ENERGY MANAGEMENT

HANDBOOK
SIXTH EDITION
 EDITORIAL BOARD
EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Wayne C. Turner Steve Doty
School of Industrial Engineering and Management Colorado Springs Utilities
Oklahoma State University Colorado Springs, Colorado
Stillwater, Oklahoma

CONTRIBUTORS
Eric Angevine Jeff Haberl S.A. Parker
School of Architecture Energy Systems Laboratory Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Oklahoma State University Texas A&M University Richland, WA
Stillwater, OK College Station, Texas
David Pratt
Bradley Bracher Michael R. Harrison, Manager Industrial Enginneering and Management
Oklahoma City, OK Engineering & Technical Services Oklahoma State University
Johns-Mansfield Corporation Stillwater, OK
Barney Burroughs Denver, CO
Indoor Air Quality Consultant Wesley M. Rohrer
Alpharetta, GA Russell L. Heiserman Mechanical Engineering
School of Technology University of Pittsburgh
Barney L. Capehart Oklahoma State University Pittsburgh, PA
Industrial Engineering Stillwater, OK
University of Florida Philip S. Schmidt
Gainesville, FL William J. Kennedy, Jr. Department of Mechanical Engineering
Industrial Engineering University of Texas
Clint Christenson Clemson University Austin, TX
Industrial Engineering Clemson, SC
Oklahoma State University R. B. Scollon
Stillwater, OK John M. Kovacik, Retired Manager, Energy Conservation
GE Industrial & Power System Sales Allied Chemical Corporation
David E. Claridge Schenectady, NY Morristown, NJ
Mechanical Engineering Department
Texas A&M University Mingsheng Liu R. D. Smith
College Station, Texas Architectural Engineering Manager, Energy Generation & Feed Stocks
University of Nebraska Allied Chemical Corporation
William E. Cratty Lincoln, NB Morristown, NJ
Ventana Corporation
Bethal, CT Konstantin Lobodovsky Mark B. Spiller
Motor Manager Gainesville Regional Utilities
Charles Culp Penn Valley, CA Gainesville, FL
Energy Systems Laboratory
Texas A&M University Tom Lunneberg Nick Stecky
College Station, Texas CTG Energetics, Inc. NJS Associates, LLC
Irvine, CA
Steve Doty Albert Thumann
Colorado Springs Utilities William Mashburn Association of Energy Engineers
Colorado Springs, CO Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Atlanta, GA
State University
Keith Elder Blacksburg, VA W.D. Turner
Coffman Engineers, Inc. Mechanical Engineering Department
Seattle, WA Javier Mont Texas A&M University
Johnson Controls College Station, Texas
John L. Fetters, CEM, CLEP Chesterfield, MO
Effective Lighting Solutions, Inc. Alfred R. Williams
Columbus, Ohio George Owens Ventana Corporation
Energy and Engineering Solutions Bethel, CT
Carol Freedenthal, CEO Columbia, MD
Jofree Corporation, Larry C. Witte
Houston, TX Les Pace Department of Mechanical Engineering
Lektron Lighting University of Houston
GSA Energy Consultants Tulsa, OK Houston, TX
Arlington, VA
Richard Wakefield Jerald D. Parker, Retired Jorge Wong Kcomt
Lynda White Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering General Electric, Evansville, IN
Jairo Gutiemez Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK Eric Woodroof
Dale A. Gustavson Johnson Controls, Santa Barbara, CA
Consultant
Orange, CA
 ENERGY MANAGEMENT
HANDBOOK
SIXTH EDITION

BY

WAYNE C. TURNER
SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY

AND

STEVE DOTY
COLORADO SPRINGS UTILITIES
COLORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Turner, Wayne C., 1942-

Energy management handbook / by Wayne C. Turner & Steve Doty. -- 6th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 0-88173-542-6 (print) — 0-88173-543-4 (electronic)
1. Power resources--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Energy conservation--
Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Doty, Steve. II. Title.

TJ163.2.T87 2006
658.2'6--dc22
2006041263

Energy management handbook / by Wayne C. Turner & Steve Doty

©2007 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publica-
tion may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc.

