STRATEGY FOR

MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

IN THE ISLAMIC COUNTRIES
 CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 5
1. The Importance of Water Resources and Climate Change in Islamic Countries 5
2. The Challenges being faced by Islamic countries as regards water resources 6
3. The Efforts undertaken by the Islamic Organisation as regards water resources 7
4. The Broad lines of the Strategy for the Management of Water Resources in Islamic
Countries 8
4-1. Water Resources Management 8
4-2. Institutional Capacity Building 9
4-3. Research Capacity Building 9
4-4. Importance of Legislation in Water Resources Management 10
4-5. Cooperation : the mainstay of the strategies to be implemented 10
4-6. Importance of sensitization and involving the water beneficiaries in water
resources management 10
Chapter 1 : Legal and Regulatory Frameworks of Water Resources
Management in the Islamic Countries 11
1. Sources of Water Legislation in Islamic Countries 11
1.1. Customs 11
1.2. The Islamic vision of water issues 12
1.3. Positive laws 12
a- The existing state of affairs of Islamic water-related legislation 12
b- The domains targeted by the water legislation 12
2. Common Denominators between Islamic Countries in terms of water legislation 13
3. The Relative Deficiency of the Water Legislation in Islamic Countries 14
4. The international Laws and Regulations for the Utilization and Development
of the Shared Water Resources 15
4-1. Rivers 15
4-2. Catchments 16
4-3. Groundwater 16
4-4. Water transfer from the rivers’ basins 16
5. Agreements and Conventions between Bordering Countries 17
5-1. Agreements and international standards 18
5-2. Settling disputes in friendly ways 18
5-3. Arbitration 18
6. Regulatory Framework of Water Resources in Islamic Countries 19

2
Chapter 2 : Strategy for Water Resources Management –
Potential for Sustainable Development 20
1. Nature of the Strategy for Water Resources Management 20
2. Objectives of the Strategy 21
3. Content of the Strategy 21
4. Quantitative Water Resources Management 22
4-1 Water Resources Assessment 22
4-2 Forecast of Water Needs 23
4-2-1. Drinking water and water used in industry 23
4-2-2. Irrigation Water 23
5. Tools and Methodologies of Quantitative Water Resources Management 25
6. Improvement of Water Efficiency in Irrigation Systems 25
6-1. The existing state of affairs 25
6-2. Programs and measures to be adopted to improve the performance of
irrigation systems 25
7. Protection of dams against silt 25
8. Usage of Non-Conventional Water Resources : (Desalination of Seawater) 26
9. Qualitative Water Resources Management 26
9-1- Qualitative Assessment of Water Resources 26
9-2- Determining the Tools and Methods for Qualitative Water Resources
Management 28
10. Elaboration of Strategies for the Protection of Water Resources 29
10-1. Pollution Monitoring Operations 29
10-2. Identification of Accompanying Measures 32
10-3. Monitoring Water Quality and Data Management 33
10-4. A Programme for Fighting Pollution 33
10-5. Use of Information Technologies for Water Resources Management 33
11. Socio-economic Aspects 34
11-1. Pricing and Recovery of costs 34
11-2. The Elaboration of Water Cost Evaluation Methodology 35

Chapter 3 : Towards an Integrated Water Resources Management in the

Islamic World 36
1. The Legal Field 36
2. The Regulatory Aspect 37
3. Privatisation and Involving Water Users in Water Resources Management 38
4. Sensitization and Social Responsibility in Water Resources Management 40

3
5. Cooperation between Islamic Countries in the Field of Water Resources 41
5-1. Cooperation 42
5-2. Financing 43
5-3. Scientific Research 43
5-4. Technology Transfer 44
5-5 Enhancement of knowledge capabilities in the field of water resources
management 45
5-6. Human Resources Development 45
5-6-1. Formal and Continued Training 45
5-6-2. In-service Training 46
6. Database 46
7. Mechanisms 47
8. Information Network 47

Chapter 4 : Recommendations and Conception of an Action

Programme 48
1. The general problems relating to the assessment, development and
exploitation of water resources 48
1-1. The general problems of water resources 48
1-2. The problem of assessing and developing water resources 49
1-3- Water uses problems 50
2. The broad lines of the proposed solutions within the framework of the
Strategy 50
3. Recommendations 52
3.1- In the field of measuring and assessing water resources 52
3.2- In the field of developing water resources 53
3.3- In the field of managing water resources and rationalizing their exploitation 53
3.4- In the field of water and environment legislation 53
3.5- In the field of scientific research 53
3.6- In the field of human resources development 53

4
Introduction

1- Importance of water resources and climate change in Islamic countries

Water is essential for life. It is vital to every civilization and to any process of development.
Water has occurred in the Holy Quran in over 50 “Verses”and 40 “Suras”, which emphasise
the importance of regulatory water use, along with the conservation and rational exploitation
of its resources.

The peculiarity of water is attributed to the fact that it is the second most precious creature of
Allah, after Man. The property of water as one factor of life is depicted in the Holy Verse :
“And God sends down rain from the skies, and gives therewith life to the earth after its death”
(Sura Nahl, Verse 65). Water is not only vital, but every living creature owes its life to water :
“We made from water every living thing” (Sura Anbiyaa, Verse 30).

It is true that Man has been able, throughout his long struggle with Nature, to subdue most of it
and subjugate it to his needs, and that, thanks to science, he has been able to invent all he
needed throughout history, but when it comes to his needs in terms of water, he is definitely
unable to fulfil them just by trying to synthesize it or use a substitute for it.

Hence the need to focus attention on water issues in every time and place. The teachings of
Islam point to the fact that Allah has created Man in the best of moulds and that everything in
the universe has been created in a balanced way, for a special purpose. Thus, Almighty Allah
has entrusted Man with the preservation of the resources He has bestowed on him, and
requested him to use them in a proper and rational way, assuming his full responsibility in
caring for them.

Scarcity of freshwater resources is expected to be the second most formidable challenge to the
world in general and Islamic countries in particular in the 21st century, as a result of climate
change, the emission of greenhouse gases, the climatic projections that are conducive to
irregular seasonal precipitations along with their implications on water resources, a defective
river system as well as a poor water quality, let alone population growth, pollution, drought
and the dissipation of resources.

In this respect, various reports are depicting a grave situation in various regions of the world.
Over 1.4 billion people in the developing countries have no access to clean and safe drinking
water, and more than 450 million people are facing water shortages. Some areas suffer an
acute shortage of water, causing aridity and drought resulting in famine and hunger. Most the
third world’s population has to walk at least 3 hours a day to fetch water. Besides, the number
of refugees fleeing water and environmental crises has been on the increase, compared to war
refugees.

Due to growing population, the demand for irrigation and drinking water is expected to rise by
20% in the coming 25 years. Since most of the developing countries rely on agriculture in their
economies, the shortage of freshwater may cause food shortage in various regions of the
world. An improper management of water resources has reduced crop production to a large
extent, damaged the soil texture considerably and precipitated the rate of water usage. Water

5
pollution is a major cause of spreading epidemics which kill thousands of people every year,
especially in the least developed countries. This pollution threatens also aquatic life, and as a
result, freshwater animals are disappearing five times faster than land animals. The excess of
water in the form of heavy rains and floods, in inadequately equipped countries, renders
millions of people destitute and homeless.

According to the World Commission on Water report, during the past century, the world
population tripled whereas the aggregate use of water has increased six times. 50% of the
world’s wetlands have disappeared in the past century, 20% of the freshwater fish are
threatened with extinction, and most of the groundwater table is already deep and dropping by
one meter every year. Besides, some groundwater sources are damaged permanently by
salinization.

