BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

HISTORY OF BUILDING MATERIALS Building materials:

A. STONE AGE a. Marble

b. Other stones
1. Paleolithic age – Old Stone Age (32,000BC
– 12,000BC) D. MESOPOTAMIAN PERIOD
2. Mesolithic age – Middle Stone Age
Building materials:
(12,000BC – 8,000BC)
3. Neolithic age – New Stone Age (8,000BC – a. In Chaldea – man-made clay, plain & glazed
3,000BC) bricks, bitumen & pitch (for cementing),
calcareous earth (mortar)
Structures during early ages:
b. In Assyria – stone, brick (extensively used),
a. TENT – wooden poles, animal bones as alabaster & limestone (for facing)
framework and leaves to form the tent. c. In Persia – hard & colored limestone, timber
b. HUT – broad leaves intertwined as covering.
* HANGING GARDEN, BABYLON, PALACE OF
Composite building materials were used
SARGON
(clay / wood) reeds padded with clay for
walls. E. ROMAN PERIOD
c. COMMUNAL HOUSES – wooden posts and
lintel to support the ridge pole and rafters, Building materials:
thatch for the roof, walls were made of a. Concrete
various materials such as clay, wattle, daub, b. Stones
tree bark & thatch.
d. STONE STRUCTURES F. EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD
i. Dolmen
Building materials:
ii. Cromlech – circular arrangement of
megaliths enclosing a dolmen or - From the remains of the Roman structures adapted
burial mound Roman styles.
iii. Granaries
iv. Temples G. GOTHIC PERIOD

* STONEHENGE – most imposing megalith Building materials:

monument in existence; known in the 12th century as a. Limestone
Dance of the Giants; known today as Sarcen Circle. b. Marble
B. EGYPTIAN PERIOD H. RENAISSANCE PERIOD
Building Materials: I. MODERN PERIOD
a. Natural products – timber, stone, brick, clay Building materials:
b. Masonry materials – limestone, sandstone,
alabaster, basalt, porphyry, granite a. Concrete
c. Woods – Acacia (boats) b. Steel
d. Date Palm – roofing c. Glass
e. Sycamore – mummy case
* PYRAMID; SPHINX
DIV 01 – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
C. GREEK PERIOD
2.00 – PRODUCTS

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

1. CONCRETE – composed of Portland 1.00 – EARTHWORKS

cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water
ACRONYMS
and admixture as specified.
a. 21.0 MPa (3000 psi) for column,  AASHTO – American Association of State
beam, slab and footing Highway and Transportation Officials
b. 17.2 MPa (2500 psi) for partitions,  ANSI – American National Standards
bedded slabs, walls & other non- Institute
structural members  ASTM – American Society for Testing
c. 10.5 MPa (1500 psi) for lean Materials
concrete, or as required.  DPWH – Department of Public Works and
*MPa – Megapascal | psi – Pounds per square inch Highways (PH Government)
 USCS – Unified Soil Classification System
2. CEMENT – shall be Portland cement and
conforming to the Standard specifications of DEFINITIONS & STANDARD TESTS
Portland cement (ASTM Designation C-150
 SOIL – sediments or other unconsolidated
latest version). Use only one (1) brand of
accumulation of solid particles produced by
cement.
the physical and chemical disintegration of
3. FINE AGGREGATES – consists of natural
rocks; composed of different horizons:
sand, manufactured sand or combination.
4. COARSE AGGREGATES – consists of
gravel, crushed gravel or rock or
combination. Consists of hard, tough,
durable, clean and uncoated particles.
5. WATER – free from harmful amount of oils,
acids, alkalis, salts and organic materials.
6. ADMIXTURES – subject for approval. Shall
be capable of maintaining the same
composition of and performance throughout
the work.
7. EPOXY BONDING COMPOUND –
DARAWELD C or any approved material
type, grade and class. For bonding new to
old concrete, repair of cracks and bonding
grout.
a. O – Organic materials
3.00 – EXECUTION b. A – Topsoil
c. B – Subsoil
a. Protection and Curing Concrete
d. C – Weathered or decomposed rock
- Should be protected with canvass, straw,
e. R – Solid rock
burlap, sand or other materials to keep
 AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION
moist.
SYSTEM – classifies inorganic soils for
- If can’t be covered, it shall be kept moist
suitability as subgrade materials in terms of
by flushing or sprinkling.
good drainage and bearing capacity.
- All concrete shall be moist cured for a
 AASHTO PARTICLE SIZES:
period of not less than seven (7)
consecutive days. a. Boulders – above 75mm
b. Gravel – 75mm to No.10 sieve
DIV 02 – SITEWORKS (2mm)