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While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and
editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.

iv
 CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
Background .......................................................................................................................... 1
The Value of Energy Management ................................................................................... 2
The Energy Management Profession ............................................................................... 3
Some Suggested Principles of Energy Management ..................................................... 5

2 Effective Energy Management .................................................................................................. 9

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 9
Energy Management Program .......................................................................................... 9
Organizational Structure.................................................................................................. 10
Energy Policy ..................................................................................................................... 13
Planning ............................................................................................................................. 13
Audit Planning .................................................................................................................. 14
Educational Planning ....................................................................................................... 15
Strategic Planning ............................................................................................................. 16
Reporting............................................................................................................................ 16
Ownership ......................................................................................................................... 17
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 17

3 Energy Auditing ........................................................................................................................ 23

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 23
Energy Auditing Services ................................................................................................ 23
Basic Components of an Energy Audit .......................................................................... 23
Specialized Audit Tools .................................................................................................... 33
Industrial Audits ............................................................................................................... 34
Commercial Audits ........................................................................................................... 36
Residential Audits............................................................................................................. 37
Indoor Air Quality ............................................................................................................ 37

4 Economic Analysis .................................................................................................................... 41

Objective ............................................................................................................................. 41
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 41
General Characteristics of Capital Investments ........................................................... 42
Sources of Funds ............................................................................................................... 43
Tax Considerations ........................................................................................................... 44
Time Value of Money Concepts ...................................................................................... 46
Project Measures of Worth ............................................................................................... 54
Economic Analysis ............................................................................................................ 58
Special Problems ............................................................................................................... 64
Summary and Additional Example Applications ........................................................ 69
v
5 Boilers and Fired Systems ....................................................................................................... 87
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 87
Analysis of Boilers and Fired Systems ........................................................................... 87
Key Elements for Maximum Efficiency ......................................................................... 89
Fuel Considerations ........................................................................................................ 116
Direct Contact Technology for Hot Water Production .............................................. 122

6 Steam and Condensate Systems ........................................................................................... 125

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 125
Thermal Properties of Steam ......................................................................................... 126
Estimating Steam Usage and its Value ........................................................................ 133
Steam Traps and Their Application.............................................................................. 139
Condensate Recovery ..................................................................................................... 147

7 Cogeneration ............................................................................................................................ 155

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 155
Cogeneration System Design and Analysis ................................................................ 157
Computer Programs ....................................................................................................... 174
U.S. Cogeneration Legislation: PURPA ....................................................................... 176
Evaluating Cogeneration Opportunities: Case Examples ........................................ 178

8 Waste-Heat Recovery .............................................................................................................. 193

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 193
Waste-Heat Survey ......................................................................................................... 201
Waste-Heat Exchangers.................................................................................................. 207
Commercial Options in Waste-Heat-Recovery Equipment ...................................... 211
Economics of Waste-Heat Recovery ............................................................................. 218

9 Building Envelope................................................................................................................... 221

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 221
Principles of Envelope Analysis ................................................................................... 223
Metal Elements in Envelope Components .................................................................. 225
Roofs ................................................................................................................................. 230
Floors ................................................................................................................................ 233
Fenestration ..................................................................................................................... 234
Infiltration ........................................................................................................................ 237
Summarizing Envelope Performance with the Building Load Coefficient ......... ...239
Thermal “Weight” ........................................................................................................... 240
Envelope Analysis for Existing Buildings ................................................................... 240
Envelope Analysis for New Buildings ......................................................................... 245
Updated Envelope Standards for New and Existing Construction ........................ 245
Additional Reading ........................................................................................................ 246

10 HVAC Systems ......................................................................................................................... 247

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 247
Surveying Existing Conditions ..................................................................................... 247
Human Thermal Comfort .............................................................................................. 248
HVAC System Types ...................................................................................................... 249
Energy Conservation Opportunities ............................................................................ 259
Cooling Equipment ........................................................................................................ 269
Domestic Hot Water ....................................................................................................... 271
Estimating HVAC Energy Consumption .................................................................... 272
vi
11 Electric Energy Management ................................................................................................ 273
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 273
Power Supply .................................................................................................................. 273
Effects of Unbalanced Voltages on the Performance of Motors ............................... 274
Effect of Performance-General ...................................................................................... 274
Motor ................................................................................................................................ 275
Glossary of Frequently Occurring Motor Terms ........................................................ 275
Power Factor .................................................................................................................... 279
Handy Electrical Formulas & Rules of Thumb .......................................................... 281
Electric motor Operating Loads.................................................................................... 281
Determining Electric Motor Operating Loads ............................................................ 282
Power Meter .................................................................................................................... 282
Slip Measurement ........................................................................................................... 282
Amperage Readings ....................................................................................................... 284
Electric Motor Efficiency ................................................................................................ 284
Comparing Motors ......................................................................................................... 286
Sensitivity of Load to Motor RPM ................................................................................ 290
Theoretical Power Consumption .................................................................................. 291
Motor Efficiency Management...................................................................................... 294
Motors Are Like People ................................................................................................. 294
Motor Performance Management Process .................................................................. 294
How to Start MPMP ....................................................................................................... 295
Nameplate Glossary ....................................................................................................... 298