2- Challenges being faced by Islamic countries as regards water resources

The water problems have always remained an issue of concern to the governments in Islamic
countries. However, such factors as population growth, an increasing demand for water,
climatic factors, along with its correlation with other critical factors like poverty, food and
nutrition, health and its impact on improving the socio-economic conditions, have called for
drawing the attention of the highest authorities to take these issues more seriously. In this
respect, the scientific committee on problems of the environment, affiliated to the International
Council for Science, conducted a special survey called “GEO-2000”. This survey addressed
freshwater scarcity as the second most serious problem after climate change, while the
problem of water pollution was ranked fourth in a list of 36 concerns.

The serious world situation of water resources is also reflected in data and figures which have
been reported in developing countries, including countries of the Islamic world. The water
scarcity, along with its deteriorating quality in most of these countries not only hampers the
development process in the economic and social fields, but it also threatens their very
existence.

The fulfilment of the population’s needs in terms of drinking water is indeed one of the basic
human rights, provided for in international treaties and customs. The international community
is certainly fully aware of the importance of this issue. In fact, most international organizations
and world, regional as well as local conferences have stressed the need to consider water as a
top priority in long and short-term development programmes and strategies. In this respect, the
Johannesburg Conference, held lastly, has issued the Declaration of the Third Millennium,
whereby it stipulates that 50% of the globe’s population should benefit from drinking water by
2015, and calls for the promotion of partnership between the private and public sectors in
order to achieve this end, as well as for the fostering of the culture of water solidarity within
and between countries.

By the year 2025, Islamic countries will suffer a water shortage. In fact, the present water
situation in most of them is already critical. Therefore, Islamic countries have to intensify
efforts and conduct further research and consultation, with a view to devising mechanisms
liable to achieve the water security of these countries, by working out a strategy which takes
into account all legal, economic, social, environmental and cultural aspects.

6
The problems encountered by Muslim countries are generally categorized as follows :
* unequal distribution of water, as some countries experience a critical water situation,
while other countries know a convenient situation. However, the fact that the latter
countries have plenty of water resources is not enough to make them secure when it
comes to the potential of exploitation of these resources with a view to improving the
living standards of the population and achieving sustainable development.
* The lack, in the countries undergoing a critical water situation, of appropriate financial and
technological resources to deal with this shortage, while the countries with important
financial means can afford, thanks to modern techniques, to have access to water, despite
the very high cost of such a process.
* Some Muslim countries have plenty of water resources, as well as an appropriate drainage
system, while other countries suffer from the gathering and stagnation of surface water,
which eventually leads to epidemics.
* The growing scarcity of water along with its high cost, desertification, soil erosion and
depletion of some water layers along with their over-exploitation. For instance, in some
countries, the extraction of groundwater is excessive by 25% to 30%, compared to its
recharge rate, which only causes the loss of their groundwater reserves and the
deterioration of their quality. Moreover, some developed countries in South-East Asia
witness a degradation of their water quality, let alone the extent to which their water is
polluted and wasted, and the non-rationalization of its use, which led to the rise of the
level of suspended deposits in rivers as a result of the corrosion of water canals.
* The pollution of water with organic matter, disease-causing substances, and toxic wastes,
represents a serious problem facing the countries of South-East Asia. The low rate of
oxygen has reached critical levels because of the organic content of water. In fact, Asian
rivers are loaded with thrice as much excrements as the world levels, and ten times as
much as the levels set by OECD. Also one third of Asians do not have clean water in a
200-meter perimeter from their residence. Besides, only 10% of their waste water is
treated, and still with inadequate methods.
* The equipments, data and expertise available in Islamic countries are considered to be
inadequate. Besides, in the absence of appropriate programmes liable to provide the
qualified human resources, and as the research and training equipment is deficient, cases
of mismanagement of water resources are reported more and more often.

3- Efforts undertaken by the Islamic organisation as regards water

resources
In order to boost the scientific and technological development process in Islamic countries,
ISESCO has elaborated a “Strategy for the Development of Science and Technology in
Islamic Countries”. The strategy was examined and adopted by the 18th Session of the
Executive Council of ISESCO and by the 6th Session of the General Conference and was
also approved by the 8th Session of the Islamic Summit Conference (Session of Dignity,
Dialogue and Participation) held in December 1997, in Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran.
The first draft of the “Implementation Mechanisms” was prepared by ISESCO and presented
to the Coordination Meeting of the Ministers of Science, Higher Education and Scientific
Research of the ISESCO’s Member States on 28th June 1999, which was held in parallel to
the World Conference on Science in Budapest, Hungary. The amended version of the

7
strategy and the Implementation Mechanisms were later approved by the 9th Session of the
Islamic Summit Conference (Session of Peace and Development-Intifada Al-Aqsa), held in
November 2000, at Doha, State of Qatar.

The Implementation Mechanism of the Strategy for the Development of Science and
Technology in Islamic Countries focuses on the protection of the environment and the
sustainable development of natural resources, as they are among the most important fields of
development in Islamic countries. It also stresses the promotion of useful technologies to
reduce pollution and calls for drawing up specialized programmes to address major issues
like control of deforestation and preservation of biodiversity, fisheries and aquatic resources,
management of water resources, desertification control, waste treatment with a view to
protecting the environment and sustainable management of natural resources.

The First Meeting of the Consultative Council for the Implementation of the Strategy for
Development of Science and Technology in Islamic Countries, held in September 2001,
inFes, Kingdom of Morocco, considered, inter alia, the water issue in the Islamic world and
recommended ISESCO to set up an Expert Panel to prepare a strategy for the management of
water resources in Islamic countries.

The Second Meeting of the Consultative Council for the Implementation of the Strategy for
Development of Science and Technology in Islamic Countries, held in March 2003, in Rabat,
Kingdom of Morocco, has devoted a particular attention to the problem of Water Resources
Management, as it is essential for sustainable development in Islamic countries. It has examined
the strategy’s broad lines that are being prepared by ISESCO, after the latter has been acquainted
with the suggestions of the Member States. The Consultative Council also recommended that the
said strategy submitted to the Second Islamic Conference of the Ministers of Higher Education and
Scientific Research in Islamic countries to be held from 6 to 9 September 2003, in Tripoli, Libya.

4- Broad lines of the Draft Strategy for the Management of Water

Resources in Islamic Countries
The main elements of this strategy have been derived from the suggestions and contributions
of the Member States. These elements can be summarized into Institutional Capacity
Building, Education and Training, Research capacity Building, and the Assessment and
Integrated Management of Water Resources.

4-1 Water resources management

The effective and sustainable management of water resources is an intricate process, which
requires a comprehensive and innovative approach which is likely to improve the water
situation in Islamic countries and lead to sustainable development, in keeping with the
policies and agreements adopted at the international level. No strategy can be successful
unless the interests of all stakeholders are taken fully into consideration. The strategy should
also ensure all Member States could derive more benefits, taking into account their major
demands for effective water management.

The increase in water demand, especially under limited, and sometimes non-renewable
resources, along with the emergence of new lifestyles and industries, has led to a

8
considerably increased consumption. The problem becomes even more complicated when it
comes to the countries sharing the same water resources or the same water course. There is a
fierce competition going on between the fields of irrigation water and drinking water,
between rural areas and urban areas, as well as between industrial facilities and tourist
demands. Besides these factors, there is the increasing demand resulting from the growing
population, the expanding urbanization and industrialization, while such plagues as
desertification, environment pollution, along with the impacts of climate change, such as
floods and drought, have come to rage through large stretches of the Islamic countries. All
these factors have led to the quantitative and qualitative alteration of water resources, and
impacted on water courses along with their storage in dams and lakes, as well as on
groundwater, which has had adverse effects on water supplies.

In this respect, the integrated management of water resources remains the best option if we
are to overcome this most serious problem. We cannot secure the fulfilment of all sectors’
needs for this vital substance unless it is used in an optimal way.

