ib ic Uc
C va , vb , vc
abc
dq
id iq
idref . vdref .
Rd iˆd +
vˆ
+ dc
+ v PLL PH
Vˆref . Digital Digital
+ d
dq
abc
SVPWM current voltage

Controller PH
dq
Controller
abc
Rq ˆ
+v +v
iˆq + qc
+
q
iq ref . vq ref .
Figure
Figure 10.10.Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramof
of aa controlled
controlled three-phase
three-phasegrid
gridconnected
connectedVSI
VSIwith
witha digital controller.
a digital controller.
4. Reference Frames
4. Reference Frames
Control systems are implemented in either a single phase or a three-phase synchronous
Control systems are implemented in either a single phase or a three-phase synchronous reference
reference frame. These frames are synchronized with each other through special formulation in order
frame. These frames are synchronized with each other through special formulation in order to
to be compatible for facilitating the modeling, design, analysis and transformation of one phase and
be compatible for facilitating the modeling, design, analysis and transformation of one phase and
three phase systems into other systems. Complex structures, especially for multi-level converters, can
three phase systems
be simplified into
by using other
these systems.
reference Complex
frames structures,
describes especially
as follows [1,58]. for multi-level converters,
can be simplified by using these reference frames describes as follows [1,58].
4.1. abc Reference Frame
4.1. abc Reference Frame
A general three-phase system is said to be applied to abc frame without any transformation. An
A general
individual three-phase
controller is to be system is each
used for said phase
to be applied abcframe
current intoabc frame butwithout
Delta and anystar
transformation.
connection
Anhasindividual is to be used for each phase current in abc
to be considered for designing a control system. Non-linear controllers are used instar
controller frame but Delta and thisconnection
system
hasdueto be considered
to their for designing
rapid dynamic a control system. Non-linear controllers are used in this system due
response.
to their rapid dynamic response.
4.2. dq Reference Frame
4.2. dq Reference Frame
This frame is used in three-phase systems. Park’s Transformation is used for transforming the
abcThis frame
frame intois dq
used in three-phase
frame. systems. Park’s
This transformation causesTransformation
the current and is used for transforming
voltage waveforms tothe beabc
frame into dq frame. This transformation causes the current and voltage waveforms
converted into a frame that rotates synchronously with the grid voltage. As a result, the variables are to be converted
into a frame into
converted that DC
rotates synchronously
variables and they canwith the be
easily grid voltage. and
controlled As afiltered
result, ifthe variables are converted
required.
into DC variables and they can easily be controlled and filtered if required.
4.3. αβ Reference Frame
4.3. αβ Reference Frame
This frame is used in three-phase systems and sometimes sensationally in single phase systems
too.This
Grid current
frame is transformed
is used in three-phase into systems
a stationary
and reference
sometimes frame from abc frame
sensationally or single-phase
in single phase systems
frame
too. Grid bycurrent
using Clark’s transformation.
is transformed into a Therefore,
stationaryby using this
reference transformation
frame controlorvariable
from abc frame can
single-phase
be transformed
frame into sinusoidal
by using Clark’s transformation.quantities.
Therefore, by using this transformation control variable can be
transformed into sinusoidal quantities.
5. The Control Strategy in Decoupled dq Frame
5. The In Control Strategy
a digital controlin Decoupled
scheme dq Frameframe, decoupling is the most important issue to be
in dq reference
discussed. Generally,
In a digital controlascheme
balancedinand
dq interrupted sinusoidal
reference frame, waveform
decoupling canmost
is the be obtained by adopting
important issue to be
ac voltage control in an inverter station. Therefore, the fundamental requirement is to simplify
discussed. Generally, a balanced and interrupted sinusoidal waveform can be obtained by adopting the
ac voltage control in an inverter station. Therefore, the fundamental requirement is to simplify the
control design [59]. The controller in an inverter station is based on a mathematical steady-state model
in the synchronous reference frame. Moreover, during a balanced network state, the direction of the
control design [59]. The controller in an inverter station is based on a mathematical steady-state
model in the synchronous reference frame. Moreover, during a balanced network state, the direction
of the current injected into the loads is assumed as the reference direction. The mathematical
representation of a steady-state model is expressed as following:
ubd = ω Lisq + usd
 (1)
u
 bq
current injected into the loads is assumed as = −
the ω Li +
reference
sd
u
direction.
sq The mathematical representation
of a steady-state model is expressed as following:
In Equation (1), the terms ubd and ( u bq represents the voltages in dq frame under balanced
u = ωLisq + usd
network conditions. Likewise, k p and k ibd represents the proportional and integrated controllers (1)
ubq = −ωLisd + usq
and the equation by using aforementioned coefficients represents a PI controller. Correspondingly,
usd In
andEquation (1), the terms
u sq represents ubd voltages
the bus and ubq represents the voltagesisdin and
in dq axis. However, dq frame under balanced
isq represents network
the active and
conditions. Likewise, k p and k i represents the proportional and integrated controllers and the equation
reactive current respectively. Commonly, the d-axis is fixed to the voltage source space vector, i.e.,
by using aforementioned coefficients represents a PI controller. Correspondingly, usd and usq represents
the amplitude of the desired ac voltage space vector is kept constant and the value of u = 0 . Then
the bus voltages in dq axis. However, isd and isq represents the active and reactive currentsqrespectively.
Equation
Commonly, (1)the
cand-axis
be simplified as:the voltage source space vector, i.e., the amplitude of the desired ac
is fixed to
voltage space vector is kept constant and the value of usq = 0. Then Equation (1) can be simplified as:
ubd = ω Lisq + usd
( ubd = ωLisq + usd (2)
ω Lisd
ubqu ==−− (2)
bq ωLisd
According to Equation (2), the control structure of the inverter station is shown in Figure 11,
According to Equation (2), the control structure of the inverter station is shown in Figure 11,
where a PI controller is employed in the ac voltage control [60]. Moreover, usref . is the reference
where a PI controller is employed in the ac voltage control [60]. Moreover, usre f . is the reference voltage
voltagecan
which which can
be set be set accordingly
accordingly for the desirable
for the desirable amplitudeamplitude of voltage.
of AC bus AC bus voltage.
usd
- bd
udc
+ Ki uref .
KP +
usref . s +
+
isd ωL
SVPWM
isq ωL
-
K + PLL
0 KP + i bq
+ s u
usq- ref .
The decoupling
Figure 11. The decoupling control strategy in dq reference frame.
6. Time Delay Sampling Scheme for VSI

Time samplingfor
Time sampling fordigital
digital controllers
controllers is done
is done by using
by using a discrete
a discrete time-domain
time-domain analysis,
analysis, i.e., z-
i.e., z-domain.
domain. Two fundamental advantages of using z-domain analysis over
Two fundamental advantages of using z-domain analysis over s-domain (continuous time domain) s-domain (continuous time
domain) analysis
analysis for for designing
designing a current a current controller
controller are: Firstare: First the control
the control implementation
implementation is achieved
is achieved on
on a computer-based system, i.e., the control calculation, sampling measurements
a computer-based system, i.e., the control calculation, sampling measurements and PWM signals sequence and PWM signals
sequence
are updated areinupdated
discretein discrete
time steps.time steps. Although,
Although, this samplethis andsample and hold
hold feature is a feature is a characteristic
characteristic of a control
of a control
system system
and effects its and effectsasits
dynamics perdynamics
the referredas sampling
per the referred sampling
frequency. Secondly, frequency.
the multipleSecondly,
time delays the
multiple time delays can be modeled by using a backshift operator, which affords
can be modeled by using a backshift operator, which affords no simplifications in linear control design, no simplifications
in linear
unlike control time
continuous design, unlike
domain, continuous
where the multipletimetimedomain,
delays where the multiple
were sampled using antime delays were
exponential term,
sampled
which using an exponential
is approximated generallyterm, which is
by applying approximated
Taylor-series generally
expansion. Thebysampling
applyingeffect
Taylor-series
is a most
expansion. The sampling
critical requirement effect
to handle is a most
model critical requirement
uncertainties, to handle
issues in power model
supplies and uncertainties, issues in
relative disturbances.
power supplies
Therefore, in orderand relative
to deal withdisturbances.
aforementioned Therefore, in order
issues, zero order to deal
hold, ZOHwithshould
aforementioned
be incorporated issues,in
zero order hold, ZOH should be incorporated in the control system. In ZOH, a pole
the control system. In ZOH, a pole or a zero is added into the existed controller through the compensator.or a zero is added
intofundamental
The the existed controller
advantagethrough the compensator.
of this technique The fundamental
is its uncomplicated structureadvantage of this technique
to be implemented on a system, is
though, it only affects a limited share of the overall delay.
There are two basic sampling routines generally employed in the digital control systems, i.e., single
updated sampling and double updated sampling [61]. A single-update sampling method comprises
of the measurement samplings, in which calculated modulation indexes are updated once in every
its uncomplicated structure to be implemented on a system, though, it only affects a limited share of
the overall delay.
There are two basic sampling routines generally employed in the digital control systems, i.e.,
single updated sampling and double updated sampling [61]. A single-update sampling method
comprises of the measurement samplings, in which calculated modulation indexes are updated once
in every switching
switching period. Whereas,
period. Whereas, a double-update
a double-update sampling sampling concept conferred
concept conferred to a PWMto a PWMinconcept
concept which
in which
the the measurement
measurement sampling and sampling
therefore,and thetherefore,
calculatedthe calculatedindex
modulation modulation
are updatedindextwiceare in
updated
every
twice in every
switching periodswitching period [61].
[61]. The detailed The detailed
single-update and single-update
double-updateand double-update
sampling are shownsampling
in Figure are
12,
shownT(k)
where, in Figure 12, where,
represents T(k) represents
the switching period of thethe
switching
present timeperiodslot.of However,
the present T(k − 1)slot.
time T(k − 2)
andHowever,
T(k − 1)
shows and
the T(k − 2) period
switching shows of thethe
switching
former timeperiod of the former time slots.
slots.
AAsingle-update
single-updatePWM-technique
PWM-technique withwith sampling
sampling at theatbeginning
the beginning of a switching
of a switching period is period
depictedis
depicted
in in Figure
Figure 12a. In this12a. In this technique,
technique, the modulationthe modulation index isonce
index is updated updated once in of
in beginning beginning
a switchingof a
switching
period. period.
A time A time
domain domain
of one of onetime
sampling sampling time is in
is introduced introduced
the control inloops.
the control loops.isThis
This effect effect
modeled
is modeled
with a backshiftwithoperator
a backshift operator
while takingwhile taking
discrete timediscrete
domaintime into domain
the account.into the account.
Figure 12b
Figure 12bshows
showsanother
anotherscheme
schemeof ofaasingle-update
single-updatePWM PWMsampling
samplingin inwhich
whichthe themodulation
modulation
index isis updated
index updated in in middle
middle of ofaaswitching
switchingperiod.
period. Therefore,
Therefore, the the time
time delay
delay duedue to to sampling
sampling and and
updatingroutine
updating routineis isthethe mean
mean value
value of two
of the the two converter
converter voltagevoltage reference
reference values,values, i.e.,and
i.e., actual actual and
former
former cycles.
control controlTherefore,
cycles. Therefore,
the transfer thefunction
transferoffunction of a single-update
a single-update PWM technique PWM technique
with sampling with
in
sampling
middle of ainswitching
middle ofperiod
a switching period is determined.
is determined.
Inthe
In thedouble-update
double-updatesamplingsampling concept,
concept, sampling
sampling and andupdating
updatingoccurs
occurstwice
twicein ineach
eachsampling
sampling
period. In this
period. this technique,
technique, the modulation
modulation index is is updated
updated on on the
the basis
basis of of former
former control
control cycle’s
cycle’s
measurements. According
measurements. According to to this
this behavior,
behavior, the the time-delay
time-delay isis one one control
control cycle.
cycle. The Thepattern
patternofofa
adouble-update
double-updatesamplingsamplingisispresented
presentedininFigure
Figure12c.
12c.
Figure12.
Figure 12. Time delay model
model of
ofaaVSI
VSI(a)
(a)single-update
single-updatetime delay
time model
delay model(sampling at beginning)
(sampling (b)
at beginning)
single-update
(b) time
single-update delay
time model
delay (sampling
model (samplingatatmiddle)
middle)(c)
(c)double-update
double-updatetime
timedelay
delaymodel
model for
for aa VSI.
VSI.
7. Output
7. Output Filters
Filters for
forInverters
Inverters
The harmonics
The harmonics reduction
reduction is is the
the foremost
foremost priority
priority of
of the
the researchers
researchers while
while designing
designing aa power
power
electronicsor
electronics oran
anelectrical
electricalsystem.
system.Therefore,
Therefore,an anoutput
outputfilter
filterisisused
usedforforthis
thispurpose.
purpose.An
An output
outputfilter
filter
uses the controlled phenomenon of switching the semiconductor devices for
uses the controlled phenomenon of switching the semiconductor devices for harmonics reduction.harmonics reduction.
Thereare
There arenumerous
numeroustopologies
topologiesof ofsuch
suchfilters
filtersintroduced
introducedin inthe
theliterature
literaturebybycombining
combiningthetheinductor
inductor
(L)and
(L) andcapacitor
capacitor(C)
(C)i.e.,
i.e.,L,
L,LC
LCand
andLCLLCLfilters
filtersunified
unifiedwith
withthetheinverters
inverterstototheir
theiroutput.
output.
7.1. L-Filter
7.1. L-Filter
Inhigh
In highswitching
switching frequency
frequency inverters,
inverters, the
the first
first order
orderL-filter
L-filterisisconsidered
consideredas
asthe
themost
mostsuitable
suitable
filter. However, inductance decreases the dynamics of the whole
filter. However, inductance decreases the dynamics of the whole system. system.
7.2.
7.2. LC-Filter
LC-Filter
An
An LC
LC filter
filter isisaasecond-order
second-orderfilterfilterhaving
havingsubstantially
substantially sophisticated
sophisticated damping
damping behavior
behavior as
as
compared
comparedtotoananL-filter.
L-filter.This filter
This topology
filter is relatively
topology easiereasier
is relatively to design and it isand
to design a compromise between
it is a compromise
the valuesthe
between of values
inductance and capacitance.
of inductance The cut-off
and capacitance. The frequency needs the
cut-off frequency relatively
needs higher higher
the relatively value
of inductance whereas the voltage quality can be improved through the higher
value of inductance whereas the voltage quality can be improved through the higher value of value of capacitance.
The value of resonant frequency is dependent on the impedance of the grid when the system is
connected to the grid supply. An LC-filter is mostly preferred in standalone mode. The three-phase
capacitance. The value of

