CHAPTER 2: DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY
Control of Access - is a condition where the rights of the owners or occupants of adjoining
Consistency - is the most important single rule in highway design.
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials)
In 1914, the American Association of State Highway Officials (ASSHO) was
established as an association of State Territorial and District of Columbia Highway
Department, and the Federal Highway Administration. Name was expanded in 1973, when
the Department of Transportation was integrated into the association renaming AASHO to
AASHTO, giving the officials of these agency the power to govern its operation.
AASHTO publications includes:
1. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests.
2. Specifications for highway bridges
3. Geometric design standards.
4. Numerous policy statements and guides.
Roads and Highways - is defined as strips of land that have been cleared and further
improved for the movement of people and goods.
Road
 has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used to describe a public
thoroughfare.
 can also refer to railways.
Highway
 The term was first used in England to describe a public road built by digging ditches
on both sides and heaping the earth in the middle creating a way higher than the
adjacent land.
 now connotes, a higher state of development than road, but the words are almost
interchangeable.
Expressway - is a divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial control or
access and generally provided with grade separation at major intersections.
Freeway - is an expressway with full control of access.
land or other persons access to light, air or view in connection with a highway is fully or
partially controlled by public authority.
Full Control of Access
 The authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through traffic by
providing access connections to selected public roads only.
 Crossing at grade or direct private driveway connections is not permitted.
Partial Control of Access
 The authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through traffic.
 there may be some crossings at grade and some private driveway connections
allowed.
Through Street or Through Highway - Every Highway or portion thereof on which vehicular
traffic is given preferential right of way
Parkway - is an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial control of access
usually located within a park or ribbon park-like development.
Arterial Street
 is an arterial route that carries traffic to the nearest access point or through traffic.
 often serves as the most advantageous routes for relatively long distance travel.
 provide access to adjacent property but often with restrictions on entry and exit
points.
 considered as a "make do" substitute for controlled access facilities when traffic
volume exceeds about 20,000 vehicles per day.
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Road
1. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction.
7. Should be at least one kilometer in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at about 600 to 900 meters apart.
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume to justify arterial road is 300
vehicles per average hour during the day, and 450 vehicles hourly during peak periods.
 Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume on designated arterial road exceeds the capacity
of two-way streets, and to increase the arterial capacity, the following solutions are enforced:
1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both sides of the street.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away from each side of the road intersections
or corners.
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals any time with care
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested intersections.
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to provide more lanes in the
direction of heavier traffic flow
Collector Street - form smaller mesh grid pattern where passengers are pick up from service
streets and carried to the arterials.
Local Road
 is defined as street or road primarily for access to residence, business, or other
adjoining properties.
 defined as a road constructed and maintained by the local government.
Highway Capacity - is defined as the maximum number vehicles that are reasonably expected
to pass a given point over a given period of time usually expressed as vehicles per hour.
1. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommodate about 2,000
passenger cars per hour.
2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000 passenger cars per hour in each direction.
AADT or ADT
 refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by the number of vehicles
passing a partial station during a given interval of time.
 It is called "Average Annual Daily Traffic" if the period is less than one year.
 Volume may be stated on hourly "Observed Traffic Volume" or estimated 30h hour
volume commonly used for design purposes. Some highway agencies use traffic
volume for 5 minutes interval to distinguish short peak movements of vehicles.
AASHTO defined Design Speed as:
"The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a highway that
influence vehicles operation.
- It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specifed section of the highway
when weather and traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.
Basic Design Features
 refers to the tightness and super elevation of curves, the sight distance, and grade.
 higher than the anticipated average speed
For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain road sections are designed for
speed from 30 to 50 kilometers per hour.
Selection of the proper road design speed is one of the most important decisions to make,
because it sets the limit to curvature, sight distance, and other geometric figures. But because
of limited funds, there is a strong temptation to reduce the design speed. Such kind of decision
is unwise, because the alignment grade and sight distance after the roadway has been
constructed and paved along the landscape and rights of way, become more difficult, and
expensive to adjust or to correct.
