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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Earth Materials and Processes

In the earlier module, we learned about the physical structure of the


earth. In this module, we will examine the processes that the various
components of the earth undergo. The materials that comprise the
earth are inherent to the earth’s structure and as elements that facilitate
these processes. Geology, the study of the landscape, includes
variables such as rocks and minerals. Rocks are being formed all
around us, all the time. However, geological timescales are very
different from the timescales of the earth, and can span thousands of
years.

Rocks and Minerals


Rocks are formed from distinct grains that come together. These
distinct grains are called mineral grains, and most rocks are commonly
aggregates of these grains. Igneous rocks form by crystallization and
are usually composed of several kinds of minerals. Sedimentary rocks,
on the other hand, are composed usually of one kind of mineral. This
reflects processes in the rock cycle that favor the mineral’s inclusion.
Thus, the assembly of minerals in rock is not at all random, but the
result of the original rock-forming processes.

Minerals are defined as “a naturally occurring chemical element or


compound, possessing a definite crystalline structure based on an
ordered in ternal arrangement of constituent atoms, and with a
chemical composition that may be expressed in terms of a unique
chemical formula.”

More than 2000 types of minerals are now known, and new ones are
being discovered on a daily basis. These minerals are classified
according to chemical composition and atomic structure. However, the
majority of rocks are formed from one or more of a small group of
minerals, just comprising over a dozen.

Silicate minerals has a structure based on the silicate unit, which can
be represented as part of a tetrahedral building block. Six major groups
of silicate minerals have been identified, based on the way that the
silicate units are joined together. Minerals make up rocks, and silicates
crystallize in order to form rocks. When tabulating the composition of
minerals and rocks, it is common to denote the elements as oxides,
although these elements should not be taken to mean as oxides in the
chemical sense.

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Each rock is made up of one or more silicate minerals. Each


rock, in addition to this, is made up of a distinctive mineral
composition. For instance, peridotites contain olivine and
pyroxene. In contrast to this, olivine is never found in granites.
The main factor that determines whether a mineral is present
after the cooling process is the crystallization temperature.
Each mineral is characterized by a different crystallization
temperature. It is now prudent to discuss the different types of
rocks that are found on the earth.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are the starting points in the rock cycle. That is, the
materials that make up the other two types of rocks, the sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks, are derived from a source that is igneous.
Igneous rocks are found on the earth’s mantle. It can be said that 70%
of the earth’s mass and 80% of the earth’s volume consists of mantle
rocks. Igneous rocks are derived from the convection in the earth’s
mantle, and the source of heat energy for this convection is found in
the radioactive isotopes of potassium, uranium, and thorium. The types
of rocks that contribute to the amount of energy in terms of heat
energy per unit mass are granites. Peridotites do not contribut much
heat. Therefore, the former makes up much of the crustal rocks. The
internal heat of the earth may have come from the radioactive decay of
potassium.

One obvious consequence of the heat in the earth’s interior is the


presence of volcanoes on the earth’s surface. Volcanic rocks are
products of volacanoes and they have three important characteristics:
1) they crystallize in the surface of the earth; 2) they are commonly
fine-grained; and 3) they rest on top of older rocks rather than cut
across them. Volcanic rocks are an example of igneous rocks, which
are formed from an exothermic process. These rocks start out in the
liquid state and then become solid.

Sedimentary Rocks

While igneous rocks are created from the cooling of magma,


sedimentary rocks are classified as secondary rocks because they come
from igneous rocks. They are also secondary because they come from
the aggregation of pebbles and sand that have been compacted over
time to form rocks. In sedimentary rock, there are three types of
grains: coarse, medium, and fine. These grains are classified
depending on the size of the grains.

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Sedimentary rocks are also classified into three types: clastic,


chemical, and organic (or biogenic). Clastic rocks are basic
sedimentary rocks and they have been created from “clasts” which are
little pieces of rocks that have been compacted and cemented to
become larger pieces. On the other hand, chemical rocks form when
water evaporates. In other words, these rocks were created from
chemical precipitation. Lastly, organic rocks are rocks that contain
shell fragments or fossils.