capacitance. of resonant
resonant frequency
frequency is is dependent
dependent on on thethe impedance
impedance of of the
the grid
grid when the
Electronics 2018,The
7, 18 value when
14 ofthe
37
system is connected to the grid supply. An LC-filter is mostly
system is connected to the grid supply. An LC-filter is mostly preferred in standalone mode. The preferred in standalone mode. The
three-phase
three-phase two-level
two-level and and three-phase
three-phase four four legs
legs voltage
voltage source
source inverters
inverters with with an an integrated
integrated LC LC filter
filter
are shown
two-level in
and Figures
three-phase7 and 8
four
are shown in Figures 7 and 8 respectively.respectively.
legs voltage source inverters with an integrated LC filter are shown in
Figures 7 and 8 respectively.
7.3.
7.3. LCL-Filter
LCL-Filter
7.3. LCL-Filter
An
An LCL
LCL filter
filter is
is aa third
third order
order filter,
filter, mostly
mostly usedused for
for thethe grid-tied
grid-tied inverters.
inverters. The The lower
lower frequency
frequency
is An LCL in filter is a third order filter, mostly usedThis
for the grid-tied inverters. The lower frequency
is preferable in presence of aforementioned filters. This filter supports the comparatively healthier
preferable presence of aforementioned filters. filter supports the comparatively healthier
is preferablebetween
decoupling in presence of aforementioned filters. This This filterfilter
supports thebe comparatively healthier
decoupling between the filter and the grid impedance. This filter should be precisely designed by
the filter and the grid impedance. should precisely designed by
decoupling
taking between the filter and the gridof impedance. This filter should be precisely designed by
taking into
into consideration
consideration the the parameters
parameters of the the inverters.
inverters. OtherwiseOtherwise even even the the smaller
smaller values
values ofof
taking into can
inductance consideration
bring the parameters
resonance and unstable ofstates
the inverters.
into the Otherwise
system. However, even thethesmaller
smallerinductance
values of
inductance can bring resonance and unstable states into the system. However, the smaller inductance
inductance
can can bring resonance and unstable states into the system. However, the smallerLCL inductance
can provide
provide optimized
optimized currentcurrent ripple
ripple diminishing
diminishing values.values. A A three-phase
three-phase VSI VSI with
with an an LCL filter
filter is
is
can provide
shown in optimized
Figure 13. Where, current
V ripple
and diminishing
Z represents values.
the A three-phase
Thevenin voltage VSI Thevenin
and with an LCL filter is
impedance
shown in Figure 13. Where, V and Z represents the Thevenin voltage and Thevenin impedance
th th
shown in Figure 13. Where, Vthth and Zththrepresents the Thevenin voltage and Thevenin impedance
respectively.
respectively. However,
However, the complexity
the complexity
complexity of of the
of the control
the control system
control system
system inflated inflated significantly
inflated significantly
significantly and and
and thethe dynamic
the dynamic
dynamic
respectively. However, the
performance
performance of
of the
the inverter
inverter can
can perhaps
perhaps be
be affected
affected when
when relatively
relatively complex
complex filter
filter structures
structures are
are
performance of the inverter can perhaps be affected when relatively complex filter structures are
employed.
employed. Thus,
Thus, these
these topologies
topologies are
are most
most suitable
suitable for
for high
high power
power applications,
applications, which
which employ
employ low
low
employed. Thus, these topologies are most suitable for high power applications, which employ low
switching
switching frequencies.
frequencies. However,
However, Figures
Figures 14 14 and
14 and
and 15 15 show
15 show
show the the
the one-leg
one-leg blockblock diagram
diagram of of aaa single-phase
single-phase
switching frequencies. However, Figures one-leg block diagram of single-phase
and
and three-phase
three-phase grid-connected
grid-connected systems,
systems, respectively.
respectively. Where,
Where, K pwm represents the
represents the pulse width
pulse width
width
and three-phase grid-connected systems, respectively. Where, Kpwm K represents the pulse
pwm
modulation
modulation characteristic
modulation characteristic of
characteristic the
of the
of system,
the system, whereas, uuuggg, ,,uiu
whereas,
system, whereas, , iu,,c , u
u Lc ,, LLg, ,i L i , ii i represents
and and i g represents
i ucg, Lig , i Li , i gi and i g represents the
the
the grid side
voltage,
grid inverter side voltage, voltage across capacitor, grid side inductance, inverter side inductance,
grid side
side voltage,
voltage, inverter
inverter sideside voltage,
voltage, voltage
voltage across
across capacitor,
capacitor, grid grid side
side inductance,
inductance, inverter
inverter side
side
inverter
inductance,side current
inverter and
side grid side
current andcurrent
grid respectively.
side current respectively.
inductance, inverter side current and grid side current respectively.
SS1 SS2 SS3

1 22 33
LCL Filter
+ u1 LCL Filter
V
Vdc + u11
u2 IL
I LL
dc - u 22 L Z th
- u3 L Z thth
u 33 Vth
Vthth
S′
S′11 S′
S′22 S′ Uc
S′33 U cc
C
C
Figure 13. A Three-phase voltage source inverter in grid-connected mode.

Figure 13. A Three-phase voltage source inverter in grid-connected mode.
ug
- - ugg
iiref . u ii + --
u
ucc +++
--
1 ig
ref
ref .. K
K pwm
pwm
uiii
+
+
+
Σ
Σ 1 L s i i ++
1
Liii s
Σ
Σ
1
1Cs
Cs
Σ
Σ 1L s
Lggg s
i gg
-
--
Figure 14. One-leg block diagram of a single-phase grid-connected system.

Figure 14. One-leg block diagram of a single-phase grid-connected system.
ug
- - - ugg
iiref . --
ui uuk ii i --
ic uu c -- ig
11 i gg
ref
ref ..
+
+
+
Σ
Σ G
G((ss))
uii
+
+
+
Σ
Σ K
K((ss)) K
K pwm
pwm
k
+
+
Σ
Σ
11
L s
Lii s
i
i
Σ
Σ
icc
+
+
+
11
Cs
Cs
c
Σ
Σ L
Lgggss
+
- -
-- --
Figure 15. One-leg block diagram of a dual-loop current control strategy for VSI.
Figure
Figure 15.
15. One-leg
One-leg block
block diagram
diagram of
of aa dual-loop
dual-loop current control strategy
current control strategy for
for VSI.
VSI.
8. Damping Techniques for Grid-Connected VSIs

8. Damping Techniques for
In the grid-connected Grid-Connected
applications, VSIs
LCL filter is highly preferred due to its harmonic suppressing
capability. In this case, the voltage across the point
In the grid-connected applications, LCL filter is highly of common
preferred duecoupling PCC is controlled
to its harmonic suppressingin
synchronism with the current. Therefore, it becomes possible to regulate
capability. In this case, the voltage across the point of common coupling PCC is controlled inthe active and reactive
power injected
synchronism intothe
with thecurrent.
grid according to the
Therefore, requirement.
it becomes ThetoLCL
possible filterthe
regulate offers a resonance
active frequency
and reactive power
injected into the grid according to the requirement. The LCL filter offers a resonance frequencyvarious
which can be a source of instability in the closed-loop system. This problem is stated by which
researchers
can in the
be a source literatureinand
of instability the numerous
closed-loopdamping strategies
system. This problemareisproposed
stated by to solveresearchers
various it [62–65].
Damping
in methods
the literature andcan be classified
numerous intostrategies
damping two groups. are (i) Passiveto
proposed damping and (ii) Active
solve it [62–65]. Dampingdamping.
methods
can be classified into two groups. (i) Passive damping and (ii) Active damping.
8.1. Passive Damping
8.1. Passive
PassiveDamping
damping is to inserting passive elements in the filter for reduction of the resonant peak
in thePassive
systemdamping
[32]. Generally, passive damping
is to inserting schemes never
passive elements in thedesire
filterany
for amendments
reduction of in thethe control
resonant
strategy.
peak Though,
in the system these approachespassive
[32]. Generally, changedamping
attenuation of the
schemes filter,
never as aany
desire result of which losses
amendments in the
increases [18,32,34]. The passive damping techniques, presented generally in the literature,
control strategy. Though, these approaches change attenuation of the filter, as a result of which losses results in
the addition
increases of a simple
[18,32,34]. resistordamping
The passive in series techniques,
with the filter capacitor
presented [63]. The
generally in major drawback
the literature, of this
results in
technique
the additionis aofreduction
a simple in filter attenuation,
resistor in series withincreasing
the filter power losses
capacitor and
[63]. large
The filter
major volume [62].
drawback A
of this
general schematic of passive damping control strategy for a grid connected VSI is shown
technique is a reduction in filter attenuation, increasing power losses and large filter volume [62]. in Figure
16.general schematic of passive damping control strategy for a grid connected VSI is shown in Figure 16.
A
1 ug
- -
Cs uc ig
iref . ui uk ii + ic
+
+ Σ G ( s) K pwm + Σ 1
Li s Σ Σ Σ 1
Lg s
-
R +
Figure 16. One-leg block diagram of a passive damping control strategy for a grid-connected VSI.
8.2. Active
8.2. Active Damping
Damping
The active
The active damping
damping methods
methods are proposed to
are proposed to overcome
overcome thethe drawbacks
drawbacks associated
associated withwith the
the
passive damping
passive damping techniques.
techniques.ActiveActivedamping
dampingtechniques
techniquesofferoffermodifications
modifications in in
thethe
control
controlpolicy
policyin
in order to afford closed loop damping [65,66]. The active damping techniques are classified into3
order to afford closed loop damping [65,66]. The active damping techniques are classified into
3groups,
groups,i.e.,
i.e.,single
singleloop,
loop,multi-loop
multi-loopand andcomplex
complexcontrollers.
controllers. Single
Single loop
loop methods
methods are incorporated
are incorporated
to damp
to damp thethe LCLLCL filter
filter resonance, without supplementary
resonance, without supplementary measurement.
measurement. These These methods comprise of
methods comprise of
low pass filter-based method, virtual flux estimation method, sensor-less method,
low pass filter-based method, virtual flux estimation method, sensor-less method, splitting capacitor splitting capacitor
method, notch-filter
method, notch-filter method
methodand andgrid
gridcurrent
currentfeedback
feedback method.
method. Generally,
Generally, single-loop
single-loop methods
methods are
found
are relatively
found relativelyrobust during
robust during uncertainty
uncertainty in in
parameters
parameters and
andvariation
variationiningrid grid inductance
inductance [62].
[62].
Multiloop methods explore additional measurements. This group
Multiloop methods explore additional measurements. This group comprises of capacitor current comprises of capacitor current
feedback, capacitor
feedback, capacitorvoltage
voltagefeedback
feedbackand andweighted
weighted average
averagecurrent
current control techniques.
control techniques. However,
However,the
third group of active damping methods is based on complex control structures.
the third group of active damping methods is based on complex control structures. This outcome of This outcome of these
techniques
these is usually
techniques a suitable
is usually andand
a suitable a robust
a robustdynamic
dynamicresponse
response[67]. [67].These
These techniques include
techniques include
predictive control,
predictive control, state-space
state-space controllers,
controllers, adaptive
adaptive controllers,
controllers, sliding
sliding mode controller and
mode controller and vector
vector
control. Additionally, when LCL filter is selected, there are two options for
control. Additionally, when LCL filter is selected, there are two options for current control: grid current current control: grid
current or converter current. Various techniques are proposed but there exists
or converter current. Various techniques are proposed but there exists a disagreement in the literature a disagreement in the
literature
about the about
suitable thesolution
suitableofsolution of these
these issues andissues and itthat
it is agreed is agreed that the
the current current
control control
strategy strategy
should be
should be carefully selected. An active damping technique with a damping
carefully selected. An active damping technique with a damping resistance as well as a harmonic resistance as well as a
harmonic compensator
compensator are describedare described in [65]. A
in [65]. A general general schematic
schematic of active control
of active damping damping controlfor
strategy strategy
a grid
for a grid connected VSI is
connected VSI is shown in Figure 17. shown in Figure 17.
- - -
ug
iref . ui uk ii ic uc ig
+ Σ G(s) + Σ K(s) K pwm + Σ 1
Li s Σ +
1
Cs Σ 1
Lg s
- -
Figure 17. One-leg block diagram of an active damping control strategy for a grid-connected
grid-connected VSI.
VSI.
9. Grid
9. Grid Synchronization Techniques
Synchronization Techniques
The grid
The grid voltage
voltage must
must bebe synchronized
synchronized with
with the
theinjected
injectedcurrent
currentinina autility
utilitynetwork
networkforfora
significant output. In synchronization algorithm, phase of the grid voltage vector is considered
a significant output. In synchronization algorithm, phase of the grid voltage vector is considered and and
control variables
control variables i.e.,
i.e., grid
grid voltages
voltages and
and grid
grid currents
currents are
are synchronized
synchronized by by using
using it.
it. Various
Various methods
methods
are introduced in literature for extracting the phase angle [68]. Some commonly used
are introduced in literature for extracting the phase angle [68]. Some commonly used techniques found techniques
found
in in credible
credible researchresearch
articlesarticles are discussed
are discussed as: as:
Technique
9.1. Zero-Crossing Technique
The simplest method to implement is Zero-Crossing method. However, it is not considered on
largerscale
a larger scale due
due to poor
to poor performances
performances reported
reported in the literature.
in the literature. Especially,
Especially, during
during voltage voltage
variations,
variations,
ample valuesample values of and
of harmonics harmonics
notchesand
are notches are observed.
observed.
9.2. Filtering of Grid Voltages

