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Silver Anniversary Paper, Div. 2
Quality Index in Prediction
of Properties of Aluminum
Castings—A Review
S. Jacob
Aluminium Pechiney.
Compiègne, FRANCE
ABSTRACT
The so-called Quality Index was defined in the early seventies
for the 356 and 357 alloy range. We hypothesized that alloy
quality could be expressed by a numerical index, Q, having the
value UTS + k log E. For 356 and 357 alloys, k = 150 and the
Quality Index is given by Q = UTS + 150 log E. For the same
alloys, we also defined the Probable Yield Strength given by E*
= UTS – 60 log E – 13. In the UTS vs. E diagram, these formulae
give two sets of lines materializing two directions, each indepen-
dent from the other.
The Quality Index only depends on the metallurgical quality
of the alloys, such as dendrite arm spacing, porosities, inclu-
sions, silicon morphology, intermetallic compounds, etc. The
Probable Yield Strength depends only on the aging conditions
and magnesium content. The interpretation of tensile test results
of castings made with these alloys is, therefore, highly facili-
tated using this diagram, making easy and reliable for cast parts
any correction to process deviations.
The Quality Index is now widely used in many foundries, but
it has been suffering from lack of physical meaning. Recently,
Cáceres provided a physical basis to this concept, taking into
account the strain-hardening behavior of the material. Using an
analytical model, he has calculated two set of lines that are very
close to the Quality Index chart.
A review of the Quality Index story is proposed in this lecture,
with references to the new approaches giving a physical mean-
ing to this concept.
INTRODUCTION
I should like, first of all, to express my gratitude to the AFS
Aluminum Division for inviting me to present this Silver Anniver-
sary lecture. I feel greatly honored, and very much hope you will find
my paper of some interest.
A Silver Anniversary lecture means, if my understanding is
correct, an update of a paper presented 25 years previously. The 1974
presentation was entitled “Thermal Properties of Permanent Molds
for Gravity-Cast Parts” and was aimed at identifying and assessing
the effects of main parameters on the thermal regime of permanent
molds, with a view to better mold design and higher productivity.
Consideration of parameters including mold/part surface areas and
the ratio of one to the other, and mold/part weights and ratios enabled
predictions to be made as to mold productivity and equilibrium
temperature in the natural-cooling regime, on the basis of which the
key parameters to be controlled in practice could be determined.
AFS Transactions 99-208
In fact, however, the AFS let me choose the topic of my lecture
and I decided to offer you quite a different subject, albeit one
presented at various Congresses at much the same date. This is what
we have called the “Quality Index,” a concept developed with M.
Drouzy and M. Richard, when I was with Centre Technique des
Industries de la Fonderie, CTIF (France’s Casting Industry Techni-
cal Centre).
I do not propose the conventional academic paper, but the story
of the “nucleation” and “growth” of a concept and its further
development by other researchers.
I used the term “prediction” in commencing my paper on the
thermal properties of permanent molds, and I believe the same
concept was the starting point for the development of the Quality
Index.
THE STORY OF THE QUALITY INDEX
Correlation Between UTS, YS and E
The story begins with queries from foundrymen asked by their
customers to furnish the results of tensile tests—ultimate tensile
strength (UTS), yield strength (YS) and elongation (E)—carried out
on separately-cast test pieces or on specimens cut from castings for
the purposes of inspection. At that time, the late ’60s, not every
tensile-testing machine was routinely able to determine YS, and the
diagrams furnished by the machines were so tiny that it was very
difficult to assess a value for YS . The question was therefore: Could
YS be calculated from measured values of UTS and E and, if so, to
what degree of accuracy?
Fortunately, we had at that time a very extensive data base of