12 Energy Management Control Systems ................................................................................ 315

Energy Management Systems ....................................................................................... 315
Justification of EMCSs .................................................................................................... 321
Systems Integration ........................................................................................................ 326

13 Lighting ..................................................................................................................................... 353

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 353
Lighting Fundamentals .................................................................................................. 353
Process to Improve Lighting Efficiency ....................................................................... 367
Maintenance .................................................................................................................... 368
New Technologies & Products ...................................................................................... 370
Special Considerations ................................................................................................... 379
Daylighting ...................................................................................................................... 383
Common Retrofits ........................................................................................................... 385
Schematics ........................................................................................................................ 390
Glossary ............................................................................................................................ 397

14 Energy Systems Maintenance ........................................................................................... ....401

Developing the Maintenance Program ........................................................................ 401
Detailed Maintenance Procedures ................................................................................ 413
Materials Handling Maintenance ................................................................................ .421
Truck Operation and Maintenance............................................................................... 423
Measuring Instruments .................................................................................................. 426
Saving Energy Dollars in Materials Handling and Storage...................................... 430
Recent Developments ..................................................................................................... 433

15 Industrial Insulation .............................................................................................................. .437

Fundamentals of Thermal Insulation Design Theory ....................................... ........437
vii
 Insulation Materials ....................................................................................................... .439
Insulation Selection........................................................................................................ .443
Insulation Thickness Determination ............................................................................ 448
Insulation Economics ..................................................................................................... 461

16 Use of Alternative Energy ...................................................................................................... 471

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 471
Solar Energy ..................................................................................................................... 471
Wind Energy .................................................................................................................... 484
Refuse-Derived Fuel ...................................................................................................... .489
Fuel Cells .................................................................................................................. ........493

17 Indoor Air Quality .................................................................................................................. 497

Introduction and Background ............................................................................... ........497
What is the Current Situation ....................................................................................... 499
Solutions and Prevention of IAQ Problems ............................................................... .500

18 Electric and Gas Utility Rates for Commercial and Industrial Consumers ................. 507
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 507
Utility Costs .................................................................................................................... .507
Rate Structures ................................................................................................................ 508
Innovative Rate Type ...................................................................................................... 509
Calculation of a Monthly Bill ........................................................................................ 510
Conducting a Load Study .............................................................................................. 513
Effects of Deregulation on Customer Rates ................................................................ 516

19 Thermal Energy Storage ......................................................................................................... 519

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 519
Storage Systems............................................................................................................... 521
Storage Mediums ............................................................................................................ 523
System Capacity .............................................................................................................. 526
Economic Summary........................................................................................................ 532

20 Codes Standards & Legislation ............................................................................................ 539

The Energy Policy Act of 1992 ...................................................................................... 539
State Codes....................................................................................................................... 540
Model Energy Code ........................................................................................................ 541
Federal Energy Efficiency Requirements .................................................................... 541
Indoor Air Quality Standards ....................................................................................... 542
Regulations & Standards Impacting CFCs .................................................................. 543
Regulatory and Legislative Issues Impacting Air Quality ........................................ 544
Regulatory and Legislative Issues Impacting Cogeneration & Power ................... 545
Opportunities in the Spot Market ................................................................................ 546
The Climatic Change Action Plan ................................................................................ 547

21 Natural Gas Purchasing ......................................................................................................... 549