4-2 Institutional capacity building

The integrated management of water resources should address all issues of the management
of water resources, in terms of their interrelation, and of the water sector as a whole with a
view to promoting effectiveness and sustainability. Since the water sector is characterized by
horizontal and vertical relations, such a system would not be effective without an integrated
methodology. In fact, several attemps have been made at laying down the constituting
framework of the integrated management of water resources. The Rio Agenda 21 in its
article 18 indicated several programmes and activities regarding the integrated management
of water resources.

4-3 Research capacity building

The world is currently undergoing profound changes, consisting mainly in globalization,

competitiveness and the quest for power through modern scientific knowledge. This requires
a quest for the positive aspects of this world phenomenon and their use in the service of
human development. Thus, we need to think up the best way of putting this positive side to
use, with a view to developing water resources, which is only possible through further
investment in terms of human resources. The latter are, in fact, the best way of facing the
technological, scientific and computer challenges of the 21st century, especially that the
present and prospective status of countries and nations is contingent upon the importance
attached to scientific research.

As scientific research is at the heart of every development process, its promotion as regards
water resources should be provided for in the strategies to be adopted and followed by all
means. This requires indeed more emphasis on the establishing of a scientific research policy
and on the allocation of the necessary funds thereto, as is the case in developed countries,
with a view to developing water economy techniques, as well as techniques of sea water
desalination, so as to reduce the cost of water and make it accessible to a wider population.
The aim is also to develop such techniques as the treatment and recycling of waste water,
water transfer, prevention of floods, etc.

9
4-4 The importance of legislation in water resources management

The integrated water resources management is based on a basic, developed legislation and
applicable measures. However, the most serious problem encountered in the field is
generally the variety of stakeholders in the field, who lack in coordination, let alone the
presence of loopholes in the legislation and regulations in force, especially those related to
the water resources protection and pollution.

4-5 Cooperation as a mainstay for strategies

Cooperation between Islamic countries can help work out the best policies possible in terms
of water resources management. While developed countries and granting bodies have failed
to meet their commitment to bring the official aids up to 0.7% of their GDP, in keeping with
the recommendations of various international conferences, it is up to Islamic countries,
under the present critical international situation, to take initiatives in financing water
projects, according to the available potentials and capacities, through redoubling the efforts
being extended by the development-oriented bodies and funds existing within Islamic
countries, and putting to use all resolutions issued by specialized international institutions,
concerning the reduction of the cost of financial transactions and the rate of interest on loans,
and the support of the international efforts at cancelling the poorest countries’ debts.

4-6 The importance of sensitizing and involving water beneficiaries in the water
resources management

The water resources management, along with their rational use, requires in the first place the
laying down of an “ethical code” which would regulate and monitor the rights and
obligations as regards water. Sensitization and the participation of all stakeholders are a
determining factor in the success of any strategy.

10
Chapter 1 : Legal and Regulatory Frameworks of Water Resources
Management in Islamic Countries
We have to realize the difficulty of achieving sustainable development in Muslim countries,
especially that the legal and regulatory frameworks pertaining to the existing water resources
suffer some deficiencies and loopholes, let alone the fact that some of them use techniques that
are incompatible with the modern ways of integrated water management. It is worth
mentioning that the Islamic world will face formidable challenges in the third millennium as
far as water is concerned, since it lacks the capacity and means, both on a preventive and
curative level.

The water situation has become critical in many Muslim countries. While most of them have
overcome the shortage of water, some of them still witness an extremely serious shortage.
Besides, the fact that the majority of these countries lack autonomy in terms of their water
sources only adds to the problems of development.

These factors being taken into account, the public policies for water resources utilization and
management remain very far from the modern concepts of integrated management despite the
efforts extended. The issue of bordering waters is also likely to exacerbate the water crisis in
some Muslim countries.

Dealing with this situation requires further investigation so as to design the necessary
mechanisms that are likely to achieve water security for the Islamic world, through the
elaboration of a strategy of an integrated water management with a view to going along with
climate changes and keeping up with the up-to-date management techniques. The intention is
to alleviate the water crisis and to lessen its adverse effects on the population, environment and
sustainable development.

Due to the huge progress of sciences relating to the water resources and their different uses,
along with the subsequent problems, it is imperative to look for the kind of technology suitable
to the development of water resources, and to design the up-to-date mechanisms and
techniques liable to reform the laws in such a way as to make them compatible with the current
and future situation of the Islamic world, so as to achieve sustainable security of water
resources in Muslim countries.

1- Sources of Water Legislation in Islamic Countries

1-1- customs

The human gatherings which formed around water points set drastic rules regulating the water
usage, distribution and ownership, in different geographical, climatic and human contexts.
Such rules are still complied with today in some areas of the Muslim countries. As a result of
the passing over of these rules, they have entered into legal force, since they have come to be a
source of legislation in some Muslim countries in the field of water usage.

It is worth noting that the main difference between customary and Islamic law as far as water
property is concerned lies in the link existing between land and water. While Islamic law

11
considers it is the land property which entails water property, customary law endorses the
opposite view.

Some legal institutions, within the Sharia, such as the entailment of estate (waqf), are obviously
affecting the customary system.

1-2- The Islamic vision of water issues

Islam has focused on the importance of water as a source of life. The term “water” has
occurred in the Quran more than fifty times, across over fourty Surates. Emphasis has been laid
on the importance of regulating water usage and preservation from being wasted and spoiled,
as well as its rational and thoroughly responsible exploitation.

The Islamic Sharia is one of the fundamental sources of water legislation in the Islamic world,
as it embodies many principles, which are listed summarily and in part as follows:
ƒ water is the common property of all. There should be no obstruction to its use and
exploitation though its ownership is allowed, especially when it comes to groundwater.
ƒ the use of water by man and animals for drinking has priority over other uses even if it is
meant to perform acts of worship. Therefore, nobody is allowed to prevent supplying man and
animals with drinking water.

From an economic perspective, the Prophet (PBUH) said that, like fire and pasture, water is a
common right to all Muslims. Moreover, according to modern legislation water is owned by
society, i.e the State.

There are many Sharia provisions that address the issue of water usage and which could be
referred to as an authority in terms of water legislation, as one could hardly oversee these
provisions in Muslim countries.

1.3. Positive laws

All Muslim countries have now water laws which can differ in terms of their themes. These
laws are either modern or simple and public, depending on the specificities of each country and
the prevailing situation in which they have been adopted.

a- The existing state of affairs of Islamic water-related legislation

The water-related legislation in Muslim countries traces back to different periods in the 20th
century. Laws have been set for many fields, such as planning, prevention, pollution and
protection, etc. Joint initiatives between the private and public sectors have been tested, within
the framework of projects that have been carried out in the fields of water economy and
sanitary waste water, as well as the adoption of projects’ impact assessment studies, the
management of wastes, and systems of monitoring pollution at large.

b- The domains targeted by the water legislation

The water legislation, in Muslim countries in general, addresses primarily such issues as the
determination of the type of water, the nature of water ownership, the water rights and the
subsequent effects, as well as the restrictions being imposed on it. It also deals with the priority

12
of water distribution and the question of setting priorities in terms of water resources planning,
development, preservation and sustainability, and the maximization of their economic, social
and environmental benefits. These laws determine the easement as well.

Besides, they deal with such domains as protecting all water resources, including the classical
ones, fighting pollution and quantitative as well as qualitative deterioration of water, soil
erosion in basins, repairing the sewerage system in population aggregates in order to guarantee
that rainwater flows freely without any risk of pollution, and reducing the negative effects of
population and constructional expansion on water resources. They also regulate their
entertaining aspect, including various water sports activities, excursions, water displacement,
service stations and fuel tanks near water resources, and the setting up of tourist activities and
other, as they have adverse effects on water resources.

These domains require the monitoring and restriction of some activities in a bid to protect the
water resources and preserve them from misuse. They also call for the regulation of the
recycling of waste water for their secure usage, and the consequences of having shared
resources.