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Rural or Urban, then as Freeways,
Arterials, Collectors and Local.
Rural collectors and local facilities
 are classified as flat,rolling, or mountainous. Although the design speed presently used is
80 km. per hour, highway designers projected design speed up to 120 kilometers per hour
to guarantee against future obsolescence as well as the increased margin of operating
safety.
Although the design speed of most highways is governed by construction costs, the
concept of the relatively high speed design for freeways is Regardless of Cost. They are
planned for a nationwide high volume traffic and high speed network.
Cross Section of Typical Highway
The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver.
A cross section design generally offers the expected level of service for safety and a recent
study showed that:
1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with pavement narrower
than 5.50 m. wide.
2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement ha 4% fewer accidents than the 6.00 meters wide roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20 meters wide
pavement.
4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and 7.20 meters wide pavement with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide shoulder,
recorded accident decreases by 30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide shoulder. And 20%
compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide shoulder.
It appears that, the above difference in accident potentials may not justify higher
standard, particularly, when traffic volume is low. A driver's instinct when overtaking or allowing
other cars to overtake or meting oncoming vehicles is to look at the surface width of the
highway, and see the kind of surface where to position his car.
 Originally, the total surface width of the roadway was only 4.50 meters, but due to the
increased number of vehicles using the roadway, the width was adjusted to 4.80 to 5.40
meters.
Lately, the width of the road was standardized to 3.00 m. for first class paved one lane
highway, and now 3.60 meters wide surface was adopted standard for freeways and other
major traffic roadways, although there are strong demand to increase 1t further from 3.60 to
4.20 meters.
For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide surface is required for safe clearance
between commercial vehicles and is recommended for main highways.
For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low volume traffic
including few trucks traveling thereon.
For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km/hr, design
speed.
For Urban Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is
allowed where space is limited.
Where there are heavy meetings or overtaking between cars and trucks, air disturbances
sometimes cause side collision between passing vehicles when swerved within or out of their
lanes. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes.
Road shoulder or verge - is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of the
traffic lane and the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope.
Importance of Road Shoulder
1. Serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled or for some other purposes.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity increases if the shoulder is too
narrow or omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the roadway. It also adds structural
strength to the road pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It reduces accident potential
when vehicle stop during emergencies.
Most of the road shoulders in rural areas are unpaved having a width of 60 to 120
centimeters wide either earth filled or graveled surface that during rainy days, drivers are
hesitant to occupy.
The Uniform Traffic Control Device Manual provides that:
"All inter-town or city highways shall be provided with edge line and may be used on other
classes of roads.”
Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:
1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide if truck volume is
more than 250 in the design hour (ADT).
2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is 1.20 to 2.40 meters with at least 1.20
meters paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60
meters if truck volume in the design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.20 meters
minimum, although 2.40 meters wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum shoulder width is 2.40
meters although 3.60 meters is recommended.
6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless needed for
proposed drainage.
7. The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90 centimeters as
minimum.
8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width his recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 centimeters wide graded shoulder is required for ADT's
less than 400.
10. For ADT's over 2000, 2.40 meters wide shoulder is recommended.
Width - is defined as "extending from the edge of the surfacing to the point where shoulder
slope intersect the side slope."
Urban collector road - usually has no shoulder, instead, parking lanes of 2.40 meters or
preferably 3.00 meters wide with gutters are specified.
Cross slope - is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway.
For high type pavement, the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. However, steeper
slopes are strongly recommended because rain water, flow away more rapidly reducing the
water thickness on the road pavement. A cross slope in one direction of multi-lane highways
makes driving comfortable, but with heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the roadway.
The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3% to 6% although 4% is the most common.
For a gravel shoulder, 4% to 6% slope is satisfactory and 7% slope is effective drainage for
turf (grass) surfaces.
On a very wide street, the parabolic crown surface makes the centerline almost flat unless
gutters are sufficiently deep enough to convey water. A combination of uniform slope with
parabolic curve is used instead of the parabolic sections.
Cut or Fill Slope
Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratios.