mechanical properties measured on separately-cast test pieces. This
was because the major French foundries all contributed to, and
participated in, a quality scheme, established in order to guarantee
their customers minimum standards of quality, as evaluated from
production control and inspection procedures and the metallurgical
quality of castings. Under this scheme, foundries agreed to supply
test pieces cast as part of production control for machining and
further testing by an independent reference laboratory, the CTIF.
Using this data base, it was found that YS values for a variety of
casting alloys could be calculated from UTS and E measurement data
to a level of accuracy sufficient for practical purposes.1
Furthermore, the investigation spotlighted differences between
alloy families:
1. The Al-Cu (T4 temper), Al-Mg (as-cast) and Al-Zn (as-cast)
foundry alloys, for which the correlation between UTS and E
was found to be rather good, and YS would seem to be
characteristic of an alloy in a given temper (Fig. 1). This also
seemed to be true of the Al-Si10 to 13 alloys in the as-cast
condition (Fig. 2).
2. The Al-Si4-to-10Mg alloys in the T6 temper, where the
correlation between UTS and E was found to be very poor,
suggesting that, for these alloys, a causal parameter might
exist (Fig. 2).
Other results, for 204 and 356 alloys2,3 further suggested that the
behavior of an alloy that had undergone a given heat treatment was
precisely described by a unique stress-strain diagram. In the case of
204 alloys, tests were performed on permanent-mold-cast test pieces
variously notched to simulate defects. Results are shown in Fig. 3.
For reductions in cross sectional area of up to 27%, YS was found to
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remain virtually constant. And the stress-strain curves were observed
to overlap closely, forming a single curve for the T4 temper. The
“defects” (here, notch size) were reflected in tensile-test results
moving up along the curve from the lowest value (27% reduction in
area) to the highest (unnotched test piece). Figure 4 exemplifies a
stress-strain curve in the case of A356 T6, for which the same
behavior was observed.
Predicting YS for Al-Si7Mg Alloys
Figure 5 represents the same iso-YS lines as plotted in Fig. 2, but
using different vertical and horizontal scales.4 The equation:
E* = UTS – 60 log E – 13 (1)
Fig. 1. Correlation between YS, UTS and E for Al-Cu, Al-Zn and
Al-Mg casting alloys.
Fig. 2. Correlation between YS, UTS and E for Al-Si4Mg, Al-
Si7Mg and Al-Si10Mg T6, and for Al-Si10Mg and Al-Si13 in
as-cast condition.
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was arrived at via statistical analysis of data obtained for A356 and
357 alloys as previously described. Most of the data refer to normal
T6 treatment, with aging values corresponding to conditions ranging
from underaging to peak aging.
Some of these results, taken from measurements obtained on
clusters of four test pieces, are presented in Fig. 6, which shows
“best” and “worst” results joined by straight lines. These connecting
lines are, statistically, oriented along the iso-YS lines, suggesting
that yield strength within a cluster is substantially constant. Differ-
ences between results arise solely from alloy quality, which can vary
even within a cluster of test pieces reputed to be exactly the same
because cast under identical conditions.
Other results5,6 come from a conventional study of the influence
of aging temperature and time on the mechanical properties of
various A356 and A357 alloys. Results obtained for sandcast A356
Fig. 3. Influence of artificial defects on UTS, YS and E of 204
alloy. Notched test bars with section reduction up to 27%.
Fig. 4. Example of stress/strain curve in the case of A356-T6.
Presence of defects doesn’t change curve for a given thermal
treatment.
AFS Transactions
alloy at different temperatures are plotted against time in Fig. 7, a
UTS vs. E diagram showing iso-YS lines. Starting from the points
representing values after quenching without aging treatment, we
observe that the curves are generally oriented near-perpendicularly
to the YS-lines for conditions of underaging all the way up to peak
aging. Under these conditions, temperature and time affect the