In order to energize these regulations, punitive sanctions and deterrent fines have been set
according to the risks entailed by the use of this type of waste water. Appropriate laws have
also been adopted in order to counter the negative effects of water-transmitted diseases or
diseases resulting from an excess of water.

2. Common denominators between Islamic countries in terms of water

legislation
As far as water is concerned, the Muslim countries have many basic principles in common,
which could be summarized as follows:
* The water resources, be they superficial or subterranean, are deemed to be the property of the
State. This principle is in line with the Islamic Sharia and the Constitutions adopted in the
Islamic world with a few exceptions, as the water property in some countries has to do with
customs and tradition, or with land. There are some countries that recognize the acquired rights.
* The State is responsible for water facilities, along with the private sector, when it comes to
the design, implementation and management, including water distribution to the beneficiaries,
according to public policy and the project’s plan.
* Some States are in charge of public facilities, while the private sector undertakes the running
of private facilities when it comes to superficial wells, irrigation networks in private landed
properties, small dams, the extraction of water from wells, the exploitation of water sources,
cracks, pumping stations, the promotion of natural sources, wells and geysers.
* Customs and tradition govern the issue of floods, as the population sets up dikes to counter
inundations, or to immerse their lands in some cases. Due to the scarcity of water in some
Muslim countries, a couple of them intervened to regulate the exploitation the great streams'
water.
* Water usage is subjected to a prior authorization in some states, while in other states the
authorization is not only required in advance, but it is also conditioned by many provisions.

13
3- The relative deficiency of the water legislation in Islamic countries
It comes out from the practice of the water legislation in Muslim countries that some
deficiencies and loopholes make it ineffective in many fields and sites, which is attributable to
the following factors:
* the multitude of the administrative units operating in the field of water resources, along with
the multitude of their laws and systems. The water resources management in Muslim countries
has not known much progress compared to the great efforts that have been put forth in the
fields of investigation, prospecting, and dams’ construction. These effort are still characterized
by dispersal and overlapping attributions, whether in terms of water monitoring and
conservation, or in terms of the production of drinking water. Modern, scientific rules require
us to consider the technical as well as the legal and regulatory aspects, if we are to elaborate an
effective water administration, capable of bringing into shape a drastic policy in the field of
water resources management, which is considered to be limited in time and space.
* The double standards and inconsistencies in many laws, especially when it comes to the
overlapping levels in the units in charge of water management; the lack of cooperation between
one another; and the failure of the granting bodies to contribute massively to subsidizing the
cost of water in general.
* The failure to put most laws into practice, which reflects badly on the water sector. It is
mainly because of the occupation of lands bordering rivers (haphazard constructions), which
leads to disasters like floods, the extraction of sand from river beds, turning watercourses into
cesspits, where refuse and draining water are disposed of.
* The ineffectiveness of laws despite their modernity and their comprehensiveness in the field
of surveying infractions, because of the absence or insufficiency of regulatory or effective
mechanisms of implementing laws, and the inability of the sanctions to deter transgressors. As
a result, the bulk of draining and industrial water is discharged in rivers, seas and oceans
without undergoing the necessary purification, which leads to the deterioration of the water
quality and to the pollution of seas. One can say that State laws and regulations are unable, on
their own, to change people’s behavior towards the management of water issues.
* Mis-coordination between the administrative units in their practice, which sometimes goes as
far as boycotting, which requires us to provide a strong and binding coordination between all
units in charge of water management. This coordination aims at finding some common ground
for consultation, and achieving a frame of action far from rivalry and conflicts, whose goal is
administrative efficiency in water management.
* The absence of administrative bodies able to ensure the follow-up of laws and to hold
accountable their transgressors. The fact that water police responsibility is dispersed among
several actors is the main cause behind the inefficiency of this body in carrying out its mission.
In fact, the water resources are subject to dilapidation, depletion, pollution and random
prospection, as well as the deterioration of water facilities.
It becomes clear from what has preceded that the majority of water laws in Muslim countries
includes dispositions liable to preserve water and plan its monitoring. They make provision for
treating used water before being discharged in the natural environment. However, everyday
practice suggests the opposite, as water is more and more subject to nuisances (which is the
case of the coasts of some Muslim countries and the watercourses existing in some industrial
areas). These nuisances become so serious at times that they affect negatively the water quality.

14
* The lack of water awareness in the midst of Islamic societies in majority, which often makes
them hostile towards laws. It is noted that water policies in Muslim countries have not covered
the information aspect, which suffers a genuine failure to sensitize Muslim peoples so that they
would change their behavior towards water.

The non-implementation of laws, or their failure to cover all fields pertaining to the use of
water, along with the problems stemming from these uses, only impede the promotion of water
and rationalization of its use, as a result of the multiplicity of the responsible departments,
which are often unable to secure its preservation from deterioration and depletion, especially if
there is no legal basis.

4- The international laws and regulations for the utilization and development
of the shared water resources
Even if Muslim countries are bound by brotherly ties, the sharing of water, both nationally and
internationally, leads to the breaking out of conflicts because of the deterioration of the water
situation and the expected increase in its demand in the upcoming decades of the third
millennium. Hence, water, which was once used to relieve tensions, has only become a source
of tensions. In fact, it could lead to conflicts, which could turn into wars or serious rivalries
among Muslim countries, or between them and their neighbors.

In the light of the Islamic teachings, it is possible to turn these conflicts and differences into
ways of wider cooperation between Muslim countries by setting up common water projects, so
that the countries located on a given watercourse would be able to benefit, equally and
reasonably, from it in their respective territories, in the best way possible and in a sustainable
manner. This exploitation could also be performed in a way which would provide enough
protection for the watercourse, without any prejudice to the other concerned countries.

The administration of the common water basins in the Muslim countries is now a great concern,
not to say one of the greatest challenges facing the Islamic world in modern times. It even
represents one of the international conflict foci presently and prospectively, due to the rise of
water demand. What makes things even worse is that most of these water basins and rivers are
distributed over more than one country, along with the fact that these countries use different
methods of exploitation. The use of water in a common river, for instance, by the upstream
countries without the prior consent of the downstream ones could affect the inputs of the
preservation of water resources in the latter countries, since taking water upstream leads to the
diminution of water quantity required to meet the demands of the countries downstream, let alone
the fact that the incoming water in the latter countries could be mediocre because of the bad
quality of the returning water discharged by those upstream. Besides, as water is subtracted from
the river downstream, the local content becomes very high. Hence the need for the watercourse
countries to commit themselves to cooperation on the basis of equal sovereignty, territorial
security, the exchanged benefits and good will, so as to derive the maximum benefit and provide
protection for the watercourse, within the framework of an exchange of data and information,
consultation and negotiation over the potential impacts of the prospective measures.

4-1 Rivers
Demand for water resources is increasing in Muslim States at a high rate, in the same way
population growth and economic development do. Problems related to this increasing demand

15
and to the scarcity of water are awaiting most of these countries. The situation is even worse
when many countries share the same water resource. Some maintain that the coming wars will
happen not because of political disputes, but because of disputes over water resources.
The Nile is considered among the largest common water basins in the Islamic world, as it is
that between 10 countries. The importance of this river for Egypt and Sudan is attributed to the
fact that it is the main source of water in both countries, while the other countries bordering
this river are located in equatorial areas with high precipitations. A unified legal framework is
presently being investigated, as a way of achieving a general agreement to preserve the
historical rights of all the basin’s countries, in accordance with the Geneva Convention.
The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates basin are extremely important to Syria and Iraq, which
share it with Turkey. Syria pins high hopes on developing the Euphrates in its passage on its
territory, as it represents more than 50% of the available water.
The question of sharing water of the Gange’s river between India, Pakistan and Bangladesh,
the Jouba and Chibili basins between Somalia and Ethiopia, the Senegal basin between
Mauritania, Mali and Senegal, is a challenge which requires profound studies in terms of
legislation and regulation.
Furthermore, there is the Jordan basin, which represents an intricate issue, as its water resources are
considered to be relatively rare, let alone the considerable scarcity of water in the bordering countries,
and the fact that this issue is related to the overall situation of the region.