Meaning, the first number represents the horizontal distance while the second
number is the vertical distance.
Slope of cuts - through an ordinary undisturbed earthfill remain in place with a ratio of 1:1
slope.
Rock cuts - could be as steep as 1:2 and sometimes 1:4 proven to be stable.
Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope
1. With back slope of 3:1 or even flatter, cars could be directed to back into the road and will
come to stop or continue down the slope with no risk of over turning.
2. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full extent giving the roadway safer
appearance.
3. With visible slope for being low and flat, vehicles could be positioned or parked closer to the
edge, and on two lanè roadway facilities parking would be farther from the opposing traffic.
Recommended Policy on Geometric Design
1. The 6:1 slope ratio could be adopted on embankment less than 1.20 meters high, and 4:1
ratio on a higher fill.
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or special kind of soil.
FIGURE 2-16 ROCK CUT RATIO FROM 1:2 OR 1:4
When the side slope requires embankment with suitable retaining wal l, any of the
following materials could be used depending upon the natural conditions.
1. Hand placed stones.
2. Cement rubbles masonry.
3. Concrete blocks.
4. Conventional reinforced concrete.
5. Tor counter forted designs.
6. Cribs assembled from timber.
7. Precast concrete.
8. Metal elements.
9. Tied back piling.
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands.
Number of Lanes
AASHTO policies accept a dually divided 16 lanes roadway four lanes in each direction for
an inner freeway and four more lanes in each direction on the outside.
Highway Median
Median in various forms - becomes absolute requirement for highways because, it offers
the following advantages:
1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, conflicts, and accident between
opposing streams of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic stream of cross traffic, and
pedestrian could traverse each stream at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides available space for left turn lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.
5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is highly recommended. For rural sections of
freeway, the 18 to 27 meters wide median is being adopted.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that; 3.00 to 9.00 meters median width is
appropriate in suburban or mountainous situations.
7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median or wider is preferred because it allows
the use of independent profiles and at the same time minimizes cross over accident.
8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to cross each roadway separately. A 4.20 to
6.60 meters median width provides protection for turning vehicles.
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as partition - separation of opposite
traffic control devices.
10. The width of a traversable median should be wide enough to prevent vehicles running
out of control from reaching the opposite traffic.
11. The 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges is favored, but specific value is not-
stipulated.
12. Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1 but preferably 10:1.
13. Dense planting of rose hedges serves as safety crash barriers.
For Narrow Median, there are four means of reducing cross median accidents.
1. Provide deterring devices.
2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers.
3. Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
4. Provide G.M. barriers.
Deterring Devices - Two sets of double strip painted on the existing pavement, raised
diagonal bars, low curbing and shallow ditches.
Non-Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices
 The line chain link fence 1 meter high supported by steel post augmented by cables at the
bottom and midpoint.
 Non-traversable rigid barriers are metal guard rail.
G.M. Barriers
 high non-mountain sloped face concrete barriers called New Jersey.
 It is cast or extruded in place or pre cast in section and set in position by crane.
Grade line - is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure now the
centerline of the highway rises and fall.
The grade line appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a series of straight
lines connected by parabolic vertical curves to which straight grades are tangent.
In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following:
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting sight distances in relation to
grade line, economy is one main consideration.
 2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be considered balanced excavation
against embankments to get the minimum overall cost.
3. In flat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently
above the ground for drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by the expected level of
water flood.
Vertical Curve Over Crest
All vertical curves should not be shorter than the established minimum over crests. This
is governed by the sight distance requirements but sometimes a case of riding, may demand
longer curves than the sight distance.
Some designers prefer no vertical curve to be shorter than300 meters. AASHTO suggested
that the minimum curve length varies with the design speed in meters distance equals to 8
times the velocity in kilometers per hour.
The vertical distance from the intersection of the straight grade line to the curve is equal to
one eight of the product of the algebraic difference in grades and the length of the curve in
stations. This is called the maximum correction. The rate at which the curve departs vertically
from both tangent grade line is proportional to the square of the horizontal distance from the
end of the curve.