mechanical properties of the alloy to equivalent extents. This is
clearly not the case after peak aging.
Fig. 5. UTS/Elongation diagram of heat-treated A356 alloys
with lines of equal probable YS (iso-YS lines).
Fig. 6. Properties of specimens from selected clusters of A356
and 357. The “best” and the “worst” specimen of the cluster
are connected by segments. These specimens are statistically
oriented along the iso-YS lines. Within a cluster, the YS is
substantially constant.
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Figure 8 is a plot of the same results but for a standard treatment
procedure averaging 160C for 4 hours. The effects of temperature at
4 hours’ treatment time and of time at an aging temperature of 160C
are exactly as noted with regard to Fig. 7.
Figure 9 provides a general idea of how the YS of 356 and 357
alloys is affected by time, temperature and magnesium content. The
(probable) YS value for given values of time, temperature and
magnesium content can be read off from the nomogram.7 Brinell
hardness is also given, this being closely related to YS according to
the equation:
YS = 3 HB – 80 (YS in MPa, hardness in Brinell units) (2)
Also plotted in Fig. 9 are more recent results obtained (in the T5
temper) on thixocastings. It can be seen that an A357-T5 containing
0.5% magnesium behaves in much the same way as an A356 T6 alloy
with 0.25% Mg. A point to note is that the nomogram is also useful
for other alloy/process combinations.8
Fig. 7. Tempering curves for sand-cast A356 alloy at different
temperatures as a function of time. These curves have a
general orientation in underaging conditions.
Fig. 8. Tempering of sand-cast A356 alloy under conditions
similar to those of the standard treatment, 160C (320F), for 4
hours: (a) effect of time at 160C; (b) effect of temperature for a
treatment of 4 hours.
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Definition of Q-Value for an Al-Si7Mg Alloy The UTS vs. E diagram in Fig. 11 shows two sets of lines: one
representing variations in mechanical properties with aging condi-
Additional data leading us to the definition of a “quality index” was
tions ( iso-YS lines), the other variations in mechanical properties in
provided by studies carried out to determine feeding distances for
response to changes in metal quality. These two sets of lines are,
aluminum alloys. As is well known nowadays, feeding distances for
again, quite differently oriented on the UTS vs. E diagram.
these alloys are very considerable, always assuming no break in
feeding due, for example, to hot spots or isolated bosses. But it had
also been shown that feeding distance needed to be matched to the
standard of soundness demanded of the casting. Measurements of
mechanical properties carried out on test pieces representative of
actual castings were, therefore, carried out and enabled feeding
distance to be correlated with the standard of metallurgical quality
specified by a customer or by recognized standards.
We then took the data so obtained for A356 and 357 alloys
(differing only in magnesium content) using tensile test pieces
machined from square-section sand-cast specimens and, for each
dimension investigated, i.e., same ratio of length to thickness of test
piece, plotted connecting lines between values for the two alloys.9 As
can be seen in Fig. 10, values of YS were found to be virtually
constant for any given alloy, and the lines exhibit more or less the
same orientation in the diagram. Moreover, the orientation is, roughly
speaking, the same as for the aging curves in Figs. 7 and 8. The
highest UTS vs. E data points were observed in the case of the test
pieces of smallest cross section (10 mm) with chills, the lowest for the
largest cross sections without chills.
We hypothesized,7 therefore, that alloy quality could be ex-
pressed by a numerical index, Q, having the value UTS + k log E,
where k is the absolute value of the slope of the curve, in this case,
150. For the Al-Si7Mg alloys, the value of Q is given by:
Q = UTS + 150 log E (3)
Fig. 10. Properties of sand-cast bars of different dimensions
in A356 and in 357 alloys. Reference numbers represent
thickness in mm, length:thickness ratio; the letter R stands for
chill.