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
c. Coarse sand – No.10 to No.40 sieve
(0.42mm)
d. Fine sand – No.40 to No.200 sieve
(0.074mm)
e. Silt-clay particles – passing No.200
sieve
* Sieve - A mesh strainer, also known as sift
f. Atterberg Limits – test performed on
soils passing No.40 sieve as follows:
i. Liquid Limit (LL) – moisture
content at which soil changes
from liquid state to plastic
state
ii. Plastic Limit (PL) – water
content at which a silt or clay
material will just begin to
crumble when rolled in to a
tread.
iii. Plasticity Index (PI) –
defined as the Liquid limit
minus the Plastic Limit; range
of water content which
sediments behave.
FILL MATERIALS
a. FILL MATERIALS – soil, crushed stone and
sand used to raise an existing grade or as
made-deposit; generally used under spread
footings, pavers or concrete slabs on grade.
USCS classification:
 GW, GM, GP – Gravels <50%
retained on No.200 sieve and >50%
of coarse fraction retained on No.40
 SW, SM – Sands with >50% retained
on No.200 sieve and 50% or more of
coarse fraction passes No.40 sieve
b. GRANULAR FILL OR FILTERS – soil
materials conforming to above general fill
requirements and to ASTM C 33, size 67;
with a sand equivalent of not < than 50%;
used to prevent the movement of fine
particles out of soils and other natural
materials through seepage.
c. BORROW FILL – soil materials suitable as
fill or subgrade, selected laboratory-
approved pit-run gravel, disintegrated
granite, sand, shale, cinders or other similar
materials with not more than 35% fraction
passing the No.200 sieve.
d. BASE COURSE MATERIAL – hard durable
fragments of stone and a filler of sand or
other finely divided material matter;
complying with AASHTO Methods T-11 and
T-26 Grading Requirements:
PERCENT WEIGHT
SIEVE DESIGNATION
PASSING
(US Standard Sieve)
Type “B” Base Course
1 – 1/2” 100
1” 85 – 100
No. 4 20 – 45
No. 200 5 – 12
e. FIELD DENSITY TESTING or SAND CONE
– performed in the field during construction
on soil material that is being placed in a fill
and must provide sufficient level of
compaction to support a structure or
roadway.
Local borrow fill (Escombro) materials:
i. BANDA Y BANDA
ii. LASTILYAS (mortar)
iii. BULIK (for Rip-rap)
RIPRAP (ROCK LINING)
- A constructed layer or facing of stone, placed
to prevent erosion, scouring or sloughing of
a structure or embankment; stone used to
construct such a lining; a special class of
very large aggregate, ranging 50mm (2”) to
1148mm (42”) diameter.
- Resistance of riprap is a function of the
weight, size and shape of the stone; the
geometry of the channel or bank it’s
protecting; and the filter blanket which it is
placed.
GABION SYSTEMS
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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

- Wire enclosed riprap consisting of mats or as polyester or polypropylene; generally

baskets fabricated from wire mesh, filled with used for:
small riprap, and anchored to a slope a. Reinforcement – lends its tensile
- Advantageous when constructing rock lining strength to low load-bearing soil to
in areas inaccessible to trucks or large increase overall design strength and
construction equipment. decrease amount of sub-base and
- Allows to construct steeper channel linings. base course material
b. Separation – placed between
CRITERIA FOR GABION THICKNESS
Min. required
materials to prevent migration of one
Max. velocity
Bank soil type
(ft per sec)
Bank slope Mattress materials in to the other.
Thickness (in) c. Filtration – used to prevent the
Clays, heavy
10 <1:3 9 movement of fine particles from soil
cohesive soil
13-16 <1:2 12 through which seepage occurs.
any >1:2 18+ i. Subsurface drainage –
Silt, fine
sands
10 <1:2 12 employed in subsurface
Shingle with applications; ex: filters around
16 <1:3 9
gravel underdrains or edge drains.
20 <1:2 12 ii. Erosion control – employed
any >1:2 18+
to protect cut slopes or
drainage features; used as
GEOSYNTHESIS conjunction with a stone lining
and serves as a secondary
- Construction materials consists of synthetic function of separation.
components made for use with or within iii. Sediment control –
earth materials. Categorized into the exclusively used for silt fence
following components: applications.
 Geotextiles iv. In-plane drainage /
 Geomembranes transmission – allows liquids
 Geocomposites or gases to be carried or
 Geonets transmitted within its plane.
 Geocells Selected based on hydraulic
designs.