The correction at any intermediate point is obtained by:
1. Multiplying the maximum correction by the square of the horizontal distance
between the near end of the curve and the point.
2. Divide this product by the square of one half the length of the curve.
Right of Way
Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly. Based on experience from the past,
highway agency now consider it a good practice to acquire right of way wide enough to
sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development.
A successful freeway and expressway operations, closes the roadway from direct access
to adjoining property and some local roads or streets. If local traffic and land use are to be
opened, it must be served by service roads originally planned as part of the main freeway.
Frontage road shall be permitted to enter connecting cross streets only at a distance of at least
100 meters for rural road and 50 meters for urban conditions.
Stopping Sight Distance - is defined as the longest distance that a driver could see the top of
an object 15 centimeters (6") above the road surface where the design height of the driver's
eye above the pavement is 105 centimeters.
Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements
1. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object is seen and before the driver
applies the brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies brakes for the vehicle to
stop.
The above formula assumes that the highway level is flat. If the car is traveling uphill, the
braking distance is decreased, and for downhill, braking distance is increased.
The passing sight distance
 is the longest distance that a driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where the
drivers eye level is 1.05 meters above the pavement surface.
 The design of two lane highway of passing over crests is generally practical only on flat
grades because the longer vertical curves are required to provide passing sight than
stopping sight distance.
 The maximum coefficient of side friction on dry pavement as determined by curve tests
ranges between 0.4 and 0.5 value kilometers with normal pavement and smooth tires is
kilometers per hour.
Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change from flat to sharp curve and long
tangents followed by sharp curve should be avoided because it will only create hazard and
invite accident.
Circular Curves
A vehicle traveling in a curved road is subject to centrifugal force. This force is balanced by
equal and opposite forces developed through the super elevation and side frictions.
Sharpness – expressed in terms of the curve degrees, and the degrees of curve is inversely
proportional with the radius.
Degree of Curve – expressed either by the Arc definitions or the Chord definitions
Arc Definitions – the degree of curve is the central angle subtended by a 30 meters arc of the
curve.
Chord Definitions – the degree of curve is the central angle subtended by 50 meters chord.
The maximum allowed super elevation rate before was 0.12 but now it is 0.10 except on low
volume gravel roads.
The Policy on Geometric Design recommended that:
1. For design speed of 50 kilometers per hour, the normal cross slope is 1 degree – 21
mins or even flatter curves.
2. For a 120 kilometers per hour design speed road, the normal cross slope is 0 degree
– 15 mins or flatter curves without super elevation.
In each of this solution, the total side friction is less than 0.04 for an adverse cross slope of
0.02.
Super Elevation – Runoff
1. It is done by raising-up the outside edge of the pavement with relation to the centerline
until the outer half of the cross section is flat.
2. Then, the outer edge is raised until the cross section is straight.
3. Finally, the entire cross section is rotated as a whole until full super elevation is
reached.
It is recommended that 60% to 80% of the runoff be on tangent.
For a wider roadway, the length given on Table 2-9 should be increased as follows:
1. Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%
2. Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%
Widening of Curves
A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp curve for two lanes pavement under the
following reasons:
1. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavement edge.
2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-tracking of front and rear
wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the front wheel to the roadway
centerline.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional width of 30 centimeters is necessary on
an open curve highway.
AASHTO recommends that the radius of the flatter curve for rural highways should never
be more than 50% greater than that of the sharper one.
For urban intersection, this easement curve is considered which introduces the changes in
radius gradually. Super elevation changes along this transition section.
Island – defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movement and for pedestrian
refuge.
Channelized Intersections – on at-grade intersection in which traffic is directed into definite
paths by island.
Island is considered in the design of intersections for the following purposes:
1. Separation of vehicular flows
2. Separation of conflicts
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas
4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of intersections
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement
6. Location of traffic control devices
A right angle at 75 degrees to 105 degrees is most favorable giving the driver that opportunity
to assess or calculate the position and speed of oncoming vehicles. By channelization,
funneling is also effective in preventing overtaking and passing in conflict areas.