The grid
grid voltages
voltages cancanbebefiltered thedqdq
filteredininthe frame
frame as as
well well as the
as in in the αβ reference
αβ reference frame.
frame. The
The performance
performance of zero-crossing
of zero-crossing method
method is improved
is improved by by voltage
voltage filtering
filtering [68].However,
[68]. However,
it it
is isa
acomplicated
complicatedprocess
processtotoextract
extractthe
thephase
phaseangle
angleoutout of
of utility
utility voltage,
voltage, especially
especially during
during a fault
condition. This method uses the arctangent function to realize the phase angle. Generally, a delay is
observed in processing a signal while
while using
using the
the filtering
filtering method.
method. Therefore, designing of the filter
must be considered critically.
critically.
9.3. Phase Locked

9.3. Phase Locked Loop
Loop Technique
Technique
The phase locked
The phase locked loop,
loop,PLL
PLLtechnique
techniqueisisconsidered
considered asas
thethe state-of-the-art
state-of-the-art method
method to obtain
to obtain the
the phase angle of the grid voltages. The PLL is implemented in dq-synchronous reference
phase angle of the grid voltages. The PLL is implemented in dq-synchronous reference frame. In frame.
this
In this
case, case,
the the coordinates
coordinates transformation
transformation from abcfrom
to dqabc to dq is and
is preferred preferred andvoltage,
reference referenceuˆ voltage, ûd
d would be
would be set to zero for realizing the lock. A general schematic of PLL technique is depicted in
set to zero for realizing the lock. A general schematic of PLL technique is depicted in Figure 18. A PI
Figure 18. A PI regulator is generally used to control the reference variable. Afterward, the grid
regulator is generally used to control the reference variable. Afterward, the grid frequency is
frequency is integrated in the system and utility voltage angle is acquired after passing through
integrated in the system and utility voltage angle is acquired after passing through a voltage-
a voltage-controlled oscillator, VCO. This voltage angle is then fed into the αβ to dq transformation
controlled oscillator, VCO. This voltage angle is then fed into the αβ to dq transformation module for
module for transforming into the synchronous reference frame.
transforming into the synchronous reference frame.
This technique is found the most suitable for rejecting notches, grid harmonics and other
This technique is found the most suitable for rejecting notches, grid harmonics and other
disturbances. However, additional improvements are needed to handle the unsymmetrical voltage
disturbances. However, additional improvements are needed to handle the unsymmetrical voltage
faults. Especially, filtering techniques to filter the negative sequence should be proposed in case of
faults. Especially, filtering techniques to filter the negative sequence should be proposed in case of
unsymmetrical voltage faults, as second-order harmonics are propagated by the PLL system and
unsymmetrical voltage faults, as second-order harmonics are propagated by the PLL system and
reflected in the obtained phase angle. Moreover, it should be assured to estimate the phase angle of the
reflected in the obtained phase angle. Moreover, it should be assured to estimate the phase angle of
positive sequence of the grid voltages during unbalanced grid voltages [68].
the positive sequence of the grid voltages during unbalanced grid voltages [68].
PLL Controller
Loop filter ωr
+ VCO
uˆd + + ω 1 θ
PI
s
-
Transformation Module
ud
αβ
uα ua
abc
ub
dq
αβ
uq uβ uc
Figure 18.General
Figure18. Generalschematic
schematicofofa athree-phase
three-phasePLL
PLLtechnique.
technique.
10.
10.Modulation
ModulationSchemes
Schemes
InInpower
powerelectronics
electronicsconverters,
converters,the
themajor
majorproblem
problemisisthe
thereduction
reductionininharmonics.
harmonics.PWM
PWMcontrol
control
techniques
techniquesprovide
providethethemost
mostsuitable
suitablesolution
solutionfor
forharmonics
harmonicsreduction.
reduction.AAsinusoidal
sinusoidaloutput
outputhaving
having
controlled
controlledvalues
valuesofoffrequency
frequencyand
andmagnitude
magnitudeisisthe thecore
corepurpose
purposefor forusing
usingthese
thesePWM
PWMtechniques.
techniques.
Primarily, PWM
Primarily, PWM techniques
techniquesare are
classified into into
classified threethree
majormajor
categories i.e., Triangular
categories Comparison-based
i.e., Triangular Comparison-
PWM
based(TC-PWM), Space Space
PWM (TC-PWM), Vector-based PWMPWM
Vector-based (SV-PWM)
(SV-PWM)and and
Voltage
Voltagelook-up table-based
look-up table-basedPWM
PWM
(VLUT-PWM).
(VLUT-PWM).
10.1.
10.1.Triangular
TriangularComparison
ComparisonBased
BasedPWM
PWM
InInTriangular
TriangularComparison
Comparisonbased based PWM (TC-PWM) techniques,
PWM (TC-PWM) techniques,PWM
PWMwaveswavesareareproduced
produced byby
the
the combination
combination of of
an an ordinary
ordinary triangular
triangular carrier
carrier andand a fundamental
a fundamental modulating
modulating reference
reference signal.
signal. The
The triangular
triangular carrier
carrier signal
signal hashasrelatively
relativelyvery
veryhigher
higherfrequency
frequency than
than that
that of
ofaafundamental
fundamentalmodulating
modulating
reference signal. The magnitude and frequency of the fundamental
reference signal. The magnitude and frequency of the fundamental modulatingmodulating referencereference
signal control
signal
the magnitude and frequency of the central module in the grid side. PWM and Synchronous
control the magnitude and frequency of the central module in the grid side. PWM and Synchronous PWM
(SPWM) are the core
PWM (SPWM) techniques
are the to be mentioned
core techniques in TC-PWM
to be mentioned [69].
in TC-PWM [69].
10.2. Space Vector Based PWM

10.2. Space Vector Based PWM
In SVPWM techniques, the revolving reference vectors provide the reference signals.
In SVPWM techniques, the revolving reference vectors provide the reference signals. The
The magnitude and frequency of central module in grid side are controlled by the frequency and
magnitude and frequency of central module in grid side are controlled by the frequency and
magnitude of the revolving reference vectors respectively. This technique was first introduced to
magnitude of the revolving reference vectors respectively. This technique was first introduced to
generate vector based PWM in the three-phase inverters. However, nowadays it is expanded to various
generate vector based PWM in the three-phase inverters. However, nowadays it is expanded to
other newly introduced inverters. SV-PWM is considered to be the more advanced technique for PWM
various other newly introduced inverters. SV-PWM is considered to be the more advanced technique
generation for getting qualified sinusoidal output with low THD values [69].
for PWM generation for getting qualified sinusoidal output with low THD values [69].
10.3. Voltage Look-Up Table-Based PWM
10.3. Voltage Look-Up Table-Based PWM
In VLUT-PWM, a new method is introduced to obtain the voltage reference based on the current
In VLUT-PWM, a new method is introduced to obtain the voltage reference based on the current
reference for an inverter. The major advantage of this technique is its compatibility and simplicity with
reference for an inverter. The major advantage of this technique is its compatibility and simplicity
the load conditions. The switching frequency in this technique is usually taken significantly lower as
with the load conditions. The switching frequency in this technique is usually taken significantly
compared to various other presented techniques [52].
lower as compared to various other presented techniques [52].
11. Control Techniques
11. Control Techniques
Connecting the grid to the distributed generation system plays a key role and if bit negligence
is shownConnecting the grid to
in implementing the
this distributed
procedure, generation
a number system plays
of problems a keyi.e.,
can arise roletheand if bit
grid negligence
uncertainty
is shown in implementing this procedure, a number of problems can arise i.e., the grid
and disturbance, so in order to overcome this situation, a suitable controller must be designed for it. uncertainty
Inand
thisdisturbance, so in order
section, the most to overcome
appropriate controlthis situation,
techniques area suitable
describedcontroller
according must be designed
to their for it.
applications.
In this section,
Various the most
single loop appropriate
and multiloop control
control techniques
systems are described
are discussed according
in the literature tofor
their applications.
power droop
Various single loop and multiloop control systems are discussed in the literature for power droop
control, voltage and current control. In which inner loop is for current regulation and outer loop is

control, voltage and current control. In which inner loop is for current regulation and outer loop
is
forfor voltage
voltage regulation[13,70,71].
regulation [13,70,71].InInFigure
Figure19,
19,the
thecategorization
categorizationof
of classical
classical an
an advanced control
technique is depicted clearly.
clearly.
Inverters
Control
Schemes
Predictive Sliding Mode Intelligent Hysteresis

Linear Control
Control Control Control Control
Artificial
Model Neural Current Current
Hysteresis
Predictive Network
Based Control Control
Control Voltage (ANN)
Control Control
(MPC) Control
Direct Field
Trajectory Fuzzy
MPC with Power Oriented
Based Control
finite control Control Control
Control Current
set (FCS) (DPC) (FOC)
Control
Fuzzy-
Deadbeat ANN Direct Voltage
Control MPC with Torque
based Oriented
continuous Control
Control Control
control set (DTC) (VOC)
(CCS)
Classical Control
Advance Control Techniques Techniques
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Classification
Classification of
of control techniques for
control techniques for VSIs.
VSIs.
11.1. Classical
11.1. Classical Control Techniques
Control Techniques
The classical
The classicalcontrollers
controllers include
include the category
the category of controllers
of controllers for or
for adding adding or subtracting
subtracting a proportion a
proportion and adjusting the system accordingly. These controllers
and adjusting the system accordingly. These controllers involve proportional (P), proportional involve proportional (P),
proportional(PI),
integration integration
proportional (PI), proportional integral
integral derivative derivative
(PID) (PID) and proportional
and proportional derivative (PD) derivative (PD)
controllers.
controllers.
These Theseare
controllers controllers
considered are as considered
the most as the most fundamental
fundamental controllers in controllers
the industry in theforindustry for
controlling
controlling linear systems and considered as the base of control theory. Lot
linear systems and considered as the base of control theory. Lot of work in literature is being done of work in literature is
being done on these controllers [49–52,72–78]. The fundamental benefits
on these controllers [49–52,72–78]. The fundamental benefits of implementing these controllers are of implementing these
controllers
their abilityare theirthemselves
to tune ability to tune themselves
according to theaccording
requirement to the requirement
of the of thesimple
plant and their plant and their
structure.
simple structure. Moreover, they are the most commonly used controllers
Moreover, they are the most commonly used controllers on commercial levels, so easily available. on commercial levels, so
easily available.
However, However,
their tracking theirresponse
ability, trackingtime
ability,
andresponse
ability totime
handleandstable
ability to handle
error stable error
are relatively lowerareas
relatively lower as compared to modern state-of-the-art controller. The schematic
compared to modern state-of-the-art controller. The schematic of a digital PI controller for controlling of a digital PI
controller
a for controlling
three-phase VSI with an a three-phase
LC filter in VSI with an LC
stand-alone filterisinshown
mode stand-alone
in Figuremode 20.is In
shown
Figurein 20,
Figure
ia f ,
20. In Figure 20,
i and i represents i ,
af thei and i
bf filter current
cf represents the filter current across phase a, b and
across phase a, b and c respectively. Likewise, v , v and v c respectively.
bf cf a b c
characterizes
Likewise, va the
, vbvoltage
and vacross phase a, b and c respectively. Likewise, i and iq represents the current
c characterizes the voltage across phase a, b dand c respectively. Likewise,
across the d and q axis respectively. Moreover, Sa , Sb and Sc represents the switching commands across
id and i q represents the current across the d and q axisq respectively. Moreover, Sa , Sb and Sc
phase a, b and c respectively. Correspondingly, Vred f . and Vre f . symbolizes the reference voltages along
drepresents
and q axisthe switching commands across phase a, b and c respectively. Correspondingly, Vref
respectively. d
.
and
q
Vref . symbolizes the reference voltages along d and q axis respectively.
vdc
+ -
vdc
+ - LC Filter
d implementationof PI control scheme Sa iL Three-Phase
vref .+ rd + v LC LFilter Load
SSab
SVPWM
d implementationof
PI PIPIcontrol scheme d iL Three-Phase
vref-. + rd +- vd Load
SVPWM
L
+ PI + PI SSb Uc
- PI rq - +- PI c iaf ibf icf
v q
+ vq Sc
ref . - PI r PI iaf ibf icf U c
v q vq C
idf -iqf
q
ref . - C
iaf iibfaf iicfbf icfva vvab vvbc vc