Examples of sedimentary rocks are: sandstone, shale, limestone, and


conglomerate.

In response to environmental differences, the silicate minerals in


igneous rocks undergo changes. These changes lead to their total or
partial breakdown. The process of breaking down is called weathering,
and it is this process that eventually results in the formation of
sedimentary rocks. This is one part of the rock cycle. There are two
types of weathering: physical and chemical. Physical weathering is
also called mechanical disaggregation and chemical weathering is also
known as chemical decomposition. While physical weathering
produces sedimentary rocks like sand, chemical weathering produces
residual minerals. In addition to this, sediments may be transported by
wind, ice, and water.

Metaphormic Rocks

When rocks are subjected to mechanical forces as well as to extreme


physical conditions, such as temperature, they become metamorphic
rocks. This group of rocks include all other types of rocks, namely,
igneous and sedimentary. Metamorphism occurs when the rocks are in
the solid state. The transition between metamorphic rocks and igneous
rocks are marked by the melting point of the rock. Below this melting
temperature, the rock will become metamorphic.

The mechanical deformation of rocks concerns tectonic processes. The


word tectonic means the mechanical processes by which rocks are
build up into complexities. There are two types of metamorphism:
contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism. The latter applies
to large sections of rock while the former applies to small sections of
contact.

Examples of metamorphic rocks are: slate, diamonds

Exogenic and Endogenic Processes

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Rocks that have broken or are weak undergo exogenic processes-


erosion, transportation, and deposition. A fragment of rock broken
(weathered) from a larger mass will be removed from that mass
(eroded), moved (transported), and set down (deposited) in a new
location. The weathering of rocks usually occurs with the aid of
geomorphic agents, such as ice, wind, and snow. Sometimes, however,
the only factor that causes weathering is gravity itself. For instance,
rocks may slide down a slope due to gravity, and this process is known
as mass wasting. The rate of exogenic processes depend on factors
such as the resistance of rocks to erosion and weathering and the
amount of relief and climate.

On the other hand, the endogenic processes also occur, which uses
heat from within the earth. Endogenic processes are also called
hypogene processes. In other words, when a process originates from
within the earth’s crust, it is an endogenous process. These processes
are governed by the forces within the earth and are not very much
affected by external sources. These processes also cause phenomena
such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, metamorphism, and the
formation of ocean troughs and continents. These processes are mostly
caused by the thermal energy of the crust and the mantle. The thermal
energy in the mantle and the crust is derived from the decay of
radioactive material and the gravitational differentiation in the mantle.

Earthquakes are a form of energy of wave motion that is transmitted


through the surface layers of the earth. It ranges from a faint tremor to
a wild motion. Earthquakes are due mostly to the dislocation of rocks
underneath the surface.

Tectonic movements are movements of the tectonic plates. They may


be folded, thrust over one another, or broken up. Tectonic movements
give rise to mountains, oceans, ridges, troughs, and other land forms.
When the process results in building up a surface, it is termed as
distrophism.

Volcanism, on the other hand, is the process by which matter is


transported to the surface of the earth and then erupted. Volcanism is
the process wherein the magmatic materials are effused towards the
surface of the earth through volcanic structures. When the magma does
not reach the surface, they are called intrusives or plutons.

Deformation of the Crust

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Plate tectonics is concerned with the movement of the continents.


Proposed by Wegener, continental drift is the theory that continents
are moving. Continents are moving due to the movemen of tectonic
plates on the earth’s surface, or across the ocean bed.

The evidence supporting continental drift is now extensive. Along the


shores of different continents, similar plant and animal fossils have
been found, suggesting that these continents were once joined
together. One example is the fossil of the Mesosaurus, which was
found in both Brazil and Africa. Another form of evidence is that of
paleomagnetism, which is the process by which the earth’s magnetic
fields move. Based on basaltic rocks, scientists at the time did not
know how to account for paleomagnetism. The magnetic field
orientation of rcoks of the same age did not point to the same pole.
The common magnetic northo pole could only be established if the
continents were once in different positions than they are today. Using
rocks with different ages, they reconstructed the location of the
continents during the past periods in geologic history.