b. GEOMEMBRANES
- Continuous polymeric sheets that are
a. GEOTEXTILES – most common geo-
impermeable; most frequently used for
synthetics, consist of woven or nonwoven
ground applications and pond lining are
fabric made from polymeric materials such
thermoplastic products manufactured
from high-density polyethylene (HDPE)

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). For
membrane roofing applications, ethylene
propylene diene monomer (EPDM) is
frequently used.
- Different types of geomembranes have
different properties: strength, longevity,
resistance to ultraviolet light, thermal
expansion and contraction, chemical
resistance, and ease of installation.
- Membranes are designed not to be
subjected to tensile stresses and treated
gently during installation and use.
- Uses: lining of ponds, lagoons, landfill,
canals, reservoirs, roads and
waterproofing of structures.
c. GEOCOMPOSITES
- A combination of geosynthetic
components, usually sheet or edge
drains consisting of a prefabricated core
to which geotextile filter is bonded.
d. GEONETS – consists of continuous
extrusion of polymeric ribs, forming void
spaces through which provide in-plane flow
capacity; available with or without bonded
geotextile filters.
- Composite drainage nets – geonets with
bonded geotextile filters.
e. GEOCELLS
- Three dimensional prefabricated
polymeric systems ranging from 100mm
– 200mm high.
- Collapsed for delivery to the site, spread
open and filled to form three-dimensional
reinforced mattress upon arrival at site.
- Originally developed to rapidly stabilize
soft subgrades for mobilization of large
equipment; now frequently used for
protection and stabilization of steep slope
surfaces and protective linings for
channels.
SLOPE – EROSION PROTECTION MATERIALS
- Used for both temporary and permanent
erosion protection. Temporary materials
consist of open mesh polymeric systems,
biodegradable mesh system or a
combination of polymeric and
biodegradable mesh.
2.00 – TERMITE & BUKBOK PROOFING
TERMITE PROOFING
Two types:
a. PHYSICAL BARRIERS – prevents termites
from accessing wood in homes. Variety of
methods:
- Termite Resistant Sand – a layer of
sand with uniform size particles,
prevents termite moving through it or
its use of “tunnel” construction. More
effective than chemical barrier. It
contributes to the waterproofing of
basement foundations.
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 Basement and crawl spaces –

trenches are dug around the
foundation, termiticide
applied and the trench filled
back in. Chemicals may also
- Termite mesh – steel mesh that is be injected in to the soil in the
fine enough to keep even tiny termite crawl space/basement and
from passing through. It is used in around the foundation.
slab construction, also used to wrap c. Bait system – continuously attract termite
pipe and other access areas. Ideal workers to forage on a slow-acting insect-
mesh: 1.0 to 3.0mm growth regulator (IGR) called hexaflumuron
- Home construction – physically to eliminate the entire workers population
separate the home from the distance and the entire colony. Employs baits and
termites can travel their colony. monitoring devices installed where evidence
b. CHEMICAL BARRIERS – establish a of infestation is found.
continuous termiticide barrier between soil
access routes and the structure, either killing
or repelling subterranean termites that 3.00 – ROADS AND PARKING
attempts to reach the structure. Termiticide
is a type of chemical used to control termite. Roads and parking design requirements for
- Pre-construction chemical barriers – horizontal structures.
almost always applied during SUBGRADE AND BASE COURSE MATERIALS
construction to the soil and
foundation; or use of termite resistant
building products from drywall to floor
joists treated with borates before use
in construction.
- Vertical barriers – applied by rodding
or trenching around the base of
foundations, plumbing, utility
entrances, expansion joints and
where two slabs will join, applying 4
gallons of termiticide per 10 linear
feet; also include hollow block voids
of foundations. a. BORROW MATERIAL
- Horizontal barriers – applying of 1 b. BASE COURSE MATERIAL
gallon of termiticide per 10 square c. CHOKER AGGREGATE – a filter layer of
feet, usually by coarse spray at low finer material laid over a coarse road base
pressure. All termite treatments to material in order to provide a stable
slab construction should include foundation of fine aggregate for the
horizontal barriers, relatively easy to construction of a pavement.
apply.
 Slab treatment – drilling SURFACE PAVING MATERIALS
through the slab floor and
a. CONCRETE
injecting termiticides into the
b. BITUMINOUS SURFACING
soil at regular intervals.