idf iqf
va vb vc
dq dq
Analogue to
viq Digitalto
Analogue
va vb vc
viq
abcabc
Converter
Digital
vid Converter
vid
Figure 20. Schematic of

of aaaPI
PI control algorithm for aa VSI.
VSI.
Figure 20. Schematic
Figure20. Schematic of PIcontrol
controlalgorithm
algorithmfor
for
a VSI.
11.2.
11.2.
11.2.PR
PR PRControllers
Controllers
Controllers
PRPRcontrollers
PR controllers
controllersare are the
arethe combination
thecombination
combination of of proportional
of proportionaland
proportional andresonant
and resonantcontrollers.
resonant controllers.
controllers. The The
The frequencies
frequencies
frequencies
closer
closer to resonant
closertotoresonant frequency
resonant frequency
frequency are are integrated
areintegrated
integrated by
bybythe
thetheintegrator.
integrator. Therefore,
Therefore,
integrator. Therefore, phase
phase phase shift or
shift orshift stationary
stationary error
error
or stationary
dodonot
error dooccur.
not occur.
not This
occur. controller
ThisThiscontroller
controller can be
be applied
cancan applied
be applied in both
in both
in both ABC
ABC ABC and
and αβ
and αβ αβ frames.
frames.
frames. DueDue
Dueto totohigh
high gain
high gain
gainnearnear
near
resonant
resonant frequencies,
frequencies, this
this controller
controller has
has the
the ability
ability to
to eliminate
eliminate the
the
resonant frequencies, this controller has the ability to eliminate the steady-state errors of electrical steady-state
steady-state errors
errors of of electrical
electrical
quantities.
quantities.The
quantities. TheTheresonant
resonantcontroller
resonant controller maintains
controller maintains the
maintains the network
thenetwork frequency
networkfrequency
frequency equal
equalequal totothe
to the resonant
resonant
the resonant frequency.
frequency.
frequency.
It is capable of adjusting the frequency according to changes in grid frequency. However, an accurate
It is
It capable
is capable of adjusting
of adjusting the
the frequency
frequency according
according to
to changes
changes in
in grid
grid frequency.
frequency. However,
However, an an
accurate
accurate
tuning
tuningis
tuning always
isisalways needed
alwaysneeded neededfor optimal
optimal results
for optimal
for results andand this
and thistechnique
this techniqueisis
technique foundsensitive
isfound
found sensitive
sensitive to to the
thethe
to frequency
frequency
frequency
variations[30,31].
variations
variations [30,31].These
[30,31]. Thesecontrollers
These controllers are
controllers are relatively
are relatively better
relatively betterthan
better thanPIPI
than PIcontrollers
controllers
controllers ininterms
in terms
terms of oftheir
of their
theirtracking
tracking
tracking
ability
ability and and response
response time. time.
time. If If used with a harmonic compensator, they can optimally handle THD.
ability and response If used
used with
with a harmonic
harmonic compensator,
compensator, they they can can optimally
optimally handle handle THD. THD.
Their capabilitytotohandle handlecurrent
current in in grid-connected
grid-connected inverters isisalso remarkable. However, damping
Their capability to handle current in grid-connected inverters is also remarkable. However, damping
Their capability inverters also remarkable. However, damping
issuesstill
issues still exist.The The active and and passive damping adjustments and integration in in a system with a
issues still exist.
exist. Theactive active andpassive passivedamping
dampingadjustments
adjustmentsand andintegration
integration ina asystem systemwith witha
harmonic compensator are somehow, the complicated issues. Moreover, they do not have
aharmonic
harmonic compensator
compensator are aresomehow,
somehow, the complicated
the complicated issues.issues.
Moreover, Moreover,
they do not theyhave dooutstanding
not have
outstandingability
outstanding ability toto handle
handle stable
stable error
error and and phase
phase shift.
shift. The
The limitation
limitation to tohandle
handle specific
ability to handle
frequencies i.e., stable
closer toerror and phase
resonant shift. The
frequencies limitation
is also a drawback to handle
of thesespecific
controllers.frequencies i.e.,specific
A PR controller closer
frequencies
towith
resonant i.e., closer
frequencies to resonant
is also HC, frequencies
a drawback is also
of these a drawback
controllers. of these controllers. A PR controller
a harmonic compensator, in stand-alone mode for a VSI isAshown PR controller
in Figurewith a harmonic
21. Structures
with a harmonic
compensator, HC, compensator,
in stand-alone HC,mode
in stand-alone
for a VSI mode
is for a in
shown VSI is shown
Figure 21. in Figure 21.ofStructures
Structures a simple
of a simple PR controller and a discrete PR controller are shown in Figures 22 and 23, respectively.
of acontroller
simple PRand controller and PR a discrete PR controller are shown in22 Figures 22 respectively.
and 23, respectively.
PR Where, Ts represents the sampling period, ω represents the grid angular frequency. However,
a discrete controller are shown in Figures and 23, Where,
Where,
Ts representsT s represents the sampling period, ω represents the grid
the sampling period, ω represents the grid angular frequency. However, K p and Kr angular frequency. However,
K p and Kr denotes the proportional and resonant coefficients respectively. The PR controller with
denotes
Kp and the K r
proportional
denotes and resonantand
the proportional coefficients
resonantrespectively. The PR controller
coefficients respectively. The PR with a harmonic
controller with
a harmonic compensator
compensator is proposed in [65]. is proposed in [65].
a harmonic compensator is proposed in [65].
vdc
+ vdc
-
Implementation of PR control technique + - LC Filter
d Implementation of PRv̂ control technique Sa
v
ref .+ + vˆd iL
LC Filter Three-Phase
SSba
α
dq
SVPWM
d PR L Load
v
ref .+ - + - ˆ
v v̂α HC
iL Three-Phase
dq
d
SVPWM
PR L Load
SScb
+ + Uc
-v q PR HC iaf ibf icf
αβ αβ
+ - - + - vˆq v̂β
ref .
PR Sc iaf ibf icf C Uc
-i df viˆqfq
q
v
ref .v id - viq v̂β
C
iaf ibfiaficfibfviacfvbvvac vb vc
v id viq i df i qf
va vb vc
dq dq
Analogue to
Digital va vb vc
abc abc
Converter to
Analogue
Digital
Converter
Figure21.
Figure 21.General
General schematic
schematic of
of aa PR
PRController
Controllerand
andHC
HCfor
fora athree-phase VSI.
three-phase VSI.
Figure 21. General schematic of a PR Controller and HC for a three-phase VSI.
KP
+
KP Output
+ +
Reference value
Kr   + 
Output
+ − +
Reference value
Kr   
−


Figure 22. General structure of a PR Controller.
Figure
Figure 22.
22. General
General structure
structure of
of aa PR
PR Controller.
Controller.
Kp
Kp
+ +
Reference value
Kr  Ts z−1  +
Output
 Output
+
+ − + +
Reference value
Kr  Ts z−1  −1
+
z 
− + +

+
Ts ω2 z−1
+

+
−1 ω T 2
z + s
z−1 of a discrete PR Controller.

Figure 23. Structure
Figure 23. Structure of a discrete PR Controller.

11.3. LQG Control Technique Figure 23. Structure of a discrete PR Controller.
11.3.The
LQG
LQG integration of Kalman filter with an LQR controller gives rise to an LQG controller. In this
Control Technique
Control
technique, Kalman Filter, as well as an LQG controller, can be designed independently of each other.
integration of
scheme isofvalid
The integration
This control Kalman filter
Kalman filter with
for both with an LQR
linear LQR controller
controller gives
time-invariant gives rise
systems rise to an LQG controller. In this
as well as for linear time-varying
systems. LQG control technique facilitates the designing of a linear independently
technique, Kalman Filter,
Kalman Filter, as well
well as
as an
an LQG
LQG controller,
controller, can
can be
be designed
designed independently ofeach
of
feedback controller eachother.
other.
for an
This control scheme is valid for both linear time-invariant systems as well as for linear time-varying
uncertain nonlinear control system [79–81]. An LQG control structure with a Kalman estimator is
systems. LQG
LQGcontrol
controltechnique
technique facilitates the designing
facilitates of a linear
the designing of a feedback controller
linear feedback for an uncertain
controller for an
shown in Figure 24. Where, ue represents the known input and yc is the estimated
nonlinear control system [79–81]. An LQG control structure with a Kalman
uncertain nonlinear control system [79–81]. An LQG control structure with a Kalman estimator is estimator is shown
noise/disturbance. The Kalman estimator provides the optimal
and ycsolution to the continuous or discrete
in Figure
shown in24. Where,
Figure 24. ueWhere,
represents ue the known input
represents the known isinput
the estimated
and yc noise/disturbance.
is the estimated
estimation problems.
The Kalman estimator
noise/disturbance. Theprovides
Kalman the optimalprovides
estimator solutionthe
to the continuous
optimal solution or to
discrete estimationorproblems.
the continuous discrete
estimation problems.
ue Kalman
-K
estimator x̂ Output
uyce Kalman
-K
estimator Output
x̂
yc Figure
Figure24.
24.Structure
Structureof
ofan
anLQG
LQGcontroller.
controller.
11.3.1. Figure 24. Structure of an LQG controller.