4-2 Catchments
The Islamic world has overlapping and intertwined water basins. By way of illustration, there are
the Walqash basins, which are common to Sudan and Erythrea, the Mjradah Wadi, which lies
between Algeria and Tunisia, and Tafna, Doura, as well as Deraa between Morocco and Algeria.
The water resources in South East Asia are also facing some threats, such as pollution, lakes’
asphyxia and colonization by harmful plants. The Muslim countries in this continent are
contingent upon the increasing demand for water, due to the strong population growth, which
leads to the emergence of the problem of drinking water supply.

4-3 Groundwater
It is noted that the present situation of underground water in the Islamic world is still favourable.
No apparent conflict or dispute has erupted over this issue despite its increasing use in many
instances. Egypt, Sudan, Libya have the Noubi sandy stone basin in common; the Huran basin is
common to Syria, Jordan and Saudi Arabia; Arabia's Eastern region basin lies between Oman,
the U.A.E., Yemen, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Qatar; the basins of the East
Mediterranean are shared between Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine; there is also the final
complex layer which lies between Algeria and Tunisia; and the Tludli basin which is shared
between Mauritania and Mali; and the Higher Island basin which is shared by Syria and Turkey;
and the Tindouf basin, which is shared between Morocco and Mauritania.

4-4 Water transfer from the rivers’ basins

The 21st century will be referred to as “the era of geopolitical waters”, since the fresh water
sources are being controlled politically, technologically and economically. The water resources
will become a world wealth rather than a national wealth which is under the control of a State,
or the source States. The great powers’ diplomacy will impose its water, economic and social
policy on the world’s countries.

16
In spite of the international moves over the permission of water transfer from the rivers’ basins
to other countries, the international laws, agreements and customs still prohibit this, and make
a distinction between the rivers’ basins and the superficial or hydrological basins.

The unstable situation of the shared water resources in the Islamic world requires that great
efforts be made, so that it does not worsen to such an extent that it becomes irremediable. The
first step towards preventing conflicts is the signing of common agreements which adopt
standardized policies of the common usage, development and preservation of these resources,
in such a way as to ensure supplying the population with water. The bordering countries should
also consult one another, and if need be, create joint committees to settle the disputes which
could break out over the use of water for the common interest of all parties.

5- Agreements and Conventions between Bordering Countries

Many Muslim countries share with one another on one hand, and with other non Muslim
countries on the other, rivers and water basins. The agreements being concluded on the
utilization of water is one of the sources that are considered while formulating water laws in all
countries. The water laws adopted in a given country should be in line with the provisions of
the agreements or conventions signed with another country bordering the water resource. This
is considered one of the most important authorities that are referred to while interpreting or
explaining certain clauses which are the source of disagreements, or while seeking solutions to
critical issues. Contradiction between internal laws and regional ones could give rise to inter-
state conflicts that may fall outside the jurisdiction of the concerned country.

Regional agreements set the standards and facilitate the procedures and role distribution for a
better and rational management of water resources, based on equal and reasonable utilization
and participation, with a view to utilizing the international watercourse to derive the best
benefit possible, while complying with the factors relevant to the equal and reasonable
utilization, as well as committing oneself to not causing a serious prejudice. These agreements
consecrate as well the culture of consultation in order to remove or reduce the prejudice, and
the discussion of the compensation issue and any commitment thereto, through cooperation on
the basis of equal sovereignty, territorial security and mutual benefit, by creating joint
mechanisms or committees in charge of the cooperation management, in the light of the
acquired expertise of the internationally renowned joint mechanisms and committees. Hence
the importance of the laws which assist in the drafting of agreements over the shared water
resources, in the service of all bordering countries.

It is noted that there are still many obstacles to the implementation of the common water laws.
These obstacles fall outside the jurisdiction of the relevant State authorities, as long as reaching
any agreement about water utilization remains an unattainable goal, which requires a long time
for the drafting, ratification and putting into effect of the agreement.

In this regard, it advisable to energize the regional board of the water resources in West Asia,
which emanated from the Mardablata Conference, to design the institutional mechanisms
enabling this board to perform the main task assigned to it in order to settle disputes, and to
anticipate the development plans of the shared water resources, for the benefit of the region’s
countries.

17
In case there are no agreements between riparian countries, the international law principles
would be the main authority for taking any decision about the utilization of shared water
resources.

5-1 Agreements and international standards

The international community has set the fundamental rules and standards which regulate the
utilization of common waters in terms of the rationalization of use and preservation from
pollution, as well as their conservation and not causing prejudice to others. It should be noted
that international agreements are not absolutely coercive, though they are seen as indicators
which help the legislator to design the laws that best fit the practice, so as to ensure their
sustainability and raise their economic, social and environmental utility.

It is worth noting that within the framework of this “water diplomacy strategy”, the countries
that are rich in water resources will be deprived of the right to exploit them, unless they do it
within an international framework based on a fair and equal distribution of the water wealth
among all the people of the world.

5-2 Settling disputes in friendly ways

The UN charter provides for the settlement, in a peaceful manner, of the disputes or conflicts
existing between neighboring countries over the utilization of shared water resources, so as to
ensure international peace and security.

In this regard, it is advisable to resort to negotiation, discussion and the design of mechanisms,
so as to solve these differences through the creation of a joint committee with a view to
investigating the issue from all perspectives, and finding solutions to contain the problem and
offer suggestions. The coordinated efforts, along with the joint action, might help find
solutions to the pending and complicated issues that are experienced by the conflicting areas
through:
* focusing on the goals set in the Millennium Declaration about the water resources, and on
assisting developing countries in achieving these goals, by providing the appropriate
technologies and the necessary financial resources, by supporting regional cooperation, and
also by taking into consideration the existing agreements and initiatives.
* Stressing the specificity of each watercourse, and the fact that there is no need to set a general
framework regulating transboundary watercourses.

In order to ensure the success of a sound settlement, international law stipulates that each State
should provide the other countries bordering the water basin with all data and information
relevant to its utilization of these common resources.

5-3 Arbitration
In case negotiations between bordering countries fail to find the appropriate solutions that suit
the parties through negotiation and joint committees, the case is submitted to a third party for a
decision. If a solution which would be accepted by all parties is not reached, the case could be
submitted to a neutral fact-finding mission, or an international committee of arbitration, or else
submitted to an international court.

18
6- The regulatory framework of water resources in Islamic countries
The regulatory framework of water resources in the Islamic world consists of heterogeneous
units and sub-systems, differing in terms of specialty and from a geographical perspective.
Thus, there are multiple and various levels, though these units are overlapping, since each one
of these elements depends on the means available to the other for carrying out the water-
targeted processes.

These units are interconnected horizontally and vertically. They are also organized into
commutative relations, as we could not set one apart from the others. But although they are part
of the whole, integrated water management system, each one of these units has its own identity
and characteristics.

The administrative regulation of water resources in Muslim countries is not composed of units
or bodies that have arbitrarily come together and that are not linked to one another. It,
therefore, first and foremost consists of interrelated parts, that are mutually complementary, so
that water is eventually available for use and consumption.

Besides the operating and complementary units, there are advisory units that present
suggestions and coordinate the various activities of the other operating units, with a view to
reaching a coherent management that makes these units into essential points in the system
management, both in the phases of planning and implementation.

These units can take on different forms in the Muslim countries, as they may be national councils,
or committees that can vary geographically speaking. Besides the designers and supervisors of the
water resources management, they include all users, as well as representatives of civil society.