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- Hot mix asphalt or Asphaltic concrete
– a dark brown to black cementitious
material, solid or semi-solid,
composed of bitumens which occur in
nature but are obtained artificially in
refining petroleum and which when
mixed with graded aggregates is
used as paving material by placing,
shaping and compacting while hot
over a prepared base.
- Cold mix asphalt or Asphaltic
concrete – prepared with a relatively
light and slow-curing asphalt, placed
over a prepared surface without heat;
hardens to a state that is less firm and
durable than hot-mix.
- Asphaltic Macadam – formed by
grading and compacting layers of
crushed stone or gravel, then bin ding
the top layer with asphalt to stabilize
the stone, provided by a smoother
surface and seal against water
penetration.
- Asphalt Overlay – when one or more
courses or layers of asphalt, an
asphalt levelling course made of and
asphalt and aggregate mixture of
variable thickness to correct the
contour of existing surface, place on
existing pavement.
DIV 03 – CONCRETE
1.00 – CEMENTING MATERIALS
LIME
One of the oldest manufactured building materials
used as a mortar and plaster by early civilizations.
Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters,
and the Romans developed first real cement in the
mixture of lime putty and volcanic ash.
The great murals and frescoes of Michelangelo,
Raphael and the other great artists of the
Renaissance were made with lime plaster.
a. LIME – the calcination of limestone
(carbonates of calcium and magnesium),
limestone is first crushed, ground, and then
heated (2000°F) in horizontal rotary kilns.
The carbonates decompose in to carbon
dioxide resulting in Calcium oxide (CaO)
called QUICKLIME, which possesses a great
affinity for water, readily combining with 30%
of its weight.
b. SLAKING OR HYDRATION – process of
mixing quicklime with water during which
water is absorbed and heat is energetically
evolved, driving off much of the excess water
in the form of steam.
Before quicklime can be used, it must be slaked or
hydrated. The lime bursts in to pieces and is finally
reduced to powder, becoming calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2), or SLAKED LIME OR HYDRATED
LIME.
Hydrated lime, ready to use, is obtainable in the
following types:
a. MASON’S HYDRATED LIME
b. NORMAL FINISHING HYDRATED LIME –
to develop necessary plasticity, it must first
be made into putty by the addition of water
and soaked from 12 – 15 hours before using.
c. SPECIAL FINISHING HYDRATED LIME –
may be used 1/2 hour after being made in to
a putty, as the plasticity will develop within
this time.
Hydrated lime mixed with water to make lime putty,
is used as an ingredient of hard-finish coat for
gypsum and Keene’s cement and for two and three
coat Portland cement plasters to:
- Increase its workability
- Decrease its permeability to water
- Reduce cracking due to shrinkage
Hydrated limes are marked in 50-lb bags; quicklime
is sold 80-lb, multi-walled bags, steel drums and in
bulk.
HYDRAULIC LIME is the type of lime that set under
water. Is in dry form and treated similarly to hydrated
lime. Used only where slow underwater setting is
required, but its use has been replaced by Portland
cement.
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GYPSUM PORTLAND CEMENT is obtained by finely