11.3.1.Linear
LinearQuadratic
QuadraticRegulator
Regulator
The
11.3.1.
The linear
Linear
linear quadratic
Quadratic regulator
regulator(LQR)
quadraticRegulator (LQR)technique
techniqueisisfound
foundoptimal
optimalfor forsteady
steadyas aswell
wellas as transient
transient
states [82–84].
statesThe
[82–84]. As
As the name
the name depicts, this
depicts,(LQR) control
this control technique
technique is a
is a combination
combination of linear
of linear and
and quadratic
quadratic
functions, linear
where quadratic
the dynamicsregulator
ofofthe system technique
are is found
described byby aoptimal
set of of for steady
linear equationsas well asthe
andand transient
costcost
of
functions,
states where
[82–84]. As the
the dynamics
name depicts, the system
this control are described
technique is a a set linear
combination ofequations
linear and the
quadratic
the system
of the system
is a quadratic
is athe
quadratic
function.
function.
The cost
The cost
function
function
parameters
parameters
are considered
are considered
critically
critically
while
while
functions,
designing where
the dynamics
controller. LQR of the system
algorithm is are
an described
automatic byapproach
a set of linear
for equations
finding a and the cost
suitable of
state-
designing
the system the controller.
is a quadratic LQR algorithm
function.with is an
The state automatic
cost feedback approach
function parameters for finding a suitable
are considered state-feedback
critically
feedback controller. Pole placement controller provides the system with a while
high
controller. thePolecontroller.
placementLQR with algorithm
state feedback controller provides the system with aa high degree of
degree of freedom and makes it simpler to implement. This method is characteristically steadystate-
designing is an automatic approach for finding suitable and
freedom and
feedback makes Pole
controller. it simpler to implement.
placement with stateThis method
feedback is characteristically
controller provides thesteady systemand with it can be
a high
degree of freedom and makes it simpler to implement. This method is characteristically steady and
it can be employed
employed evenof
even if some if the
some of theparameters
system system parameters are unknown.
are unknown. However,However,
exertion exertion in the
in finding finding
exact
the exact weighting factors limits the applications of LQR control scheme. Moreover,
weighting factors limits the applications of LQR control scheme. Moreover, it has a discrepancy it has aof
discrepancy of tracking
tracking accuracy accuracy
during during[83–85].
load changes load changes [83–85].
11.3.2.
11.3.2. Linear
Linear Quadratic
Quadratic Integrator
Integrator
In
In linear
linear quadratic
quadraticintegrator
integrator (LQI) scheme,
(LQI) scheme,cost cost
minimization
minimizationis considered critically.
is considered This
critically.
technique is implemented for nullifying the steady-state error between actual
This technique is implemented for nullifying the steady-state error between actual grid voltage grid voltage and
reference grid voltage during load variations [82]. An integral term used with
and reference grid voltage during load variations [82]. An integral term used with LQ control LQ control is foris
minimizing
for minimizing the the
tracking error
tracking errorproduced
produced bybyuncertain
uncertaindisturbances
disturbancesinininstantaneous
instantaneousreference
reference
voltage.
voltage. Optimal gains for providing adequate tracking with zero steady-stateerror
Optimal gains for providing adequate tracking with zero steady-state errorare
arerelatively
relatively
simpler
simpler toto attain
attainbybyusing
usingthis technique.
this technique.TheThe
rapid dynamic
rapid dynamicresponse, accurate
response, tracking
accurate abilityability
tracking and
relatively simpler
and relatively designing
simpler procedure
designing provide
procedure providethisthis
technique
technique a benefit
a benefitover
overother
othertechniques.
techniques.
However,
However, complications in extracting the model and phase shift in voltage trackingeven
complications in extracting the model and phase shift in voltage tracking evenininnormal
normal
operative
operative condition
condition are
are the
the major
major drawbacks
drawbacks ofof this
this scheme.
scheme.
11.4.
11.4. Hysteresis
Hysteresis Control
Control Technique
Technique
Hysteresis
Hysteresis control
control isis considered
considered as as aa nonlinear
nonlinear method
method [86–93].
[86–93]. The
Thehysteresis
hysteresiscontrollers
controllersare
are
used
used toto track
track the
the error
error between
between the the referred
referredandandmeasured
measuredcurrents.
currents.Therefore,
Therefore,the thegating
gatingsignals
signalsare
are
generated on the basis of this reference tracking. Hysteresis bandwidth is adjusted
generated on the basis of this reference tracking. Hysteresis bandwidth is adjusted for error removal for error removal
in reference tracking.
in reference tracking. ThisThis isis an
an uncomplicated
uncomplicatedconcept conceptand andhashasbeen
beenusedusedsince
sinceanalog
analogcontrol
control
platforms were intensively used. This technique does not require a modulator;
platforms were intensively used. This technique does not require a modulator; therefore, the switching therefore, the
switching frequency of an inverter is dependent on the hysteresis bandwidth
frequency of an inverter is dependent on the hysteresis bandwidth operating conditions and filter operating conditions
and filter parameters
parameters [94]. The
[94]. The major major drawback
drawback of hysteresisof hysteresis
controller controller is its uncontrolled
is its uncontrolled switchingswitching
frequency;
frequency;
however, researchers are working on improving this controller and several works are presented are
however, researchers are working on improving this controller and several works and
presented and several
several techniques aretechniques
proposed in aretheproposed in the
literature. Mainliterature.
advances Main advances
in this in this
technique aretechnique are
direct torque
direct
controltorque
(DTC)control (DTC)and
[87,88,95,96] [87,88,95,96]
direct power andcontrol
direct power control (DPC)
(DPC) [97–99]. In DPC, [97–99].
active In
and DPC, active
reactive and
powers
reactive powers are directly controlled, however, in DTC torque and flux of the
are directly controlled, however, in DTC torque and flux of the system are controlled. Error signals aresystem are controlled.
Error
producedsignals
by are produced
hysteresis by hysteresis
controllers controllers
and drive signalsand aredrive signals
generated byare
thegenerated by the look-up
look-up according to the
according to the magnitude of the error signals. Hysteresis controllers require
magnitude of the error signals. Hysteresis controllers require very high frequency for constraining the very high frequency
for constraining
variables the variables
in hysteresis in hysteresis
band limits, whenever band limits, whenever
implemented implemented
on a digital platform as onshown
a digital
inplatform
Figure 25.
as shown in Figure 25. Moreover, switching losses are very high in this type
Moreover, switching losses are very high in this type of controllers. So, Hysteresis controllers are found of controllers. So,
Hysteresis
inappropriate controllers
for highare found
power inappropriate for high power applications.
applications.
vdc
+ -
LC Filter
Sa iL Three-Phase
L Load
a
iref .
+ Sb
- b + Sc
iref . - iaf ibf icf Uc
icref .+-
C
iaf ibf icf
Analogue to
Digital
Converter
Figure 25. A Hysteresis control technique for VSI.

Figure 25. A Hysteresis control technique for VSI.
11.5. Sliding Mode Control
11.5. Sliding Mode Control
The sliding mode control is considered to be an advanced power control technique for the
powerThe sliding mode
converters. control
It fits is considered
into the to be an advanced
family of adaptive power
control and control
variable technique
structure for the
control power
[100–104].
converters. It fits into the family of adaptive control and variable structure control [100–104]. Sliding
Electronics 2018, 7,
Electronics 2018, 7, 18
x FOR PEER REVIEW 22
22 of
of 37
37
mode control is a non-linear technique, whereas it can be instigated to both non-linear as well as
Sliding mode control is a non-linear technique, whereas it can be instigated to both non-linear as well
linear systems [100]. In Figure 26, a sliding mode control along with SVM/PWM is presented. Where,
as linear systems [100]. In Figure 26, a sliding mode control along with SVM/PWM is presented.
βv represents the gain, λ is a strictly positive constant and φ is a trade-off between the tracking
Where, β v represents the gain, λ is a strictly positive constant and φ is a trade-off between the tracking
errorand
error andsmoothing
smoothing of control
of the the control discontinuity.
discontinuity. The sliding
The sliding controller
controller producesproduces
the voltagethe voltage
references
references in a converter for generating the drive signals. A predefined trajectory
in a converter for generating the drive signals. A predefined trajectory is executed and the control is executed and the
control variable
variable is forcedistoforced
slide to slideitalong
along it [102–104].
[102–104]. The and
The robust robust andresponse
stable stable response is achieved
is achieved even ineven
the
in the system parameters variation or load disturbances by implementing
system parameters variation or load disturbances by implementing sliding mode control technique. sliding mode control
technique.
This Thisiscontroller
controller is more
more robust androbust
capable and of capable
removing of removing
the stable the stable
error error as compared
as compared to the
to the classical
classical controllers. However, some drawbacks in implementing a sliding mode
controllers. However, some drawbacks in implementing a sliding mode control are difficulty in finding control are difficulty
ainsuitable
findingsliding
a suitable sliding
surface andsurface and of
limitation limitation
sampling ofrate
sampling rate thatthe
that degrades degrades the performance
performance of SMC will of
SMC
be will beWhenever
degraded. degraded.tracking
Whenever tracking
a variable a variable
reference, reference,phenomenon
the chattering the chattering phenomenon
is another drawback is
another drawback of SMC technique. As a result, overall system
of SMC technique. As a result, overall system efficacy is reduced [105,106]. efficacy is reduced [105,106]
vdc
+ -
implementation of sliding modecontrol LC Filter
+ + Sa iL Three-Phase
Modulator
λ 1 L Load
β vref . Sb
PWM
+ +
βv -
- + + φ
- - Sc iaf ibf icf Uc
- - C
iaf ibf icf va vb vc
iaf ibf icf va vb vc
1
va vb vc
C Analogue to
Digital
Converter
βv
Figure 26.
Figure 26. A
A Sliding
Sliding mode
mode control
control technique
technique on
on aa VSI.
VSI.
11.6. Partial Feedback Controllers

11.6. Partial Feedback Controllers
There are several techniques presented for conversion of non-linear systems to linear systems
There are several techniques presented for conversion of non-linear systems to linear systems
for their uncomplicated computation. Partial feedback controllers are one of the most effective and
for their uncomplicated computation. Partial feedback controllers are one of the most effective and
forthright techniques for transforming the non-linear systems into the linear ones. By this technique,
forthright techniques for transforming the non-linear systems into the linear ones. By this technique,
a system can be converted either partially or fully into a linear system, depends on the system
a system can be converted either partially or fully into a linear system, depends on the system
constraints. Linearity in a system is attained by the cancellation of the nonlinearities inside the
constraints. Linearity in a system is attained by the cancellation of the nonlinearities inside the system.
system. So, these systems can be controlled by using the linear controllers whenever a non-linear
So, these systems can be controlled by using the linear controllers whenever a non-linear system is fully
system is fully transformed into a linear system i.e., exact feedback linearization method. However,
transformed into a linear system i.e., exact feedback linearization method. However, if it is partially
if it is partially converted into a linear system then it is known to be partial feedback linearization.
converted into a linear system then it is known to be partial feedback linearization. PFL controller is
PFL controller is implemented in [104,106–109]. In PFL, it is difficult to ensure the stability of
implemented in [104,106–109]. In PFL, it is difficult to ensure the stability of complicated renewable
complicated renewable energy system applications. However, an independent subsystem can be
energy system applications. However, an independent subsystem can be obtained from PFL for
obtained from PFL for constraining the extensive use of this method. Moreover, in order to deal with
constraining the extensive use of this method. Moreover, in order to deal with these problems,
these problems, exact feedback linearization (EFL) is a forthright and model-based technique for
exact feedback linearization (EFL) is a forthright and model-based technique for scheming nonlinear
scheming nonlinear control techniques. EFL receipts the built-in nonlinearity characteristic of the
control techniques. EFL receipts the built-in nonlinearity characteristic of the system under deliberation
system under deliberation and consents the conversion of a nonlinear structure into a linear one,
and consents the conversion of a nonlinear structure into a linear one, algebraically. EFL removes
algebraically. EFL removes nonlinearities of a system through nonlinear feedback, as a result, the
nonlinearities of a system through nonlinear feedback, as a result, the transformed system is not reliant
transformed system is not reliant on an operating point
on an operating point.
11.7. Repetitive
11.7. Repetitive Control
Control
The plug-in
The plug-in scheme
scheme (PIS)
(PIS) and
and internal
internal model
model (IM)
(IM) principle
principle are
are the
the basic
basic concepts
concepts ofof repetitive
repetitive
control(RC).
control (RC).RCRCuses
usesananIMP
IMPwhich
whichisisinincorrespondence
correspondence toto
thethe model
model of of a periodic
a periodic signal.
signal. In order
In order to
to derive this model, trigonometric Fourier series expansion is used. If the model of reference
derive this model, trigonometric Fourier series expansion is used. If the model of reference is fed into is fed
intoclosed
the the closed loop path,
loop path, optimal
optimal reference
reference trackingtracking
can be can be obtained.
obtained. Moreover,Moreover, it isrobust
it is found foundagainst
robust
against disturbances and has the ability to reject them. RC mostly deals with periodic signals. Closed