A well- studied super elevation is an important adjunct to channelization that regulates the
vehicle speed and:
1. Prohibited turns are prevented
2. Refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrian.
3. By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and
pedestrians
4. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time, hence, conflicts can be avoided.
5. It provides location for the traffic control devices like signs, signals, and refuge for
pedestrians.
Types of Interchange
The types and forms of freewayinterchange requires selection of the conformation that
is best suited to a particular situation and demand
Functions of Freeway Interchanges are:
1. To provide separation between two or more traffic arteries.
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to the other or between local
roadway and the freeway.
Diamond type
 simplest and low cost form of interchange
 Recommended where the freeway crosses non free way arterial.
Cloverleaf type interchange – recommended for freeway and arterial intersections.
Objectives to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design
1. It requires large area of land.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just to transverse the linger loops.
3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270 degrees right turn and travel greater distance
becoming very unpleasant and hazardous due to the sharp curves and steep grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave those entering the adjacent
loop from the through roadway.
Highway Intersection at grade
Intersection area
 considered part of every connecting roads.
 In this area all crossing and turning movement occur
Freeway Entrance and exit
In situation where one lane could not meet the traffic demand, two lane exits is
necessary. An auxiliary lane must be added to the freeway at least 800 meters before the point
of exit.
 3. By the Unit Hydrograpgh
Railroad – Highway Separation 4. By Statistical Approach
5. By Simulation
 If the highway is to go over the railroad – the structure itself is lighter and the
highway load is much smaller than the railroad loads. Relationship and Effect of Hydraulic and Construction
 Vertical clearance height : railroad – min.7 meters as against 4.80 meters clear
distance above the highway 1. Highway construction disrupts existing natural drainage pattern.
 If the highway goes under the railroad, special provision is required for the removal 2. Construction operation may disturb the ground cover, and loosen the soil creating
of rainwater that falls within the opposing area. muddy stream as a result of erosion.
3. Erosion create debris that are carried downstream, and deposited at points where the
Bicycle Lane velocity slackens.
 Design speed – 20 to 30 km/hr for flat section 4. Any changes in the land use may alter the historical runoff.
 Width – 2.00 meters minimum for a 2-way travel
 Grade of the lane – 5% maximum on short distances Cardinal Rules on Drainage Design

CHAPTER 6: DRAINAGE AND SLOPE PROTECTION
Drainage – defined as the means of collecting, transporting and disposing of surface water
originating in or near the right of way, or flowing in stream crossings or bordering the
right of way.
25% of roadway funds – spends for culverts, bridges and other drainage structures
Surface Drainage problems follow three basic considerations:
1. Hydraulic Design – deals with estimating the highest rate of run-off to be handled.
2. Hydraulic Design – deals with the selection of the kinds and sizes of the drainage
facilities that is most economical to accommodate the estimated water flow.
3. Erosion Control – to ascertain the design will not create erosion or other
unacceptable environmental conditions
Hydrology – the branch of physical geography that deals with water of the earth.
The branch of hydrology that concern highway engineers are:
1. The frequency and intensity of precipitation
2. The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest runoff which are equal or
exceeded critical values.
3. The distribution of precipitation throughout the seasons that influences water behavior
affecting the highway surfaces
4. The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off
Runoff is predicted Based on the Following Methods:
1. By the Rational methods
2. By the Empirical Formula
1. As much as possible, any existing drainage system patterns and soil cover should not
be disturbed.
2. Necessary changes in the drainage patterns should not in any manner bring velocities
that may create new erosion problems.
Economy –(in drainage system) finding the solution to a problem that is cheapest in the long
run under the ff conditions:
1. Determine the estimated initial investment cost.
2. Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
3. Consider anticipated loss and drainage for each solution.
6.4-6.5
Channel
The purpose in designing a channel it to determine the cross section of the canal that will
accommodate water flow smoothly and cheapest to construct and maintain.
The conditions to various channel problems rest on the following distinctions:
a.) Sub-critical flow – water flowing down a mild slope in an open channel
b.) Super-critical flow – water flowing on steep slope
Sub-critical flow – exists when depth is less than the critical level.