Owing to the multitude of water uses and the disparities between the ratios of the production
sectors and those of the households in all Muslim countries, each unit has its own goals, which
are incompatible with the others’. This has had negative repercussions on the management of
water resources, since the latter have become subject to many impurities while being used by
beneficiaries, which makes it difficult to rationalize their management.

The rationalization of the water resources management in the Islamic world, through scientific and
modern ways, requires us to set aside such obstacles by standardizing the water resources
management, and by creating a competent, uniform body which would organize all water facilities.

The modern, scientific fundamentals of water management are based on a good organization,
and require an appropriate regulatory mode which would rely on the determination of the
frameworks’ functions, the distribution of attributions between all units, the adoption of an
effective planning, the effective monitoring of water uses, and cooperation without competition
or rivalry.

The consideration of technical problems, along with the legal and regulatory issues, has
become a fundamental goal, as adapting its management tools to the state-of-the-art, scientific
administration has come to be one of the fundamentals of a good administration, which
requires a standardized supervision and design in order to keep a uniform management, so as to
be in line with the uniformity of the substance.

19
Chapter 2 : Strategy for water resources management – Potential for
sustainable development
At the turn of the twenty first century, the socio-economic, institutional and technical water
resources management framework has undergone considerable changes and reforms around
the world. The stakes related to the hydraulic potential of countries suffering from the impact
of drought, an increasing demand for water resulting from population growth, and the
deterioration in water resources quality due to various pollution factors have made of the
rational water resources management the only means liable to preserve sustainable socio-
economic development.

The supply policy followed by most of these countries has proved to be of a limited use.
Thus, an objective evaluation of the water policy in some countries shows that despite their
track record in terms of dams construction and water storage, some failures have been noted,
consisting mainly in the disparities existing between the various sectors and all the subsequent
bad consequences on the rationalization of water resources, the nature of the projects
implemented, which differ depending on whether there are located downstream or upstream
from the water resources, the investments of the State in the field of recycled water treatment,
as well as the dilapidation of large amounts of water on agriculture uses, and the loss of a
considerable part of the dams' storage capacity due to their silting up.

The current deficiencies in the sector of water require of decision-makers a radical change in
the attitudes of all stakeholders, particularly the public sector, which has to adopt quickly a
policy of water resources management through the reactivation of the different tools available
to them in order to promote a new culture of water resources management based on
decentralization, participation and solidarity.

1- Nature of the strategy for water resources management

At the present time, water management in most Islamic countries deals essentially with supply.
This is usually done through some expensive engineering techniques used at a high level.
Costs constantly increase as water becomes rare and we find ourselves obliged to seek new
resources in regions that are getting even distanced from inhabited areas, or under considerable
depths.

Moreover, surface and underground water is becoming even more contaminated (pollution
and salinity), which means that there is far less available water, unless there is an increase in
expenses for water treatment.

The new strategy will be based on the management of water demand, which represents a
viable management option, supplementing the supply management, and allowing the
reduction of the problems pertaining to the overuse of water resources. Water demand
management should allow the adoption of actions aiming at:
- Enhancing water economy by insuring a maximum efficient utilization;
- Preserving water quality and improving that of the water distributed to meet the
demand requirements;
- Increasing water availability through the use of non-conventional sources

20
 - Envisaging a differentiated water supply depending on the benefiting sectors and
according to diverse degrees of water quality.

The application of the demand management strategy is carried out through diverse measures,
which may be technical, or consist of awareness-raising campaigns, or else incentives.

Likewise, the granting bodies have shown a better appreciation and understanding of the
issues related to water demand management in Islamic countries. Thus, decision-makers and
granting bodies have had a regular access to information and provided for a return of
information, particularly through the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (ISESCO) and other organizations.

What is water demand management ?

Water demand management brings about positive as well as negative aspects at the regional
level. At the negative level, the majority of the parties concerned with water management are
interested only in the options available in terms of water supply issues. The positive side
consists in the increasing changes adopted in the field of water demand management. To
illustrate this, there is a more frequent recourse to non-conventional water resources in the
irrigation field; let alone the significant endeavor to decentralize institutions, etc. It becomes
thus imperative that all kinds of the above-mentioned water demand management measures
should be promptly adopted in order to deal with the serious situation in the region. Water
resources should also be managed in an integrated and global way.

2- Objectives of the Strategy

The working out of a water resources management strategy in Islamic countries aims at
defining a middle and long term water resources development strategy that is coherent at the
level of the countries of the Islamic world, so as to bring it into line with the objectives of the
local plans of each country, which are among others:

- Food security;
- Securing the supply of drinking water to the population;
- Preservation and protection of water resources via the establishment of adequate legislative,
regulatory, economic and technical mechanisms;
- Consideration of the protection of the natural environment in the objectives of sustainable
social and economic development.

In general, by dint of its technical, environmental, and regulatory components, the elaboration
of a water resources strategy will constitute a means of orientation facilitating political
decision-making for a sustainable water resources management in Islamic countries.

3- Content of the Strategy

The water resources management draft strategy should allow for the consolidation of efforts
already made by Member States of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) in terms
of planning, sensitization and water resources management. This strategy aims mainly at :

21
 - Evaluating the available reserves of surface and underground water resources (in
quantity and quality) as well as its allocation to different user sectors. Particular attention
should be given to non-conventional water resources (waste water, drainage water, sea
water...), especially in countries undergoing a serious water storage;
- Formulating the alternatives pertaining to the supply of water resources, including the
evaluation instruments likely to facilitate the opting for the best choice;
- Combining the technical approach with the social and cultural one, as part of an
integrated water resources management which is based on objective and comprehensive
knowledge;
- Identifying the different tools (legal, economic and technical) necessary for a qualitative
water resources management (quality objectives, quality standards, protection measures,
application of the pollutant-payer principle, etc....).
- Introducing and popularizing new information technologies in water resources management
through the creation of a database and the provision of the softwares required for the
exploitation of this database.
- Suggesting the necessary institutional measures for the implementation of this strategy,
particularly concerning its organizational, legislative, economic and financial components.

The elaboration of this strategy document requires the categorization of Islamic countries
in more or less coherent regional units at the hydro-climatic level to constitute the
geographic cells of the planning process.

4- Quantitative water resources management

The draft strategy for water resources management in Islamic countries, in the long term, is
based on the following axes :

4-1- Water resources assessment

The assessment of conventional as well as non-conventional water resources (recycling waste

water, briny water, drainage water, irrigation water, desalination of sea water...) constitutes
the basis of the whole planning process, as it should encompass all the necessary data for the
quantitative assessment of the water resources.

a- Hydrological data

- Rainfall
To carry out the quantitative water resources evaluation, rainfall data at the different
hydrographical stations should be collected over long periods of 40 to 50 years.

- Rivers water
The evaluation of surface drifting, the surveying of valleys’ flows in time and space,
over long periods and in a periodical way is an important stage in the process of water
resources evaluation.

- Return flows
The control of the return flows is contingent upon direct management and surveying. In
many countries, the management of return water, with its various uses, has never been
integrated in water resources management for the simple reason that the economic

22
 value of water has never been introduced. As this notion of value is inexistent, it will be
difficult to reliably incorporate the volumes of return water in the water resources
calculations.

b- Groundwater Resources

• The water balance

The evaluation of renewable resources of every water basin is the most important
technical problem in the management of water resources. Consideration of the inter-
annual variation of hydrological conditions and long periods of drought cycles is
important in the evaluation of a given water basin's records and constituents.

Concerning the samples extracted, particular investigations should be conducted to have

the best estimation of their values.

• Piezometric data

Piezometric data are of great importance to the evaluation of groundwater resources.

Their collection should be assured periodically (humid period, dry period, etc) and
stored in easily accessible databases.