Preface .............................................................................................................................. 549
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 550
Natural Gas as a Fuel ..................................................................................................... 553
Buying Natural Gas ........................................................................................................ 566
New Frontiers for the Gas Industry ............................................................................. 575

viii
22 Control Systems ....................................................................................................................... 577
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 577
Why Automatic Control? ............................................................................................... 577
Why Optimization? ........................................................................................................ 578
Technology Classifications ............................................................................................ 578
Control Modes ................................................................................................................. 580
Input/Output Devices ................................................................................................... 584
Valves and Dampers ....................................................................................................... 586
Instrument Accuracy, Repeatability, and Drift ........................................................... 588
Basic Control Block Diagrams ....................................................................................... 589
Key Fundamentals of Successfully Applied Automataic Controls ......................... 590
Operations and Maintenance ........................................................................................ 592
Expected Life of Control Equipment ........................................................................... 592
Basic Energy-saving Control Applications.................................................................. 594
Advanced Energy-saving Control Applications ........................................................ 594
Facilities Operations Control Applications ................................................................. 594
Control System Application Pitfalls to Avoid ............................................................. 601
Costs and Benefits of Automataic Control .................................................................. 601
Estimating Savings from Applied Automatic Control Systems ............................... 601
Conclusion and Further Study ...................................................................................... 605
Glossary of Terms ........................................................................................................... 616

23 Energy Security and Reliability ........................................................................................... 621

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 621
Risk Analysis Methods ................................................................................................... 624
Countermeasures ............................................................................................................ 630
Economics of Energy Security and Reliability ............................................................ 632
Links to Energy Management ....................................................................................... 633
Impact of Utility Deregulation ...................................................................................... 634

24 Utility Deregulation and Energy System Outsourcing .................................................... 637

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 637
An Historical Perspective of the Electric Power Industry ........................................ 637
The Transmission System and The Federal Regulatory Commission's
(FERC) Role in Promoting Competition in Wholesale Power ........................ 638
Stranded Costs ................................................................................................................ 639
Status of State Electric Industry Restructuring Activity ........................................... 640
Trading Energy—Marketers and Brokers ................................................................... 640
The Impact of Retail Wheeling ..................................................................................... 640
The Ten-Step Program to Successful Utility Deregulation ....................................... 641
Aggregation ..................................................................................................................... 643
In-house vs. Outsourcing Energy Services.................................................................. 643

25 Financing Energy Management Projects ............................................................................ 649

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 649
Financial Arrangements: A Simple Example .............................................................. 649
Financial Arrangements: Details and Terminology ................................................... 652
Applying Financial Arrangements: A Case Study ..................................................... 653
"Pros" & "Cons" of Each Financial Arrangement........................................................ 664
Characteristics that Influence which Financial Arrangement is Best ...................... 665
Incorporating Strategic Issues when Selecting Financial Arrangements ............... 666

ix
 Glossary ............................................................................................................................ 666

26 Commissioning for Energy Management........................................................................... 671

Introduction to Commissioning for Energy Management ....................................... 671
Commissioning Definitions ........................................................................................... 671
The Commissioning Process in Existing Buildings ................................................... 672
Commissioning Measures ............................................................................................. 680
Ensuring Optimum Building Performance ................................................................. 695
Commissioning New Buildings for Energy Management........................................ 702
Additional Information .................................................................................................. 704

27 Measurement and Verification of Energy Savings ............................................................ 707

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 707
Overview of Measurement and Verification Methods .............................................. 711

28 Ground-source Heat Pumps Applied to Commercial Buildings ................................... 755

Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 755
Background ...................................................................................................................... 755
Introduction to Ground-source Heat Pumps .............................................................. 756
About the Technology .................................................................................................... 757
Application ...................................................................................................................... 767
Technology Performance ............................................................................................... 771
Hypothetical Case Studies ............................................................................................. 774
The Technology in Perspective ..................................................................................... 781
Manufacturers ................................................................................................................. 783
For Further Information ................................................................................................. 785

29 Sustainability and High Performance Green Buildings ................................................. 793

Beginnings ....................................................................................................................... 793
Sustainability Gives Rise to the Green Building Movement .................................... 794
Introducing the LEED NC Rating System: A Technical Review .............................. 798
LEED for Existing Building Rating System (LEED-EB) Adopted in 2004 .............. 801
Summary Discussion of Two New LEED Programs ................................................. 804
The LEED Process ........................................................................................................... 805
ASHRAE Guides Developed to Support LEED ......................................................... 808

Appendix I—Thermal Sciences Review ....................................................................................... 815

Appendix II—Conversion Factors and Property Tables ............................................................ 837

Appendix III—Review of Electrical Science ............................................................................... 887

Index .................................................................................................................................................... 901