pulverizing clinker produced by calcining a
Gypsum, like lime, was used as a plaster by the
proportioned mixture of argillaceous (silica, alumina)
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. “Plaster” from the
and calcareous (lime) materials with iron oxide and
Greek word for both the raw material and calcined
small amounts of other ingredients. Gypsum and fly
product. In architectural terminology the words
ash are added in the final grinding process to
“Plaster” and “gypsum” are often used
regulate the setting time of the cement and
interchangeably. Gypsum rock is ground fine and
permeability of the mix, respectively.
heated (calcined) in between 325F - 340F when it
loses about 3/4 of its combined water. The remaining Binding agent of concrete.
product is PLASTER OF PARIS if pure gypsum is
Manufacture of Portland Cement:
used, or HARD WALL PLASTER if 39.5% impurities
are present or added to retard the set and improve Raw material: Calcareous,
the setting qualities. Hard wall plaster is harder than Siliceous and Argillaceous
lime plaster, sets more quickly and thoroughly.
Grinding and mixing in kiln at
If heated to 400F, nearly all of the combined water about 1500C
is drawn off and the time of set is also much
Fusion into balls known as Clinker
retarded, resulting to HARD FINISH PLASTER.
Ex: Keene’s cement – the densest and hardest Cooling and grinding of Clinker
with addition of Gypsum
gypsum that can be applied with a trowel. Because
of its quick setting property, it is always used with Result is Commercial Portland
lime putty to slow the set somewhat. cement

GYPSUM PLASTER is rendered more plastic by the Components of Cement:

addition of hydrated lime. Fiber or hair is also
sometimes added for greater cohesiveness. The PERCENT
CHEMICAL
fiber may be hemp, sisal or jute; the hair is generally BY RESPONSIBILITY
NAME
WEIGHT
cleaned goat or cattle hair.
TRICALCIUM Hardening or early
SILICATE
50% gain of strength
GYPSUM BOARD is commonly used as wall
sheathing for Drywall Partitions and as ceiling DICALCIUM Aging or long-term
boards. SILICATE
25% gain of strength

CEMENT TRICALCIUM Initial setting of

ALUMINATE
12% cement
First developed by the Romans by mixing slaked TETRACALCIUM
lime with pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened ALUMINOFERRITE
8% -
under water, but lost the art with the fall of the
Regulates setting
Roman Empire. GYPSUM 5% time

In 1756, JOHN SMEATON, an Englishman,

rediscovered hydraulic cement but it was not until Types of Portland Cement:
1824 that JOSEPH ASPDIN, an English bricklayer
and mason, invented and patented Portland cement. Type I: Normal / Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Today, the word “cement” generally refers to - Rate of strength development and heat
Portland cement which is the principal type of evolution are medium
cement in use. - For general construction