• Surveying and aquifers dimensions

The direct recognition (through mechanical drilling) or indirect (through geophysical

prospecting of aquifers) proves to be the basis of any evaluation of groundwater
resources.

4-2- Forecast of water needs

4-2-1- Drinking water and water used in industry

The specific studies realised in each country should synthesize the principal characteristics of
the demand for drinking water and water used in industry for each identified geographic entity
(past evolution of industrial and drinking water demand, growth rate, rate of linking, networks
output, equipment, public or private management of water, evolution of pricing …). A critical
analysis of methodologies and forecasting adopted during previous studies will help
overcome probable incoherence in future studies. The critical analysis should consider all
parameters defining water demand and should be carried out through the study of all field
statistical data.

4-2-2 Irrigation water

Specific studies should perform the evaluation of agricultural areas and corresponding water
needs at the present time, as well as in the medium and long term. They should also describe
and assess the evaluation procedure followed in previous planning studies. These needs
should reflect the different objectives of national planning and consider the different
agricultural reform and planning programmes. In addition, complementary investigations
should be carried out to define potential lands for irrigation in small and medium hydraulic

23
measures (S.M.H) and large hydraulic ones (LH) according to the kind of water resources
planning (dams, deductions of water stream lines, underground waters) and by stations.

Comparison of needs vs. resources

* The first step of the strategy

The elaboration, for each unit of planning or group of planning units, of the water resources
planning and management schemes to satisfy water needs, will be processed on the basis of
studies related to the evaluation of water resources, particularly in terms of their uses. These
planning and water resources management schemes will include the construction of dams,
determining of water stream lines, surveying of the types of underground water, as well as the
possibilities of water resources development pertinent to water supply and demand
management concerned with aspects aiming at cutting down water demand.

Complete simulation samples may also be outlined for every water resources development
scheme. These simulation samples should take into consideration:

- Dams and water diversions contributions;

- Underground water resources
- Contributions of the water of intermediary pools, waste water, and return flow;
- Irrigation usage and consumption of large, small and medium hydraulic resources;
- Drinking water consumption by urban and rural populations and industry;
- Transferred waters (or transferable waters) to other areas;
- Localization of each resource, storage and derivation point.

Irrigation return flows should be carefully analysed, particularly in drought years to be

evaluated in a suitable way and to avoid underestimate or overestimate of water resources.

The simulation's objective is to evaluate the performance of water resources planning

schemes, to define allocations in deficit years, and to adjust the projects dimensions
accordingly (dams, transfer works,…). A deep reflection over the criteria of acceptable
deficits will be undertaken, taking account of the economic and financial aspects related to
projects profitability and experiences which have been accumulated during drought periods.

* The second stage

The economic optimisation should be made with respect to two perspectives: economic
efficiency and local and regional development. It will be carried out by a software suitable
and adapted to the social and economic context of the state as well as to the natural conditions
of water resources. The optimisation calculations are done on three phases: each level of
calculation should rely on the results of the previous level.

At the level of each regional unit, the optimisation calculus aims at achieving the maximum
valorisation of the different water resources volumes that may be allocated to that unit.

Concerning the pools and hydrographical areas bringing together many regional units, the
calculations will seek to optimise the water resources planning and allocation systems for
different exchange volumes with neighbouring pools in the form of transfers or water import.

24
All hydraulic systems to be revealed by estimates will be introduced in the optimisation
programme in an adequate synthetic form.

The selection of the planning schemes and water resources planning and management liable to
ensure supply and satisfaction of water needs should equally consider the sources and terms of
financing investments and be based on a process of political participation of benefiting parties,
which will allow the identification of the priorities of water resources planning as well as the
level of participation in the financing of water resources development schemes.

5- Tools and methodologies of quantitative water resources management

The quantitative management of water resources has been among the first concerns of humans,
particularly in arid areas. Man has thus been able to develop a number of technical tools, some of
which date back to ancestral times (rainwater reservoirs refeeding underground basins through
underground recharge or snow melting…). Among contemporary tools figure the appropriate
models of help to decision-making, development of research in water economy and non-
conventional solutions (artificial rainfall, recycling of waste water, desalination of sea water).

6- Improvement of water efficiency in irrigation systems

6-1- The existing state of affairs
The irrigation sector is the biggest consumer of water in arid countries (99%). Consequently,
this irrigation deficiency deprives the sector of large quantities of water liable to enlarge arable
lands in a remarkable way.
In Morocco, for instance, traditional irrigation entails the loss of 30 to 40 percent of water while
the loss in irrigation through water sprinkling is estimated to be 10 to 20 percent. This is mainly
due to dysfunction of boundaries, the poor condition of mobile water sprinkling material, the
absence of a counting system for consumed volumes and farmers' tendency to over-irrigate.

6-2- Programs and measures to be adopted to improve the performance of irrigation

systems
To improve the performance of irrigation systems, preserve hydro-agricultural equipments and
ensure the irrigation water service durability, public authorities should work out programs and
measures to contribute to the improvement of the efficiency of irrigation systems. This
concerns among other things :
- The rehabilitation of irrigation networks;
- Financial incentives to farmers to make them use modern techniques of irrigation
(localized irrigation);
- Promotion of the participatory management of irrigation via the creation and adoption of
local structures (associations for irrigation water users).

7- Protection of dams against silt

The factors favouring the process of hydraulic erosion are of a natural and anthropological
character. Natural factors are inherent in the expansion of mountainous areas, the existence of
fragile substrata, tough climate and the weakness of the coverage rate. Anthropological factors
result of the mounting pressure on natural resources exerted by rural populations through

25
disorganized exploitation of large forests and lands, and the extension of arable lands to
marginal spaces, etc.

In highlands, the stakes pertaining to the erosion phenomenon are apparent at the level of the
degradation of soil, which is the basis of any agricultural, pastoral or forest production, while
such stakes in depressions could be noted at the level of the supply resources, which are a
vital element for the economic and social development of states.

8- Usage of non-conventional water resources : desalination of seawater

The applicable techniques of water desalination are classified in three categories according to
the principle adopted :

- Processes involving a change of state : freezing and distillation;

- Processes using thin plates, inverse osmosis and electro-dialysis;
- Processes working on chemical links: ions exchange.

Among the above-mentioned processes, the distillation and the inverse osmosis have proven to
be effective in seawater desalination, as they are the most widely marketed in the world.

Certain Islamic countries undergoing a water shortage (Gulf states) have come to use this non-
conventional resource as they have an important fossil energy reserve such as Petroleum as
well as renewable energies.

9- Qualitative water resources management

The quality of water resources is persistently deteriorating, in line with the decline of the
socio-economic conditions in different countries. To deal with this situation and preserve
water resources, national strategies, at the level of each country, for water resources quality
protection should be elaborated and strengthened.

9-1- Qualitative assessment of water resources

The deterioration of water resources quality is associated with the insufficiency of sanitation,
the quasi-inexistence of purification systems, disposal of industrial waste in natural
surroundings without any treatment, excessive pumping in aquifers, pollution spread due to the
excessive and irrational use of fertilizers and phyto-sanitary products. Likewise, the growing
production of solid waste adds to the degradation of surface and particularly groundwater.

The impact of pollution on water resources is often demonstrated through sanitary problems
(water-caused diseases) and the degradation of the aquatic eco-systems, let alone the extinction
of animal and plant species. The identification of the principal sources of pollution threatening
the quality of water resources in each country is indeed indispensable.

Concerning sanitary waste :

The calculus base is equivalent to inhabitant “EH”. It entails :

26
 - The specification of water flow coefficients per capita;
- The localization of domestic water flow and the specification of its volume;
- The estimation or calculation of rejected volumes.