Super-critical flow – exists when the depth is one half the average depth.
Critical depth – occurs when the velocity head is one half the average depth
Average Depth or Mean Depth – cross-sectional area of the flow divided by its width at the
liquid surface.
Culvert – loaded vertically by the wheel load of vehicles, the earth fill covering the culvert and Materials should conform with the requirements specified as follows:
the horizontal passive or active earth pressure.
1. Zinc coated (galvanized) corrugated iron or steel for culverts and underdrain
(AASHTO M-36)
2. Extra strength and standard strength clay pipe and perforated clay pipe (AASHTO M-
The magnitude of these loads are uncertain as they are influenced by: 165)
3. Porous Concrete (AASHTO M-176)
a. Depth of the cover 4. Perforated Concrete ( AASHTO M-175)
b. Nature and density of the overlapping and adjacent soils’ 5. Bituminous fiber non-pressure sewer drain and under drainage pipe system (AASHTO
c. Trench width and depth M-177)
d. Deformation of the pipe under load 6. Asbestos cement perforated underdrain pipes (AASHTO M-189)
e. Field construction procedures
Granular Backfill filter materials – AASHTO M-6 specifications
Under Item 500 of the DPWH – construction of pipe culverts 6-10 The Legal Aspect of Drainage
Highway agency – legally responsible for any damage to private property affected by the
Conduits – laid on bedding or footing changes it makes in natural drainage pattern.
6-11 Roadway Design and Construction for Unusual Soil Conditions
Conduit Bedding Classification Problems encountered in the design and construction of roadways:

 Class A bedding – consists of a continuous concrete cradle conforming with the plan 1. The stability of fill and sand slope
details 2. The drainage
 Class B bedding – extended to a depth not less than 30% of the vertical outside 3. Capillarity and frost heave
4. Permafrost
diameter of the conduit pipe.
5. Elasticity and rutting
 Class C bedding – should be extended to a depth not less than 10% of its total
height.
Capillarity – the tendency of water to seek its own level as if in an open channel flows through
the pores and fine channels of the soil.
Rigid conduit pipes – the bell and spigot type, tongue and groove, or other types that may be
Capillarity action – most common in permeable materials
specified.
Capillarity flow – less common in impermeable materials
Joining the Conduit Pipes Elasticity – common in soils whose fines consist mainly of flat and flaky particles.
Joints are connected by:
6-12 Stabilizing the Unsupported Slope
A.) Portland cement mortar or grout Slope failure or landslide – significant movement of an existing earth slope
B.) Rubber gaskets
C.) Oakum and mortar or joint compound Physical changes:
D.) Plastic sealing compound
E.) A combination of these types or any other as many be specified. a. Changes in natural conditions
b. Changes induced by man
Joint mortar for concrete pipes – 1 part by volume of Portland cement and 2 parts of
approved sand with water Changes in natural conditions may be the result from:
Backfilling – follows after the laying installation of conduit pipes
1. Occurrence of earthquake
Underdrain – categorized under Item 501 of DPWH 2. Subsidence of underground cavern
Pipe – used to carry away collected water. 3. Erosion
4. Slope weakening due to the development of cracks
5. Variations in the elevation of ground water
 6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams - Includes furnishing and placing of riprap with or without grout

Changes Induced by Man Class of Stone for Ripraping

1. Increased loading on a slope or near its crest Class A – Stone ranging from 15 to 25 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than
2. Removal of earth below the toe of a slope
20 kilograms
3. Removal of materials from slope making it steeper
4. Topographic modification Class B – Stone ranging from 30 to 70 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than
5. Landslide or other conditions caused by man 50 kilograms
Class C – Stone ranging from 60 to 100 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than
Slide – refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined and separated from the 80 kilograms
underlying and adjacent earth by plane Class D – Stone ranging from 100 to 200 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more
than 150 kilograms
Seepage plane – represent the continuous surface where the maximum shear strength has
been reached Cement grout – placed starting from the bottom to the top of the surface and then swept with
stiff broom
Slide is classified into four: Masonry stone – categorized under Item 505 of the DPWH
- Consist of stone masonry in minor structures
1. Rotational slide
2. Translational Slide Item 506 Hand Laid Rock Embankment
3. Block or wedge failure
4. Flows and spread
Tem 5-7 Sheet Piles – consists of furnishing, dividing and cutting off the sheet pilling covered
by the specifications:
Rotational slide- associated with natural slopes and constructed embankment of 1. Timber sheet pile - consist of any species that will satisfactorily stand driving
homogeneous materials possessing cohesion 2. Concrete Sheet piles – should conform to the requirements of Item 400 – Piling
Translational Slide – associated with slope of layered materials where the mechanism of 3. Steel Sheet Piles – should be of the type, weight and section modulus indicated on the
slippage occurs along a weak plane plans or special provisions
Block or wedge failure – displacement of an intact mass of soil due to the action of adjacent
zone of earth Item 509 Gabion
Flows and spread failure – most complex type of soil mass movement.