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Type II: Moderate / Sulphate resisting cement
- Reduced content of tricalcium aluminate,
making it more resistant to sulfates and
causing it to generate less heat of hydration
- Used in general construction where
resistance to moderate sulphate action is
required or when heat build-up can be
damaging, like large piers and heavy
retaining walls.
Type III: High Early Strength / Rapid hardening
Cement
- Increased content of tricalcium silicate,
causing it to cure faster and gain strength
earlier than normal Portland cement
- Used when formwork is to be removed early
or in cold weather construction
Type IV: Low heat: Sulfate resisting
- Reduced content of tricalcium silicate and
increased content of dicalcium silicate, causing
it to generate less heat of hydration
- Used in construction of massive concrete
structures, as gravity dams where build-up of
heat can be damaging.
Type V: Sulfate resisting
- Reduced content of tricalcium aluminate,
lessening the need for gypsum, a sulphate is
normally added to retard its setting time
- Used where resistance to severe sulphate
action is required
WHITE CEMENT (STAINLESS CEMENT) is a type
of Portland cement which has wide application today
because it is free of iron impurities which stain
porous marbles, some granites, limestone and other
light colored stones.
Other types of cement used in Architectural field:
a. ALUMINA CEMENT – utilize bauxite, the ore
from which aluminium is made, as the major
raw material. Called a quick-setting cement
and its advantage is that after setting for 24
hours, it attains a compressive strength
equal to the strength developed in ordinary
cement only at an age of 28 days. The quick
hardening produces considerable heat
advantages in cold weather construction.
* CALDERYS
b. MASONRY CEMENT – prepared mixtures of
Portland cement with hydrated lime,
granulated slag, silica, etc. Small additions of
calcium stereate, petroleum, colloidal clays,
and other add mixtures with the ingredients
and proportions varying widely and usually
patented.
* LAFARGE, CEMEX, HOLCIM, EAGLE, TAIHEIYO
c. NATURAL CEMENT – made of natural raw
materials found mixed in the correct
proportions, needing only grinding and
burning in a kiln to produce a cement. Their
use today has largely been replaced by
Portland cement. Natural cements sets more
rapidly than Portland cement and are slower
in developing strength.
* VICAT
d. POZZOLANIC CEMENT – cement made of
lime mortar and pozzolanic material. Various
natural materials contain active silica, among
them pozzolan (volcanic ash), granulated
slag and pumice. SLAG CEMENT is a
pozzolanic cement.
* TAIHEIYO
Natural and Slag cement are used in unexposed
structures where mass and weight rather than
strength are essential features. In reinforced
concrete work or in structures exposed to the
elements, Portland cement is invariably employed
because of its uniform quality and the high strength
which it rapidly acquires.
Indian Standard (IS) Cements
Ordinary Portland cement – IS: 269 – 1989
(classified as 33, 43 and 53 grade; the grade implies
the strength achieved by the cement mortar after 28
days.
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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Portland Cement, Low Heat – IS: 12600 – 1989
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement – IS: 8041-1978
Portland-Pozzolana Cement – IS: 1489 – 1976
Portland-Slag Cement – IS: 455 – 1976
Storage of cement
 Once delivered on site, properly protect from
injury through contact with dampness; store
in shed with a wood floor raised 12” from the
ground.
 In good condition if soft and silky to the touch.
If it has lumps do not easily break, it has
absorbed a damaging amount of moisture.
 Piles should be limited to 12 stacks in height.
WAREHOUSE SET occurs from the
tendency of cement at bottom layers to
harden due to the pressure above when
cement is stored in high piles for long
periods.
CONCRETE
The proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate and
water, which when properly portioned, is at first a
plastic mass which can be cast or molded into
predetermined size or shape. Upon hydration of the
cement, concrete becomes stone-like in strength,
hardness and durability.
SETTING is the hardening of concrete.
MORTAR, STUCCO OR CEMENT PLASTER is
known when cement is mixed with water and fine
aggregate or less than 6mm (1/4”)
CONCRETE is produced when large aggregate of
more than 6mm (1/4”) in size is added to cement,
water and fine aggregate.
REINFORCED CONCRETE is concrete
strengthened by having steel embedded in it.
PLAIN OR MASS CONCRETE, sometimes LEAN
CONCRETE is called to concrete without
reinforcement.
Qualities of Good Concrete
Concrete should be strong, durable, of uniform
quality and thoroughly sound; qualities required in
both massive and reinforced concrete.
Good quality concrete can be obtained through:
a. Careful selection of materials
b. Correct proportioning
c. Thorough mixing
d. Careful transporting and placing
e. Proper curing or protection of the concrete
after it is placed.
Properties of Concrete:
- Workability
- Cohesiveness
- High Compressive Strength
- Low Tensile Strength
Materials of Concrete
a. CEMENT – cement employed in reinforced-
concrete construction should be high grade
Portland cement and conforming to the
Standard specifications and Test for Portland
cement of the American Society for Testing
Materials. The kind of tests usually made are:
1. Soundness, or constancy of volume,
2. Time of setting,
3. Fineness,
4. Tensile strength (1:3 mix) of standard
sand mortar
SPECS: cement shall be Portland cement,
conforming to the Standard specifications and Test
for Portland cement (ASTM Designation C-150
latest version) for type 1 Portland cement.
b. AGGREGATES – inert mineral fillers used
with cement water in making concrete,
should be particles that are durable, strong,
clean, hard and uncoated; and which are free
from injurious amount of dusts, lumps, soft
and flaky particles, shale, alkali, organic
matter loam or other deleterious substances.
Two types:
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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