disturbances and has the ability to reject them. RC mostly deals with periodic signals. Closed loop
behavior
loop of the
behavior ofsystem
Electronics 2018, the and REVIEW
system
7, x FOR PEER and
Magnitude
Magnitude response of the
response of IM
the are
IM the corecore
are the factors used
factors for for
used analyzing
analyzing
23 of 37
the
performance
the performance of the repetitive
of the repetitivecontroller
controller in case of frequency
in case of frequency variation
variationor any other
or any uncertainty
other uncertainty in the
in
system.
loop Both these
behavior offactors
the systemindicate
and the performance
Magnitude response sagging
of the IM inarecase
the of
core
the system. Both these factors indicate the performance sagging in case of variation or uncertainty invariation
factors or
used uncertainty
for analyzing in the
the the performance
reference signal.
reference signal. of
Inthe
In presence repetitive
presenceof a of controller
periodic in case
disturbance,
a periodic of frequency
disturbance, RCvariation
RC intends or
toany
to attain
intends other
zero
attain uncertainty
tracking
zero errorinwhen
tracking error
the
a periodicsystem. Both
or a constant these factors
command indicate the
is referred performance
to it. RC sagging
has anhas in case
ability of variation
to locate or uncertainty
an error, in
when a periodic or a constant command is referred to it. RC an ability to locate an aerror,
time-period
a time-
the reference signal. In presence of a periodic disturbance, RC intends to attain zero tracking error
before
period and
beforefine-tunes the next command
and fine-tunes the next according
command toaccording
the feedback control
to the systemcontrol
feedback for eliminating
system for the
when a periodic or a constant command is referred to it. RC has an ability to locate an error, a time-
observed error.
eliminating the However,
observed iterror.
lacks However,
the ability to it handle physical
lacks according
the ability noise.handle
For this purpose,noise.
an LPF can be
period before and fine-tunes the next command to tothe feedback physical
control system For for this
used.eliminating
purpose,Kalman’s
an LPFthe filtering
canobservedapproach
be used. is
Kalman’s also noticeable
filtering to
approachremoveis this
also noise
noticeable [27,110–113].
to
error. However, it lacks the ability to handle physical noise. For this remove The general
this noise
structure
[27,110–113].of aThe
purpose, repetitive
an LPF cancontroller
general structure
be isofshown
used. Kalman’s in Figure
a repetitive
filtering 27.
controller
approach is also
is shown in Figure
noticeable 27.
to remove this noise
[27,110–113]. The general structure of a repetitive controller is shown in Figure 27.
Repetitive Controller
+ Repetitive Controller
+ Time delay Low-pass Stabilizing
function
Time delay filter
Low-pass Controller
Stabilizing Disturbance
+ function filter Controller Disturbance
Reference + + +
Reference
values +
+
Nominal + + Output
values + Nominal Plant + Output
+ Controller Plant
+ Controller
- -
Figure
Figure 27.
Figure Block
27.27.
Block diagram
Blockdiagram ofRepetitive
diagramof
of Repetitivecontrol
Repetitive control
control algorithm.
algorithm.
algorithm.
11.7.1.
11.7.1.
11.7.1. Fuzzy
Fuzzy Fuzzy Control
Control
Control
This This control technique belongstotothe the family of of intelligent control systems. TheThe PI controller is
This control
control technique
techniquebelongsbelongs to thefamily family ofintelligent
intelligentcontrol
controlsystems.
systems. The PI PI
controller
controller is
replaced by a fuzzy logic controller in this technique as shown in Figure 28. Where, v fz. is the
replaced
is replacedby bya fuzzy
a fuzzy logic controller
logic controller in in
this
thistechnique
techniqueasasshown shownininFigureFigure28. 28.Where,
Where,vvfzf.z. isis the
the
fuzzified
fuzzified output
output voltage.However,
voltage. However, its its block
block diagram
diagram is shown
is in Figure
shown in 29. In 29.
Figure a fuzzy
In acontroller,
fuzzy the
controller,
fuzzified output voltage. However, its block diagram is shown in Figure 29. In a fuzzy controller, the
tracking error of load current and its derivative are given as the input. This controller design is
the tracking
tracking errorerror
of of load current and its its derivative are givenasasthethe input.This Thiscontroller
controllerdesign
design is is
dependent on load current
the awareness, and
knowledge, derivative
skills and are given
experience of the input.
converter designer in terms of
dependent
dependent on the awareness,
on involvement.
the awareness, knowledge, skills and experience of the converter designer in terms of
functions Dueknowledge,
to non-linear skills
natureandof theexperience of the converter
power converters, the systemdesigner in terms of
can be stabilized
functions
functions involvement. Due to non-linear nature of the power converters, the
in case of parameters variation even if the exact model of the converter is unknown. Fuzzy stabilized
involvement. Due to non-linear nature of the power converters, the system
system can
can be
be stabilized
logic
in case
in case of parameters
of parameters
controllers variation
are also variation even
categorizedeven if the exact
if the exact
as non-linear model
modeland
controllers of the
of the converter
converter
probably is unknown.
is unknown.
the best Fuzzy
Fuzzy logic
controllers amongst logic
controllers are
the repetitive
controllers also categorized
are alsocontrollers
categorized as non-linear
[113–116]. However,
as non-linear controllers and
strong assumptions
controllers probably
and probably the
andthe best
adequatecontrollers amongst
are the
experienceamongst
best controllers
repetitive
the controllers
required
repetitive [113–116].
incontrollers
fuzzification of However,
this controller.
[113–116]. strong
However, Asassumptions
it is dependent
strong and on
assumptions adequate
the experience
andsystem
adequate are required
input experience
and draw are in
conclusions
fuzzification of according
this to theAs
controller. setitofisrules assigned
dependent on tothe
them during
system the process
input and of their
draw modelingaccording
conclusions and
required in fuzzification of this controller. As it is dependent on the system input and draw
to thedesigning.
set of according
conclusions rules assigned to thetoset
them during
of rules the process
assigned to them of their modeling
during and designing.
the process of their modeling and
designing. vdc
+ -
implementationof fuzzy control technique
vref +. Sa vdc LC Filter
implementationof fuzzy control v fz.

Fuzzytechnique
+ - iL Three-Phase
SVPWM
+ L Load
Sb LC Filter
vref +. iref . Controller SSa
+ d dt
v fz. c iaf ibf icf Uc iL Three-Phase
SVPWM
+ L Load
Fuzzy Sb
iref . - C
+ Controller Sc iaf ibf icf Uc
- d dt
iaf ibf icf via vib vic va vb vc
va vb vc
idf iqf viq vid
dq
- Analogue to C
Digital
abc
Converter
-
af bf cf
va vb vc
idf iqf viq vid
dq
Analogue to
Digital
abc
Converter
Figure 28. A Fuzzy control algorithm topology on a VSI.

Reference
values i(t) Output
Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Fuzzification Defuzzification 24 of 37
Reference
values i(t) Output
Fuzzification Defuzzification
Fuzzy Rule base

Controller decision
Fuzzy Rule base
Controller decision
Figure
Figure 29.
29. Block
Block diagram
diagram of
of Fuzzy
Fuzzy control algorithm.
control algorithm.
11.7.2. Artificial Neural Network FigureControl

29. Block diagram of Fuzzy control algorithm.
11.7.2. Artificial Neural Network Control
The Artificial
11.7.2. neural
Artificialneural network Control
Neuralnetwork
Network (ANN) controllers are the fundamental form of the controllers
The Artificial (ANN) controllers are the fundamental form of the controllers based
based on the human-thinking mode. It consists of a number of artificial neurons to behave as a
on the human-thinking
The Artificial neural mode. It consists
network (ANN) of controllers
a number are of artificial neuronsform
the fundamental to behave as a biological
of the controllers
biological human brain. The reference tracking error signals are given through a suitable gain or a
human brain.
based on The reference tracking
the human-thinking mode. error signals are
It consists of agiven
number through a suitable
of artificial neuronsgaintoorbehave
a scalingas afactor
scaling factor (S) as input to the ANN for generating the switching signals into the power converters.
(S) asbiological
input to thehumanANN for generating
brain. The reference thetracking
switchingerrorsignals
signalsinto the power
are given converters.
through a suitableThis
gainapproach
or a
This approach
scaling is used
factor (S) as for
input achieving thefor
to the switching
ANN constant switching
generating operation in into
power converters. ANN can
is used for achieving the constant operationthe inswitching signals
power converters. the power
ANN converters.
can be used in both
be used
Thisin both online as well offline modes whileswitching
operatingoperation
it on system control. It has high tolerance
online as approach
well offlineis used
modes for achieving the constant
while operating it on system control. It in
haspower
highconverters.
tolerance ANN
level tocanfaults
level be
to faults
used because
in both of itsasability
online well to estimate
offline modes the
whilefunction
operatingmapping.
it on Its topology
system control. ishas
It shown
high in Figure 30.
tolerance
because of its ability to estimate the function mapping. Its topology is shown in Figure 30.
Fuzzy and ANN
level to faults becausecanof itsbe combined
ability to estimateto the
achieve
function anmapping.
optimalItscontrol
topologyperformance
is shown in Figurein a30.power
Fuzzy and ANN can be combined to achieve an optimal control performance in a power
Fuzzy and ANN can be combined to achieve an optimal
converter [113–115]. ANN does not need a converter model for its operation, however, control performance in a power the
converter [113–115]. ANN does not need a converter model for its operation, however, the operational
converter [113–115]. ANN does not need a converter model for
operational behavior of a power converter should be precisely known to the designer/operator its operation, however, thewhile
behavior of a power
operational converter
behavior of a should
power be precisely
converter should known
be to the
precisely knowndesigner/operator
to the while while
designer/operator designing
designing the ANN control system.
the ANN control
designing the system.
ANN control system.
v
vdcdc-
+
+ -
implementationof ANN
implementationof control
ANN technique
control technique LC Filter
d
SSa iL
LC Filter
Three-Phase
vref . + vref . + +
d a iL
L
Three-Phase
Load Load
+ SSbb
SVPWM
L
SVPWM
k k
- -
+ +- + - + SScc iafiafibf iibfcf icfU c
Uc
q q k k
vref vref . - - -
. - C C
vid vviqid viq idf iiqfdf iqf
iafi ibfi icfi vavvabvvbc vc
af bf cf
va v vb vvc v
dq
Analogue to a b c
dq
Analogue
Digital to
Digital
Converter
abc
Converter
abc
Figure
Figure 30.30. SchematicofofArtificial
Schematic Artificial Neural
NeuralNetwork
Networkcontrol forfor
control VSIs.
VSIs.
Figure 30. Schematic of Artificial Neural Network control for VSIs.
11.8. Robust Controllers
In robust control theory, a control system vigorous against uncertainties and disturbances is
In
In robust
offered.
robust control
The basic theory,
control aim
theory, a control
is to attain system
the
a control vigorous
stability
system case against
invigorous uncertainties
of inadequate
against modeling.andAll
uncertainties disturbances
the is offered.
anddescriptions,
disturbances is
The basic aim
criteria is
and to attain
limitations the stability
should be in case of
appropriately inadequate
defined in modeling.
order to get All the
robust descriptions,
control.
offered. The basic aim is to attain the stability in case of inadequate modeling. All the descriptions, This criteria
controller and
limitations
criteria andshould
guarantees the be
limitations appropriately
stability defined in order
and high performance
should be appropriately to getin
of closed-loop
defined robust
systemcontrol.
order even This controller
to getinrobust
multivariable guarantees
systems
control. This [117]. the
controller
stability and high performance of closed-loop system even in multivariable systems
guarantees the stability and high performance of closed-loop system even in multivariable systems [117].[117].
11.8.1. H-Infinity Controllers
The expression H∞ control originates from the term mathematical space on which the
optimization takes
The expression H∞ controlplace: H∞ isoriginates
consideredfromas a the
space of mathematical
term matrix-valued functions
space onthat are the
which
The expression
investigative H∞ control
and confined originates
in the open from
right-half of thethe term plane.
complex mathematical
In this typespace on system,
of control which the
optimization takes place: H∞ is considered as a space of matrix-valued functions that are investigative
optimization
first of all,takes place:problem
the control H∞ isis formulated
consideredand as then
a space of matrix-valued
mathematical optimization functions
is implementedthat are
and confined in the open right-half of the complex plane. In this type of control system, first of all,
i.e., selection
investigative and of the bestin
confined element
the openaccording to criterion
right-half from theplane.
of the complex set of In
obtainable
this typealternatives. H-
of control system,
the control
infinity
problem
control
is formulated
techniques are
and thenpertinent
generally
mathematical
for the
optimization
multivariable
issystems.
implemented
The
i.e., selection
impact of a
first of all, the control problem is formulated and then mathematical optimization is implemented
of theperturbation
best element canaccording
be reduced to
by criterion
using from the
H-infinity set of
control obtainable
techniques in a alternatives.
closed loop H-infinity
system subject control
to
i.e., selection of the best element according to criterion from the set of obtainable alternatives. H-
infinity control techniques are generally pertinent for the multivariable systems. The impact of a
perturbation can be reduced by using H-infinity control techniques in a closed loop system subject to
techniques are generally pertinent for the multivariable systems. The impact of a perturbation can
be reduced by using H-infinity control techniques in a closed loop system subject to the problem
formulation. The impact can be measured either in terms of performance or stabilization of the
system. However, modeling of the system should be well-defined for implementation of these control
techniques.
the problemMoreover, H-infinity
formulation. control
The impact cantechniques
be measured have another
either discrepancy
in terms of high
of performance computational
or stabilization
complications.
of the system. In However,
case of non-linear
modeling systems limitations,
of the system should bethe control system
well-defined cannot handle
for implementation them well
of these
and response time also increases
control techniques. Moreover,[118]. However,
H-infinity these
control controllers
techniques haveare implemented
another and of
discrepancy well defined
high
computational
in [111,112,119]. complications. In case of non-linear systems limitations, the control system cannot
handle them well and response time also increases [118]. However, these controllers are implemented
11.8.2.
and well definedControllers
µ-Synthesis in [111,112,119].
Mu-synthesis
11.8.2. is based
μ-Synthesis on the multivariable feedback control technique, which is used to handle
Controllers
the structured as well as unstructured disturbances in the system. Where µ mentions the singular
Mu-synthesis is based on the multivariable feedback control technique, which is used to handle
value that is reciprocal of the multivariable stability margin. The basic purpose is to mechanize the
the structured as well as unstructured disturbances in the system. Where μ mentions the singular
synthesis of multivariable feedback controllers that are insensitive to uncertainties of the plant and be
value that is reciprocal of the multivariable stability margin. The basic purpose is to mechanize the
able synthesis
to attain the anticipated feedback
of multivariable performance objectives.
controllers This
that are methodtoisuncertainties
insensitive well described in plant
of the [120,121].
and
be able to attain the anticipated performance objectives. This method is well described in [120,121].
11.9. Adaptive Controllers
11.9. Adaptive Controllers
An adaptive controller is designed to have the ability of self-tuning, i.e., to regulate itself
spontaneously according
An adaptive to variations
controller in thetosystem
is designed have the parameters. It does not i.e.,
ability of self-tuning, require initial conditions,
to regulate itself
spontaneously
system parameters according to variations
or limitations in the
for its system parameters.
implementation dueIt does
to itsnot requiretoinitial
ability modifyconditions,
the control
system parameters
law according to systemor limitations for itsRecursive
requirements. implementation
least due to itsand
squares ability to modify
Gradient the control
descent are twolaw most
according to system requirements. Recursive least squares and Gradient
commonly known technique for parameters estimation in adaptive controllers. The structure descent are two most
commonly known technique for parameters estimation in adaptive controllers. The structure of a
of a typical adaptive controller is shown in Figure 31. In the literature, some credible research
typical adaptive controller is shown in Figure 31. In the literature, some credible research articles and
articles and state-of-the-art techniques for adaptive controllers are found in [14,37,53,55,113,122–125].
state-of-the-art techniques for adaptive controllers are found in [14,37,53,55,113,122–125]. These
Thesecontrollers
controllersareare applicable
applicable forfor both
both dynamic
dynamic as well
as well as static
as static processes.
processes. However,
However, the complicated
the complicated
computational process leads to exertion in its implementation.
computational process leads to exertion in its implementation.
Parameters
tuning
Controller Control
Parameters Signal
Reference
values
Output
Controller Plant
Figure 31.Block
31.
Figure Blockdiagram ofAdaptive
diagram of Adaptivecontrol
control algorithm.
algorithm.
11.10.11.10. Predictive
Predictive Controllers
Controllers
Predictive controllers are commenced as a propitious control technique for electronics inverters.
Predictive controllers are commenced as a propitious control technique for electronics inverters.
The system model is considered critically and then imminent behavior of the control variables is
The system
predictedmodel is considered
conferring critically
to the specified and then
criterion. imminent
It is an behavior
uncomplicated of the and
technique control
can variables
handle is
predicted conferring to the specified criterion. It is an uncomplicated technique
multivariable systems efficiently. Moreover, it can handle the system with several limitations or non-and can handle
multivariable
linearities. systems efficiently.
It is generally preferredMoreover, it can handle
due to its prompt static as the
wellsystem withresponse
as dynamic severalandlimitations
ability or
non-linearities.
to handle stableIt iserrors.
generally preferred
However, due to its prompt
its computational analysisstatic as well
is complex asas dynamictoresponse
compared classical and
controllers.
ability to handleItstable
is further categorized
errors. However, intoitsDeadbeat control and
computational Model
analysis is Predictive
complex as control. It canto
compared refer
classical
to literature [105,125–127] for predictive controllers. A comparison of predictive control
controllers. It is further categorized into Deadbeat control and Model Predictive control. It can refer to techniques
on basis
literature of their pros.for
[105,125–127] andpredictive
cons. is described in Table
controllers. A 2.
comparison of predictive control techniques on
basis of their pros. and cons. is described in Table 2.
11.10.1. Deadbeat Control
Deadbeat control technique is the most authentic, competent and attractive technique in terms
of low THD value, frequency as well as rapid transient response. Differential equations are derived
11.10.1. Deadbeat Control