Fig. 9. Influence of tempering conditions (temperature and

time) as a function of magnesium content on the probable YS Fig. 11. UTS Elongation diagram of heat-treated Al-Si7Mg
and hardness. (for a given temperature, use only the portions alloys with double series of lines of equal Quality Index (iso-Q
of curves corresponding to the graduated part of the time lines) and lines of equal probable YS (iso-YS lines). Q = UTS +
scale.) 150 log E; YS = UTS – 60 log E –13.

814 AFS Transactions

Practical Uses of Quality Index Charts
Now for some practical results, derived from a range of experimental
data, enabling us to examine the Quality Index chart more closely and
use it to obtain a clearer interpretation of variations in alloy proper-
ties.
In Fig. 12 are plotted a number of results yielded by an investiga-
tion of the influence of antimony, strontium and sodium, respec-
tively, on the mechanical properties of A356 alloy.10 It emerges
clearly that the modifier or refiner, in the case of antimony, increases
Q-values in each and every case, whatever the rate of cooling. In the
case of sodium, and because addition of sodium reduces magnesium
content, a correlative decline in YS is also observed. Other data show
the influence of time at solution heat treatment temperature on the
mechanical properties of 357. For times of 1–72 hours, for 5-mm and
11-mm thick plates, quality index increases as a result of silicon
spheroidization. Needless to say, there is no variation in yield
strength.
Figure 13 summarizes some results derived from a study of the
influence of metallurgical parameters on the fatigue limit of 357
alloy.11 These refer to measurements made on specimens taken from
permanent molds and sand-cast plates. Three aging treatments were
investigated, and the results of static tests are represented in Fig. 13
by circles in which are inscribed the fatigue limit for the specimen,
for R = –1 and 107 cycles.
Fatigue limit is shown not to depend on aging treatment, but to be
much more sensitive to metallurgical quality, including dendrite arm
spacing (DAS) and porosity (evaluated by density measurement).
Figure 14 illustrates how variations in magnesium and iron
contents affect the mechanical properties of a sand-cast Al-Si7Mg
alloy. Magnesium affects YS, but not the quality index. The opposite
is true for iron, which affects the quality index but not YS.
Figure 15 shows how the Quality Index chart can greatly facilitate
interpretation of variations in properties in applications, including
inspection or the development of new types of castings.12
Fig. 12. Influence of cooling rate and silicon morphology on
A356 and 357 alloy mechanical properties.
AFS Transactions
Suppose we have to meet certain minimum specifications. Well,
we can define six areas on the chart.
Area 1: Everything is within specification.
Area 2: UTS and E are satisfactory, but not YS. Metal quality is
acceptable. Simply modify aging conditions by increas-
ing time or temperature.
Area 3: Metal quality is satisfactory, but not UTS and E. Modify
aging conditions (i.e., reduce temperature and time), or
lower the magnesium content of the alloy.
Area 4: Metal quality is satisfactory, but heat-treatment condi-
tions are not. Check the furnace and increase time or
temperature, or the magnesium content of the alloy.
Area 5: Metal quality is unacceptable, but the aging treatment
correct. The part or component being cast needs to be
redeveloped by redesign of the casting or by modifying
parameters such as rate of cooling, metal cleanliness and/
or gating and risering.
Area 6: Everything is wrong—metal quality and thermal treat-
ment.
Using Quality Index to
Predict Mechanical Properties
Now to examine how Q-values can be used in assessing property
variations or to predict mechanical properties.
Figure 16 indicates the most probable Q-value for Al-Si7Mg,
depending on the wall thickness of the casting.13 The values shown
refer to test pieces of square cross section, for which it will be seen
that thickness has the major influence on Q-value. Length, i.e.,
feeding distance, for any given thickness is important, but less so than
thickness. The x-axis can be also graduated in plate thickness, a test
bar being equivalent in terms of cooling rate to a half-thickness plate.
Figure 17 is an example of how to use the quality index to evaluate
the efficacy of various kinds and sizes of filters in terms of their effect
on the mechanical properties of A356 T6 alloy.14 We see that filters
in molds (here, in sand molds) increase both average and minimum
Q-values, as well as reducing the spread of results, adding up to
greater reliability of the cast part or component.
Fig. 13. Influence of cooling rate, thermal treatment on static
and dynamic mechanical properties of unmodified 357 alloy.
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 Figure 18 shows how Q-values for Al-Si7Mg castings of various
grades can be estimated by reference to density and the dendritic
index (Average Intercepted Segment), approximately equivalent to
twice the DAS in the case of Al-Si7Mg. Such estimations7 are of
value in inspection and new parts development, since they enable a
rough idea to be obtained of Q-value distribution and, hence, me-
chanical properties in the various regions of a casting. The concept
can readily be applied, and used to generate estimates, with suitably
designed computer-simulation packages.15

Fig. 16. Average Quality Index (Q) of bars in Al-Si7Mg of

different grades, sand-cast and heat-treated, as a function of
thickness (e) and feed length (L/e). The dotted-line curves
correspond to bars cast with an end chill. Q = 778 – 330 log e –
4.0 L/e. Qchill = 804 – 290 log e – 8.6 L/e.

Fig. 14. Influence of magnesium and iron contents on the

mechanical properties of sand-cast Al-Si7Mg alloys. Magnes-
ium causes the YS to vary and doesn’t affect the Quality Index.
The opposite is true for iron.
Fig. 17. Using the Quality Index to characterize filter efficiency
in test bars cast out of 356 alloy.

Fig. 15. Interpretation of tensile test results using the UTS–E Fig. 18. Estimate of Quality Index (Q) of Al-Si7Mg castings of
diagram. Minimum values for 357 alloy: UTS = 280 MPa; Elong various grades as a function of density and dendritic index.
= 4%; YS = 220 MPa. Q = 1830 d – 1.04 Id – 4430.