1. FINE AGGREGATES – an aggregate clay, perlite, vermiculite, and

smaller than 1/4” in size consists of sawdust.
sand, stone, screenings or other inert For reinforced concrete, coarse
materials of similar characteristics. aggregate should be well graded in
Siliceous quartz sand are the best, size, from 1/4” up to a size which will
though sands from any durable rock readily pass between all reinforcing
are good. A good sand is well graded bars and between wall, etc. and may
from fine to coarse has a minimum of range up to 2” for less highly
voids, and has a relatively coarse reinforced parts of the structures
appearance. A common specification such as footings, thick walls, and
for grading it requires 80 to 95% shall massive work.
pass a No.4 wire cloth sieve and not
Sieve Designation
more than 30% nor less than 10%
shall pass a No. 50 sieve. The shape US % by Passing
Standard
of the particles shall be generally (mm)
Standard, weight size individual
rounded or cubical and reasonably sq. mesh 1-1/2” 3/4” size
free from flat or elongated pieces. 50.00 2” - 100
The use of beach sand or lahar is 37.50 1-1/2” - 90-100
prohibited. 25.00 1” 100 20-55
19.00 3/4” 90-100 0-15
Sieve Designation
9.50 3/8” 20-55 0-5
Cumulated % 4.75 No. 4 0-10 -
US Standard,
Standard (mm) by weight
Square mesh
passing
9.5 3/8 100 c. WATER – water should be from oil, acid,
4.75 No. 4 95-100 alkali, vegetable matter, or other deleterious
2.36 No. 8 - to concrete or steel substances and should
1.18 No. 16 45-80 be reasonably clear and clean. The use of
0.60 No. 30 - sea or brackish water is not allowed.
0.30 No. 50 10-30 The strength of the mixture depends directly
upon the strength of the paste. If there be an
- No. 100 2-10
excess of water the paste becomes thin and
weak and its holding power is reduced.
2. COARSE AGGREGATE – an
aggregate larger than 1/4” in size WATER-CEMENT RATIO (ration of water to
consists of crushed stones, gravel or cement, by weight) the amount of water used
other inert materials of similar per bag of cement, usually varies from 5 to 7
characteristics. Compared with gallons as ordinary conditions. The less
broken stone concrete, gravel water used in mixing, the better the quality of
concrete is usually more fluid and concrete. The ideal mix is one that is plastic
easier to place, though it may have a and workable. Additional workability is
little less crushing strength. Special provided by more fine aggregates and more
aggregates may also be used to water, but more cement must also be added
produce a lightweight, nailable to keep same water-cement ratio.
concrete or to control its thermal
insulating qualities, such as cinders,
blast furnace slag, expanded shale or

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Assumed 28day Max. water o Total of ____ samples

cement ratio Pounds of water i. Prepare steel plate, cylinder mould lightly
compressive
US gallons of per 100 lbs. of
strength water per sack of cement coated with form oil, collect a sample
(lbs. per sq. inch) ii. Fill 1/2 of volume of mould with concrete
Cement 94lbs.
2,000 7.00 62.0 then rod 25 times or vibrate using
2,500 6.50 57.5 vibrating table
3,000 5.75 51.0 iii. Fill to overflowing, and rod 25 times into
3,750 5.00 44.5 top of 1st layer then top up until
overflowing
CONCRETE TEST iv. Level off surface and clean any concrete
from around the base and top of mould
a. SLUMP TEST – used for measuring the v. Cap, tag and put in cool dry place to set
consistency and workability of a concrete for at least 24 hours.
mix. “State of fluidity of the mix”. vi. After removing the cylinder mould,
o Metal cone: 8” Ø bottom, 4” Ø top, 12” concrete sample is soak in water prior to
height sending to laboratory for testing
o Performed at the construction site c. CONCRETE CORE TEST – employed to
every test existing structures by drawing out a core
i. Prepare slump plate, cone dampen with cylinder
water, collect a sample of concrete
ii. Fill 1/3 the volume of cone then rod 25 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
times from outside to middle Brief principles of proper proportioning:
iii. Fill 2/3 the volume and rod 25 times
iv. Fill to overflowing, rod just into top of 2nd a. Cement, water, and aggregates of good
level top up until overflows condition must be used
v. Level off surface and clean any concrete b. The strength of concrete is determined by
from around the base and top of cone water-cement ratio. The strength increases
vi. Lift cone straight up as the ration decreases.
vii. Measure slump c. The consistency of the mix should be
determined by slump test using as dry a mix
Consistency Consistency as practicable.
Structure Slump Slump
MINIMUM MAXIMUM d. The amount of mixed aggregate added is
Reinforced foundation determined by the consistency
2” – 50mm 5” – 125mm e. For economy, grade and combine the fine
walls and footings
Plain footings, and coarse aggregate so that the greatest
caissons, and sub 1” – 25mm 4” – 100mm quality of mixed aggregate may be added to
structure walls the cement and water and yet have a mix of
Slabs, beams, thin
the desired consistency. The mix must be
reinforced walls & 3” – 75mm 6” – 150mm
building columns workable, that is, not be harsh
Pavements and floors
1” – 25mm 3” – 75mm The strength of a workable concrete m ix
laid on ground
Heavy Mass depends upon the water-cement ratio.
3” – 75mm 1” – 75mm
Construction
The economy of the mix depends upon the proper
proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregate
b. COMPRESSIVE TEST – used to test for
concrete compressive strength Methods of proportioning:
o Performed