Deadbeat control technique is the most authentic, competent and attractive technique in terms
of low THD value, frequency as well as rapid transient response. Differential equations are derived
and discretized
and discretized in this
in thistype
typeofof control systemforfor
control system controlling
controlling the dynamic
the dynamic behavior behavior of theThe
of the system. system.
The control
controlsignal
signal is predicted
predicted for forthe
thenew
newsampling
sampling period
period forfor attaining
attaining the the reference
reference value.
value. Its effective
Its effective
dynamic
dynamic performance
performance and and highbandwidth
high bandwidth simplify
simplify thethecurrent
current control
control for for
thisthis
typetypeof controller.
of controller.
Error compensation
Error compensation is
isthis a specialty
a specialty of a deadbeat
of asystem
deadbeat controller.
controller. However,
However, its major
its major discrepancy
discrepancy is its is its
and discretized in type of control for controlling the dynamic behavior of the system. The
sensitivity
sensitivity
control for
forsignal network
network parameters
parameters
is predicted and accurate
andsampling
for the new accurate mathematical
mathematical
period filter modeling
filter
for attaining the [13,54,56,128–135].
modeling
reference Its effective Its
value.[13,54,56,128–135].
topology
dynamic is shown in Figure 32, where a disturbance observer, a state estimator and a digital deadbeat
Its topology is performance
shown in Figure and high bandwidth
32, where asimplify the current
disturbance controlafor
observer, this estimator
state type of controller.
and a digital
deadbeat Error compensation
controller are used
controller areto iscontrol
used a specialty of a deadbeat
the voltage
to control controller.
and current
the voltage and of a However,
VSI.of
current The coefficient
a VSI. d̂ represents
its major discrepancy
The coefficient disˆ represents
its the
sensitivity
output of for network
disturbance parameters
observer and accurate
comprises of mathematical
current and filter However,
voltage. modeling [13,54,56,128–135].
ˆ
v and v̂q
Its
represents
the output of disturbance observer comprises of current and voltage. However, d v̂d and v̂q represents
topology is shown in Figure 32, where a disturbance observer, a state estimator and a digital deadbeat
the controlled
the controlled voltage
voltageacross d-axis
across d-axis andq-axis
and q-axisrespectively.
respectively.
controller are used to control the voltage and current of a VSI. The coefficient d̂ represents the
output of disturbance observer comprises of current and voltage. However, vˆd and v̂ represents
implementationof deadbeat control scheme vdc q
the controlled voltage across d-axis and q-axis respectively. + -
LC Filter
vα Sa
d
vref .+
Deadbeat vd
implementationof vˆd control scheme
deadbeat vdc
iL Three-Phase
SVPWM SVPWM
Sb L Load
dq
Controller
−1 + -
State z
SSac
Uc
αβ
iaf ibf icf i LC Filter

q
vref - estimator vvq vvˆqd vvαβ Three-Phase
v d.
ref . +
Deadbeat d
L
Load
Sb C L
dq
Controller
−1
d̂ State z Sc Uc
iaf ibf icf viafa ivbfb ivcfc va vb vc
αβ
iaf ibf icf

idf iqf vid ivdfiq iqf vid viq
q
vref - estimator vq vˆq vβ
. va vb vc
Disturbance
dq
Observer
Analogue to C
Digital
d̂
abc
Converter
va vb vc
Disturbance
dq
Observer
Analogue to
Digital
abc
Converter
Figure
Figure 32.Deadbeat
32. Deadbeat control
control topology
topologyfor VSIs.
for VSIs.
11.10.2. Model Predictive Control

Figure 32. Deadbeat control topology for VSIs.
11.10.2. Model Predictive Control
As the name depicts, a model of the system is used to predict the behavior of the system in model
As 11.10.2.
the nameModel Predictive
depicts, Control
a model of the system is used to predict the behavior
predictive control (MPC) technique. A cost function criterion is defined in this typeofofthe system
control in model
system,
predictive
whichcontrol
As
canthe (MPC)
bename technique.
depicts,
minimized a model
for A the
of
optimal cost function
system
control criterion
is used
actions. toThe
predict isthe
defined
controller behavior in of
adapts this
thetype
the system
optimalofincontrol
model system,
switching
which predictive
can
states control
be minimized
according to (MPC)
thefor technique.
cost functionA
optimal cost function
control
criterion.actions.criterion
Forecast The iscontroller
error defined
can beinlessened
this type for
adapts of control
the system,
optimal
current switching
tracking
which can be
statesimplementing.
according minimized
toMoreover, for
the cost function optimal
system control actions.
criterion.
limitations Forecast
and The error
controller
non-linearities, canasadapts
bewell the
lessened optimal switching
for current
as multiple inputs tracking
and
statessystems,
output according tohandled
are the costwell
function
by criterion.
MPC. Control Forecast
actions error
of canpresent
the be lessened
state for considered
are current tracking
in order
implementing. Moreover, system limitations and non-linearities, as well as multiple inputs and output
to implementing.
systems, predict
are handled
Moreover,
the controlwellactionssystem
by MPC.of thelimitations
system in
Control
and non-linearities,
the next
actions ofstate. Like as
the present
well as control,
deadbeat multipleitinputs
state are considered is alsoandfound
in order to
output systems, are handled well by MPC. Control actions of the present state are considered in order
sensitive to system parameter variations [136–147]. The topology for implementation of MPC on VSI
predicttothe control
predict actionsactions
the control of the of system
the system in in
thethenext
next state. Like
state. Like deadbeat
deadbeat control,
control, it is
it is also also found
found
is shown in Figure 33, whereas, its control schematic is depicted in Figure 34.
sensitive to system
sensitive parameter
to system parametervariations
variations[136–147].
[136–147]. The Thetopology
topology for for implementation
implementation of MPCofonMPC VSI on VSI
is shown is shown in Figure
in Figure 33, whereas,
33, whereas, its its controlschematic
control schematic isisdepicted in Figure 34.
vdepicted in Figure 34. dc
+ -
implementationof MPC control scheme vdc
+ - LC Filter
v implementationof
d MPC control
vˆd scheme
Sa iL Three-Phase
+
ref . LC Filter
SVPWM
L Load
q vd Model Predictive vˆd
Sba iL Three-Phase
vref - . + Controller
.ref
SVPWM
L Load
q Model Predictive SSb iaf ibf icf Uc
vref . - c
Controller vˆq
d̂ Sc iaf ibf icf Uc
C
vˆq
d̂
Disturbance
C
iaf iibfaf iicfbf icfva vba vcb vc
Observer
Disturbance
va vb vc
idf iiqfdf iqfviq vviqidvid
Observer
dq dq
Analogue to
Digitalto
Analogue
va vb vc
Converter
abcabc
Digital
Converter
Figure 33.33.Model
Figure ModelPredictive Controltopology
Predictive Control topologyforfor VSIs.
VSIs.
Figure 33. Model Predictive Control topology for VSIs.
MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROLLER

predicted control
variables
Predictor
Reference
values -
+
Output
+ Optimizer Plant
Reference
values -
Cost Function Constraints
Figure 34. Block Diagram of Model Predictive Control algorithm.
11.11. Iterative
11.11. Iterative Learning
Learning Scheme
Scheme
Iterative Learning
Iterative Learning Scheme
Scheme(ILS)
(ILS)is isa complicated
a complicated butbut
authentic technique
authentic for attaining
technique zero
for attaining
tracking
zero error.
tracking In this
error. scheme,
In this each
scheme, control
each control command
command is is
executed
executedand
andthe
thesystem
systemisis examined
examined andand
then adjusted accordingly before each repetition. Highly accurate modeling of the system
then adjusted accordingly before each repetition. Highly accurate modeling of the system is essential is essential
for the
for the implementation
implementation of of ILS; therefore, its
ILS; therefore, its designing
designing technique
technique isis relatively
relatively more
more complicated
complicated than
than
other schemes.
other schemes. ILS ILSisiscapable
capable ofof
removing
removing thethe
tracking error
tracking caused
error by the
caused by periodic disturbances.
the periodic The
disturbances.
next cycle is predicted by considering the learning gain, system adjustment in z-transform,
The next cycle is predicted by considering the learning gain, system adjustment in z-transform, tracking tracking
error at
error at each
each repetition,
repetition, control
control function
function of of the
the designed
designed controller
controller and
and the
the error
error function
function between
between
two consecutive
two consecutive iterations.
iterations.
12. Comparative Analysis and Future Research Goals