The deformation of the earth’s crust is the result of forces that are
strong enough to move ocean sediments to an elevation that is many
thousands of meters above sea level. The deformation of rock involves
changes in the volume and/or shape of these substances. Changes in
volume and shape occur when strain and stress causes rocks to fold,
buckle, or fracture. A fold is a bend in the rock that is the response to
compressive forces. On the other hand, a fault forms when the internal
stresses in the rock cause fractures. The fault can be defined as
displacement of a rock that was once connected along a fault plane.

History of the Earth


The magnetic field polarity of the earth changes. As a result, the
magnetic field of the eath shows normal and reversed polarity. The
normal polarity is from the south pole to the north pole, while reverse
polarity is from the north pole to the south pole. The polarity changes
are key indicators of seafloor spreading. Seafloor spreading thus
occurs in the ranges of the ocean where volcanic activity gradually
moves away from the ridge. This phenomenon helps explain the
continental drift in the the plate tectonics theory. The divergence of the
ocean plates causes tensional stress, which in turn causes fractures to
occur in the lithosphere. Then, basaltic magma rises up from these
fractures, and then this cools on the floor of the ocean and causes the
formation of new seafloor. New rocks will be found nearer the
spreading zone, while older rocks will be found farther away.

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The oldest rocks in the earth include both the sediments, which are
water-lain, and the ancient oceanic crust. Thus, oceans have been
forming ever since the beginning of the geologic period. From the
present oceans, no oceanic crust is known to be older than 180 Ma.
The evolution of the ocean basin starts from a rift, which then reaches
a maximum size. It then shrinks and then closes completely.

Stages of Ocean Basin Evolution

1. Embryonic

2. Young

3. Mature

4. Declining

5. Terminal

6. Relict scar

Formation of Stratified Rocks and the Geologic Time Scale

The stratification of sedimentary and igneous rocks occurs on the


Earth’s surface. The layers may be from several millimeters to several
meters in thickness. These layers also vary much in shape.
Stratification planes are the names given to the separation between
individual layers of rocks. The stratification of rocks may occur due to
the changes in composition or texture of the rocks during deposition,
or may also result from changes in deposition. Thus, a certain strata of
rocks may appear to be made of both fine and coarse particles. In the
layers that have been deformed, it is possible to make inferences about
the geologic events that permitted these events.

Thus, the history of the earth has been recorded in stratified rocks. The
geologic time scale is the temporal framework that is composed of the
arrangement of stratified rocks. In order to find out the age of the
rocks, and thus the geologic time scale, geologists rely on two
methods: relative and absolute dating. The latter establishes how many
years ago a certain event took place. The most important aspect of
absolute dating is based on the decay of radioactive elements in the
rocks. On the other hand, relative dating is able to place the events in
their proper order, but cannot ascertain the exact number of years ago
when the event took place.

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In order to date the rocks, marker fossils are used. Marker fossils, or
index fossils, are able to indicate the types of organisms that existed in
a certain time period. They serve as guides to the age of the rocks in
which they are preserved. Since the geologic time scale is an important
consideration when dating the earth, it is also important for
understanding the history of the earth. Organisms that only existed for
a certain period and found in rocks can determine the history of the
evolution of organisms on earth. Moreover, the earth’s history in terms
of animal and plant life can be deduced from the history found within
rocks by showing the time period in which they occurred.

Glossary
Basaltic rock: fine-grained, dark-colored igneous rock

Basaltic magma: molten rocks that are rich in magnesium and iron, and lack
silica

Exogenic: coming from outside a system

Endogenic: coming from inside a system

References
Bryson, Bill. (2004). A Short History of Nearly Everything. New York:
Broadway Books.

Tarbuck, E.J. & Lutgens, F.K. (2002). Earth: An Introduction to


Physical Geology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Videos and Resources


Geologic Time

Rock Cycle and Types of Rocks

Origins of Oceans

Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building

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Geodynamics from the Top

Geology

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