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

a. Arbitrary options – oldest and most TRANSPORTATION AND PLACING OF

commonly used as convenient and least CONCRETE
scientific method. Not recommended for
The delivery from the mixer to the forms should be
large jobs.
fairly continuous and uninterrupted, not exceeding
b. Water-cement ratio and slump test
30 minutes.
c. Water ratio, slump and fineness module –
same with B but proportion of fine and coarse a. Barrows
aggregates are determined by fineness b. Buggies
modulus method. c. Buckets
d. Cableways
Concrete Proportions:
e. Hoists
CLASS AA Concrete underwater and f. Chutes
retaining walls g. Pipes and bolts
CLASS A Slabs, columns, beams, arches,
stairs, walls of 100mm thk (4”) Concrete should not be allowed to drop freely over
CLASS B Footings, steps, reinforced 5’ of unexposed work and 3’ of exposed work.
concrete slabs on fill, walls more
CONCRETE DEFECTS
than 100mm thk (4”+)
CLASS C Plant boxes and non-critical a. Honeycomb
structures
CLASS D Mass concrete works

REQUIRED
ULTIMATE
MIXTURE RATIO
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH MINIMUM
CLASS AAA 1:1:2 4500 b. Spalling

CLASS AA 1: 1.5 : 3 4000 – 28 MPa

CLASS A 1:2:4 3500 – 24 MPa
CLASS B 1 : 2.5 : 5 3000 – 21 MPa
CLASS C 1:3:6 2500 – 17 MPa
CLASS D 1 : 3.5 : 7 2000 – 14 MPa c. Crazing

Cement: per sack

Water: in gallon per sack
Mixed Aggregate: in cu. ft. (ft3) per sack
Compressive Strength: in pounds per inch (psi)
MIXING OF CONCRETE d. Drying shrinkage
a. MACHINE MIXING e. Setting shrinkage
i. Drum concrete mixer
ii. Trough mixers
iii. Gravity mixers
iv. Pneumatic mixers
b. HAND MIXING

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

CURING OF CONCRETE d. Retard setting

e. Improve wear resistance
Main factors affecting the hardening:
f. Impart water-repellent or water-proofing
a. Age or time qualities (hydrated lime, waterproofing com
b. Temperature pounds, Kaoline, Celite)
c. Moisture  Kaoline - fine usually white clay
formed by the weathering of
7 days: 50% strength aluminous minerals; used in
28 days: 100% strength ceramics and as an absorbent and as
Maintaining moisture of concrete: a filler
 Celite – Tricalcium aluminate; high
a. Covering the concrete with burlap, sand or heat of hydration and has a greater
earth to keep moist. tendency to volume changes
g. Impart color (mineral oxides, Colorcon,
Metalichrome)
 Mineral oxides – pigments recycled
from iron or refined from the earth.
Strong in tinting strength and more
opaque than other colors.
 Colorcon – brand for concrete sealing
b. Sprinkling or spraying of water after
and waterproofing
removing the frameworks
c. Using curing compounds = admixtures 
d. Time removal of concrete forms

FOOTINGS
a. Massive footings a. 1 day (24 hrs)
b. Cantilever footings b. 5 days (120 hrs)
c. Slab footings c. 5 days (120 hrs)
WALLS

ADMIXTURES
Added to concrete mixture for the process of
improving or imparting particular properties, such:
a. Improve workability (hydrated lime)
 Hydrated lime – Calcium hydroxide; a
colorless crystal or white powder and
is obtained when quicklime is mixed,
or slaked with water.
b. Improve durability by entertainment of air
c. Accelerate setting or hardening (calcium
chloride)

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