VSIs are specially designed for converting DC to three-phase AC, therefore, control strategies
must be according to the the three-leg
three-leg three-phase
three-phase power power inverters.
inverters. However, for MLIs, the control
strategies mustmust be beinherited
inheritedfrom fromthree-leg
three-leg three-phase
three-phase powerpower inverters.
inverters.The The
control policies
control of VSIs
policies of
in stand-alone
VSIs modemode
in stand-alone can be cancategorized
be categorized into into
numerous
numerous categories depending
categories dependinguponupon similar and
similar
dissimilar
and considerations.
dissimilar considerations. Considering
Considering the PWM,the PWM,VSIs VSIscan be canclassified into into
be classified two twocategories i.e.,
categories
carrier-based
i.e., carrier-basedmodulation
modulation and and
carrier-less modulation.
carrier-less modulation.The carrier-based
The carrier-based modulation
modulationschemes such
schemes
as Selective
such Harmonic
as Selective Elimination
Harmonic (SHE), (SHE),
Elimination 3D SVPWM, Sinusoidal
3D SVPWM, Pulse Width
Sinusoidal PulseModulation
Width Modulation(SPWM)
and Minimum-Loss
(SPWM) and Minimum-Loss Discontinuous
Discontinuous PWMPWM (MLDPWM)
(MLDPWM) based basedPWMPWM techniques
techniqueshave have attained
significant consideration due to their constant constant switching
switching frequency.
frequency.
SPWM offers constant switching frequency and flexible control schemes; nevertheless, one major
disadvantage of
disadvantage ofthis
thistechnique
technique is the
is the compact
compact efficacy
efficacy of theofDC the DC voltage
voltage [148]. The[148]. The 3D-SVPWM
3D-SVPWM delivers
delivers
an adequatean adequate DC bus utilization
DC bus utilization and a standardized
and a standardized load harmonic load curvature
harmonic as curvature
compared as to
compared
the SPWM to
the SPWMHowever,
technique. technique. However,
it is complex in it is complex
nature to bein nature to beonimplemented
implemented on theCorrespondingly,
the digital devices. digital devices.
Correspondingly,
the SHE-PWM suggests the SHE-PWM suggestsby
a flexible controller a flexible controller
considering by considering
the switching the switching
angle. However, angle.
the real-time
However, the
enactment real-time
of this enactment
carrier-based of this carrier-based
modulation modulation
is quite difficult. is quite of
The capability difficult. The capability
the MLDPWM under
of the MLDPWM
nonlinear and unbalancedunder conditions
nonlinear is and
foundunbalanced
relatively conditions
admissible; is found its
however, relatively
real-timeadmissible;
execution
however,
is found very its real-time executionHowever,
much circuitous. is found very much circuitous.
the carrier-less modulationHowever, the carrier-less
approaches such asmodulation
flux vector
approaches
and hysteresis such as fluxa vector
provide and hysteresis
rapid-dynamic response provide
[149].a But,
rapid-dynamic
they sufferresponse [149]. switching
from variable But, they
suffer from[91].
frequency variable switchingthey
Additionally, frequency
require [91]. Additionally,
composite switching they require
tables composite
for their switching tables
implementation.
for their
The implementation.
conventional PI controllers encounter problems to eliminate the steady-state error. In order to
solveThe thisconventional
problem, a PR PIcontroller
controllers is encounter
commonlyproblemsused in the to eliminate
stationarythe steady-state
reference frameerror. In order
for regulating
to solve
the output this problem,
voltages of thea PRVSIscontroller
due to itsis sophisticated
commonly used in the stationary
explication in eliminating reference frame for
the steady-state
regulating
error, whilethe output voltages
controlling sinusoidalof the VSIs due
signals. to its sophisticated
Additionally, it is competentexplication in eliminating
in eliminating the
selective
steady-state
harmonic error, while controlling sinusoidal signals. Additionally, it is competent in eliminating
uncertainties.
selective harmonic uncertainties.
It is also taken into consideration that the PR controller perceives the resonant frequency to offer
gains at specific frequencies. Thus, the resonant frequency should be synchronized with the frequency
of the microgrid. Hence, it can be said that it is very sensitive with respect to the variations in system
frequency. The PI controller is also extensively used in the dqo frame and performs robustly with pure
DC signals. Though, in order to allocate the control variables from the abc to the dqo frame, the phase
angle of the microgrid should be known. Likewise, using cross-coupling and voltage feedforward
terms are the secondary problems in implementing this method.
In the stand-alone operating mode, VSIs primarily controls the power transfer, voltage and
frequency of the system. Nevertheless, power quality can be enhanced by offering a suitable control
technique in the inverter-based type DGs. As in VSIs, the auxiliary services for improvement in power
quality embedded in the control assembly. In case of VSIs, compensation of unbalanced voltage,
a lower value for total harmonic distortion, harmonic power-sharing schemes, power sharing between
active/reactive powers, imbalance power, active/reactive power control and augmentation in power
quality are critically considered and embedded in control schemes. VSIs are also applied on several
applications in microgrid systems, extensively, for improving the power quality. This power control
strategy is presented in [38]. However, a comprehensive review of various control strategies for
microgrids is described in [150]. Moreover, using modular multilevel inverters can improve the
modularity and scalability to meet reference voltage levels, efficiency in high power applications,
reduction in harmonics in high voltage applications and size of passive filters as well as no requirement
for dc-link capacitors [151].
In Table 3, different types of filters are suggested by various researchers based on the control
systems. However, it is significant to use L-filters for low power applications having a simple design,
nevertheless, L-filters are not found suitable in resonance state as well as for high power applications.
So, LCL-filter is highly preferred in aforementioned system characteristics. The designing of this filter
is comparatively complicated due to a few constrictions related to the system stability. The accuracy in
designing and modeling of the system leads to better performance against resonance and harmonics.
Nevertheless, the choice should be made according to the customer’s demand. The prime parameters
should be chosen on the basis of system condition and intended tasks to be performed by the system.
Afterward, the designing of power system and control system parameters should be finalized.
This corresponding study incorporates the advantages and disadvantages of each controller
in terms of stability, rapid response time, harmonic elimination, the nonlinearity of the system,
unbalanced compensation and robustness against parameter variation. Various suitable control
schemes for different types of VSIs are documented in this paper. However, their implementations
for power generation and power quality improvement are still not perfect simultaneously. Moreover,
each controller has its own benefits and obstructions. Therefore, it is not easy to decide that which
control scheme is better than the others. These are significant subjects for the future research. On the
basis of the analysis of former publications, appended research is suggested to be carried out in the
aforementioned area.
Regardless of the several investigations in this field, none of the proposed control techniques
can be selected as an immaculate solution to meet al.l the requirements of power quality,
i.e., harmonic/reactive/imbalance power-sharing and voltage unbalanced/harmonic/swell/sag and
Interruption compensation at the same time. Therefore, further research should be focused on the
novel power-electronics topologies to fulfill all aforementioned necessities simultaneously.
Three-phase three-wire VSIs are now a well-developed and mature research topic with respect
to their hierarchical control. But on the other hand, control hierarchies are not as well established for
ML-VSIs, as for three-phase three-wire VSIs. It may be beneficial to consider ML-VSI system, as well
as the primary, secondary and tertiary stages, whenever a control scheme is to be designed.
Substantially, a lot of work is to be done for exploiting the new control approaches for ML-VSIs.
In order to achieve enhanced performance, it is compulsory to use some innovative techniques such as
robust, MPC and LQR control techniques.
It is also observed through a number of studies that coupling among the phases is neglected
whenever controlling an ML-VSI by means of a conventional PI controller, which results in a reduction
of the system’s robustness. Hence, it can also be beneficial to implement decoupled phase voltage
control to realize the referred response in time domain. A comparison of the credible research articles
found in literature with respect to their control techniques, modulation schemes, control parameters,
loop characteristics, employed filters and applications is described in Table 3.
13. Conclusions
On the basis of research, conventional multilevel inverter topologies given in the previous sections,
general and asymmetrically constituted ML-VSIs have been also reviewed in this paper. Several new
hybrid topologies can be designed through the combinations of three main MLI topologies. Besides the
combination of topologies, the trade-offs in MLI structures can be dealt by using H-MLIs that is formed
using different DC source levels in inverter cells. PWM strategies that generate switching frequency
at fundamental frequency are also introduced for H-MLIs for the switching devices of the higher
voltage modules to operate at high frequencies only during some inverting instants. Due to numerous
applications of conventional MLIs and flexibility to design the hybrid MLI topologies, this paper
cannot cover all utilizations with MLIs but the authors intend to provide a useful basis to define the
most proper control schemes and applications. In addition to these, the fundamental design and
control principles of MLIs have been introduced as a result of a detailed literature survey. This paper
has been destined to provide a reference to readers and the results given in this paper can also be
extended with experimental studies.
Table 2. Description of predictive controllers on the basis of their pros. & cons.
Deadbeat Control
• -Modulator required
• -Fixed switching frequency
• -Low Computations
• -Limitations not undertaken
Trajectory Based control

• -Modulator not required
• -Variable frequency
• -No cascaded structure
Predictive Hysteresis Based predictive control

Control
• -Modulator not required
• -Variable frequency
• -Uncomplicated structure
Model Predictive Control

• -Modulator required in case of continuous control set (CCS) and not required
in case of finite control set (FCS).
• -Likewise, fixed switching frequency (CCS) and variable switching frequency
exists in (FCS).
• -Online optimization and simple designing is included in case of FCS.
• -Constraints are considered in both cases
Table 3. Digital control system characteristics in numerous credible scientific proposals.
Application Controller Filter Ref. Frame Feedback Modulation Ctrl. Parameter Ref.
General adaptive LCL Single Phase Multi-loop SPWM V, I [51]
General Classic, PR LCL Single Phase Multi-loop PWM I [152]
General Adp., Rpt. L Single Phase Single-loop SPWM I [105]
UPS DB LC Single Phase Multi-loop PWM V, I [153]
General Rpt. LC Single-Phase Single-loop PWM V [101]
General Rpt C LCL Single Phase Single-loop PWM I [104]
DG Classic LCL abc, αβ Single-loop PWM V, P [47]
DG Classic LC abc, αβ Multi-loop SVPWM V, I [48]
DG Classic LC abc, αβ Multi-loop SPWM V, I [49]
DG Classic L abc, αβ Single-loop VLUT V [50]
General DB L abc, αβ Single-loop PWM I [52]
APF Adp., Rpt. LC abc, dq Multi-loop SVPWM I [53]
General DB LCL abc, dq Multi-loop PWM I [54]
DG Adp., MPC LCL abc, αβ Multi-loop SVPWM I [55]
General LQG LCL abc, dq Single-loop PWM I [66]
PV PR, LQG L abc, αβ Single-loop SVPWM I [64]
General Adp. L abc, αβ Multi-loop PWM I [107]
UPS Pred. LC abc, dq Single-loop SVPWM V [109]
PV, APF Pred., Fuzzy L abc, αβ Multi-loop PWM P [108]
PV, APF SMC, Pred. L abc, αβ Multi-loop PWM P [111]
General DB L abc, dq Single-loop SVPWM I [113]
General Adp., DB L abc, dq Single-loop PWM I [112]
DG DB L abc, dq Single-loop SVPWM I [116]
UPS DB, Rpt. LC abc, αβ Single-loop PWM V [115]
General MPC LCL abc, abc Single-loop PWM V, I [122]
General MPC L abc, αβ Single-loop PWM I [125]
General MPC L abc, dq Single-loop SVPWM I [128]
PV MPC L abc, dq Single-loop SVPWM I [130]
PV Classic, Rpt. L abc, dq Single-loop SVPWM I [97]
Acknowledgments: The National Natural Science Foundation of China supported this research work under Grant
No. 61374155. Moreover, the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education PR China
under Grant No. 20130073110030 is highly acknowledged.
Author Contributions: Sohaib proposed the idea for writing the manuscript. Wang suggested the literature
and supervised in writing the manuscript. Mazhar helped Sohaib in writing and formatting. Sarwar helped in
modifying the figures and shared the summary of various credible articles to be included in this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Received: 4 December 2017; Accepted: 2 February 2018; Published: 7 February 2018

Electronics 2018, 7, 18; doi:10.3390/electronics7020018 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Voltage Source Current Source Cycloconverters

Multilevel Load Commutated

Cascaded Neutral Point Flying Capacitor

2.1. Multilevel Diode Neutral-Point Clamped Inverter

2.1. Multilevel Diode Neutral-Point Clamped Inverter

Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 37

2.4. Two-Level Three Phase VSI with an Output Filter

S′1 S′2 S′3 Uc

2.5. Three Phase Four-Leg VSI with an Output Filter

Figure 8. Three-phase four-leg inverter with an output LC filter.

3.1. Analog Control System

3.2. Digital Control System

1. Microcontroller Based implementation (MC) [49–51]

SVPWM current voltage

6. Time Delay Sampling Scheme for VSI

capacitance. The value of

SS1 SS2 SS3

Figure 13. A Three-phase voltage source inverter in grid-connected mode.

Figure 14. One-leg block diagram of a single-phase grid-connected system.

8. Damping Techniques for Grid-Connected VSIs

9.2. Filtering of Grid Voltages

9.3. Phase Locked

10.2. Space Vector Based PWM

Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 37

Predictive Sliding Mode Intelligent Hysteresis

iaf iibfaf iicfbf icfva vvab vvbc vc

Figure 20. Schematic of

z−1 of a discrete PR Controller.

Figure 23. Structure of a discrete PR Controller.

11.3.1. Figure 24. Structure of an LQG controller.

Figure 25. A Hysteresis control technique for VSI.

iaf ibf icf va vb vc

11.6. Partial Feedback Controllers

Electronics 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 37

implementationof fuzzy control v fz.

Figure 28. A Fuzzy control algorithm topology on a VSI.

Fuzzy Rule base

11.7.2. Artificial Neural Network FigureControl

11.10.1. Deadbeat Control

iaf ibf icf i LC Filter

iaf ibf icf

11.10.2. Model Predictive Control

MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROLLER

Cost Function Constraints

Figure 34. Block Diagram of Model Predictive Control algorithm.

12. Comparative Analysis and Future Research Goals

Trajectory Based control

Predictive Hysteresis Based predictive control

Model Predictive Control

Table 3. Digital control system characteristics in numerous credible scientific proposals.

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