Flow – involves lateral movement of soil having a characteristics of viscous fluid. Gabion – a wire mesh supplied in various width and length
Spread – occurrence of multi- directional lateral movement by a fractured soil mass.
Earthquake – typical causes of lateral spreads Height : 1.2 or 1.3 the horizontal width equal to 100 cm with a tolerance limit of 3%
6-14 Retaining wall Wire mesh – made of galvanized steel or plastic having a minimum size of 3.05 mm diameter
Tensile strength: 423.7-686 Mpa, 60000-85000 psi
A good retaining wall design must conform to the following: For galvanized wire mesh, the minimum zinc coating should be 22.7 grams per 0.0929
cubic meter of uncoated surface in accordance with AASHTO T-65
1. The base and stem of the retaining wall must be capable of resisting the internal shear
and bending moments 6-15 Highway Bridges
2. The wall must be safe against overturning
Two Types:
3. The wall structure must be safe against sliding
4. The bearing capacity of the foundation material supporting the wall must not be
exceeded. 1. Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrians over a large stream
2. Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges and street pedestrians over or
under crossings.
Item 504 Rip rap and Grouted Rip Rap
Hydraulic Problems
 1. There must be available stream record b. T-Beam or box girder reinforced concrete.
2. Analysis of the Channel relationship as to: c. Steel-plate girders with reinforced concrete deck.
a. Peak flow 3. Span that exceeds 90 meters long steel trusses, arches of steel or reinforced
b. Water way opening concrete.
c. Water surface elevation at the structure and upstream and flow velocity
3. The degree of contraction of the flowing water in the channel approach. 4. Span that exceed 150 meters are generally made of steel trusses, cable-sprayed
4. Final structure proportions and required channel modifications based on the studies. or suspension bridge.
5. Effect of bridge opening and approaches that might cause flood to adjacent properties.
6. Economic, legal, and social implications A Standard Vehicle Adopted by AASHTO
7. Where the bridge is to rest on eroding streambed scouring is the primary concern.
8. Latest scours is when the pier has less resistance to flow.
HS 20-40 Designation
A bridge - consists of substructure of abutments and piers that supports superstructure
that carry the roadway between supports.
- is a truck semi-trailer combination having a total weight of 36 tons.
Highway Bridges, Designed to Resist Loads Brought by:

1. Dead Load
2. Live Load
3. Centrifugal forces developed by moving vehicles on curved structure
4. The wind load and stresses brought about by:
a. Temperature change
b. Earth
c. Shrinkage
d. Buoyancy
e. Rib Shortening
f. Erection
g. Current pressure
h. Earthquake
Bridge Types

A. Slab Bridge
B. Girder Bridge
C. Truss Bridge
D. Arch Bridge
E. Cable-stayed Bridge

Selection of the Kind of Bridge to be installed depends on the length of individual span
as follows:

1. Short span up to 18 meters which either:

a. Reinforced concrete rigid frame with slab deck.
b. T-beam or box girders reinforced concrete.
c. Steel-plate girders with reinforced concrete deck.

2. Bridge of large span

a. Girder type rigid frames of reinforced concrete.