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Q-Values for Other Alloys The q-value, in fact, corresponds to “relative ductility,” i.e., the
ratio of elongation at break to the strain-hardening term for the alloy.
One or two attempts have been made to evaluate quality indices for
In other words, it is an indication of how far removed a sample is from
other alloys.
the maximum possible ductility. The similarity between the iso-Q
In the case of Al-Cu alloys such as 204 or 206, it was not found and iso-q lines seems to indicate that Q is in fact the relative ductility
possible, under our experimental conditions, to define a Quality of the alloy, and this gives a physical meaning to the concept of the
Index. A sort of loop was observed on the UTS vs. E diagram and no Quality Index. But Cáceres has indicated that it would be wrong to
single value apparently related to metal quality could be arrived at. use q in lieu of Q, as the theoretical curves were obtained using a
single value of 430 MPa for K.
In the case of Al-Si12CuNiMg (piston alloys), test data16 for T5
and T7 treatment pointed in general to a slope of 190, as shown in Q-values have been validated for castings and test pieces ob-
Fig. 19, in which event the Q-value could be formulated: tained under many differing conditions and continue to be a useful
practical tool for the purposes of comparison. Cáceres recommends
Q = UTS + 190 log E (4) that Q and q be used in combination. This would undoubtedly lead to
a better understanding of alloy behavior and enable the Quality Index
concept to be extended to alloy systems other than just the alloys Al-
THEORETICAL WORK BY CACERES Si7Mg.18–21
As regards Al-Si7Mg alloy, the Quality Index has, since the late ’70s,
been widely used by foundrymen, its acceptability deriving from its
simplicity in use and the fact that it works reasonably well in a variety
of situations. It had, however, long lacked a proper theoretical
grounding.
This gap has very recently been bridged by Cáceres,17 who,
applying the principles of fracture mechanics, has shown a set of
lines obtained by theoretical calculations to be consistent with those
previously derived from our experimental data.

Yield strength
Cáceres, using the equation:
P = K sn e–s (5)
obtained a set of curves for differing values of the strain-hardening
term.
In his equation, K is a constant having the value 430 MPa ; n
ranges from 0.08 to 0.2, being low for alloys close to the peak-aging
condition and high for underaged alloys far from that condition ; P
and s are the engineering values for σ and ε on the assumption that
yield strength is constant at any given hardening condition and
ductility alone varies with the presence or absence of defects.
Fig. 19. Quality Index and YS of 339 alloy; stabilization, T5 and
Quality index T7 treatment; tensile tests at 20, 150 and 250C. Q = UTS + 190
log E.
As for the Q-value, Cáceres has looked at relative ductility, arguing
that the highest values of UTS and E attainable in a given alloy
correspond to the onset of necking, that is to say where q = 1. A value
of q of less than unity equates to inferior alloy quality.
P = K ss/q e–s (6)
where K is a constant, q = sf /s* = sf /n and necking occurs at q = 1.
The two sets of curves generated using calculated values of P and
s for differing values of q and n are represented in Fig. 20, from which
it can be seen that our iso-YS lines are actually flow curves for given
aging conditions, and that the iso-Q lines can be identified with the
iso-q lines.
Each YS curve, in fact, represents a stress-strain curve. For q = 1,
which is very close to the break-point, the computer model connects
data points at the onset of necking with YS values. The slopes of these
curves are found not to differ greatly from the value of 150 in the
quality index equation set out earlier. Halving the q-value also seems Fig. 20. Physical meaning of Q-index. Cáceres’ model (solid
also to correspond to a reduction of 50 MPa. lines) and Q/YS chart (dashed lines).

AFS Transactions 817

CONCLUSIONS
I, in fact, have no definite conclusion to offer to a story that is not
yet at an end. A more thorough analysis of the physical significance
of the Quality Index will certainly add to our knowledge of the
mechanical behavior of aluminum. It is very interesting that this
index, developed in France in the ’70s, could be renewed and
reinterpreted in the light of new ideas from Australia, and thereby
improve the insight into the metallurgy of existing casting alloys of
the metallurgical community as a whole, helping to develop new
alloys needed by the foundries and contributing to increasing the
reliability of aluminum castings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is indebted to C. Mascré, M. Drouzy and M. Richard, and
to C. Cáceres for recent fruitful discussions.
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AFS Transactions