Concerning solid waste:

The data concerning the principle pollution seats (wild waste dumps for example) should be
identified. Pollution flow will be calculated by surface unit. As the major part of solid waste is
put in non-regulated dumps (in some countries) that are neither geographically localized nor
described, it has become necessary to survey all the solid waste sites (regulated and non-
regulated) to define localization, surface and volume of waste. Moreover, waste characterization
in each site is essential for an understanding of the pollution nature in these sites.

* Definition of counter-pollution programs

Concerning industrial activities :

Specific programs in defined areas should be carried out throughout the territory of each
country. This concerns the regulation of water flows, definition of quality objectives, and
request industrial factories to make periodical analyses and reports on their water flows.

Concerning domestic liquid waste :

Technical solutions to the treatment of domestic liquid waste problems should be adapted to the
specifities of each country and oriented towards low and high-level natural treatment systems
(lagooning, soil treatment system, etc.). These are cost-saving solutions requiring less maintenance.

Concerning mining activities :

For a better understanding of the situation, a detailed study of the impact of the mining industry
on the quality of water is advisable for certain countries with far-developed mining activities.

Concerning solid waste :

For countries with hardly any controlled waste dumps or solid waste treatment systems, and to
minimize the impact of solid waste on the quality of water, it is advisable to elaborate
technical studies of the principal sites of existing or planned waste dumps.

Concerning agricultural activities :

The protection zones for underground water control should be strictly defined and regulated.
Specific studies on pollution spread and its impact on the quality of water resources are
necessary before suggesting or developing corresponding counter-pollution programs.

Study of accidental pollution

Accidental pollution constitutes a serious threat to surface and underground water resources
quality. This kind of pollution necessitates specific means liable to reduce its impact on water
resources.

27
Four kinds of accidental pollution can be identified :
- Transportation accidents;
- Domestic accidents (breakdown of waste water treatment stations);
- Industrial accidents (accidental throw away);
- Accidents of transfer and storage of hazardous material.

The objectives of the study of accidental pollution at the level of each country are :
- To determine the needs in terms of the necessary information for the elaboration of a national
plan to control dumping.
- To provide a record of previous accidental pollutions.
- To study the trends in the transport of hazardous material and the resulting accidents.
- To draw up a list of the chemical substances and products transported throughout the
countries.

Accidental pollution is inevitable. However, some measures can be taken in order to prevent
the reoccurrence of accidental pollution incidents and to be prepared to deal with those that
might occur in the future. The identification of the existing data and documents on accidental
pollution will allow the elaboration of a database that will make it possible to elaborate a
national plan to deal with accidental pollution. This database will be used in order to :

- Evaluate accidental pollution risks on the basis of specific chemical substances and
products;
- Identify the regions that are most exposed to danger, and evaluate the risks of accidental
pollution incidents.
- Determine the basic characteristics of the situations conducive to accidental pollution.
- Determine the needs in terms of legislation and institutional reform.

9-2- Determining the tools and methods for qualitative water resources management
The objective will be the elaboration and the implementation of a program to protect water
resources on a national level. This document will allow the identification of realistic strategies
of pollution control in order to ensure a sustainable development in Islamic countries.

a- Defining the water quality objectives

Water quality objectives should be established on the basis of the current state of water quality
and the pollution-related forecast, with a view to fulfilling, in the short, medium and long term,
the population's needs in terms of available water with a suitable quality. For instance, the
short tem objective (5 to 10 years) consists in the stabilization of the global state of water
quality, whereas the long term objective will be the improvement of water quality to a given
percentage in comparison with the current levels and the determining of a reference-value to
assess the rate of pollution and make a distinction between natural and man-made pollution.
This will be achieved through the elaboration of a program to prevent accidental pollution and
a de-pollution program aiming at the reduction of pollution levels.

28
The quality objectives will make it possible to orient pollution control efforts and to establish,
not only priorities, but also efforts in terms of law-making (e.g. maximum waste values),
financing of operations, organization, follow-up and sensitizing, distribution of tools, provided
these efforts are integrated in the legislative arsenal of each country and should be accepted
and made known to all management partners.

b- Importance of water resources protection

In order to prevent water quality from becoming an impediment to sustainable development,
integrated water resources management within the framework of hydrographical basins has to
be adopted. It must be supported by all actors in the field of water and water users, and has to
fulfill the relevant needs. In addition, all actors in the field of water should be involved in the
management process.

The success of water resources protection program depends on the existence of a real
coordination between water actors and partnerships with the private sector in particular, with a
view to forming a financial partnership through the recovery of water usage or pollution
royalties that should contribute to the financing of water protection and purification on the one
hand, and which could serve as a deterrent on the other.

c- The Economic value of water

Water has an economic value, which is also called the global economic value, which amounts
to the sum of the water usage value plus its intrinsic value. During the economic evaluation of
water as a resource, water quality should also be considered. A more important value will be
attributed to high-quality water. The direct usage value of higher quality water can be
determined by referring to the market price of drinking water. As for the intrinsic value, which
consists in the original value and the current value of water (the value attributed to water for its
simple existence), it could be evaluated in terms of percentage of the usage value, following
the country.

10- Elaboration of strategies for the protection of water resources

10-1- Pollution monitoring operations

The protection of water quality can be achieved through a series of actions and strategies
allowing the achievement of the planned objectives in terms of water quality, provided these
are set up in the suggested deadlines. These actions can consist in preventive measures
(reducing pollution risks) or curative measures (depollution).

Prevention measures should be part of a program supported by sound legislation and financed
with sufficient funds. This will reduce long-term investments aimed at the treatment of
wastewater and the control of diffused pollution sources. By way of illustration, we can cite
the protection perimeters, the prevention of diffused pollution sources and the elaboration of
the accidental pollution prevention program.

As for the measures aiming to reduce the scope of pollution, various strategies can be
suggested, relating to the treatment of domestic wastewater and industrial depollution.

29
 a- Definition of protection perimeters for water resources

Given the multiple nuisance factors, resulting mainly of the extension of urbanism and the
increase in industrial and agricultural activities, the definition of protection perimeters around
the catchment areas of drinking water and water reservoirs destined for the production of
dietary water is imperative.

In order to face this situation, three protection zones must be instituted around the public
dietary water reservoirs, sources, wells, drillings, water conveyance and distribution.

- Immediate protection perimeter

This perimeter aims to protect installations from bacterial pollution and whose terrains need to
be acquired and protected by the institution in charge of the exploitation of the installations.
These terrains are an integral part of the works for which they have been acquired.

Close protection perimeter

This perimeter is destined to protect installations from chemical pollution and inside which all
activities or works likely to be a source of permanent pollution are prohibited. In addition,
inside this perimeter, all deposits or works representing a risk of accidental water pollution are
controlled.

Distant Protection Perimeter.

Inside this perimeter, activities, works or deposits that represent a water pollution risk in view
of the nature and quantity of pollutant products associated with them, are controlled.

The definition of protection perimeters should constitute an essential element of water

resources protection strategy in Islamic countries.

b-Observation and Alert Systems

The objective of observation and alert stations is to prevent accidental pollution likely to
endanger water supply to water and wastewater treatment plants, river water, or alluvial
ground water. They can be set up on rivers, surface water and wastewater treatment stations
and alluvial ground water.

Sampling is carried out continuously through automatic analyzers that make it possible to
know, at any time, the quality level of the resource. Using this information, a computer model
is built up that calculates the evolution of the polluted water during its transit between the alert
station and the intake, on the basis of the river’s hydraulic regime. Therefore, we obtain :

ƒ The forecast graphic of the ground water passage in front of the intake.
ƒ Arrival hour.
ƒ Evolution of the concentration of the polluting factor concurrently with the
ground water progression.

30
Alert stations are generally equipped with sampling devices that collect on a continual basis,
and at given intervals, the water samples. These samples are transported to laboratories in
order to be used, if need be, to precise the exact nature of the polluting factor and to carry out
the treatability essays, that is to determine, for each treatment stage in the plant, the deduction
that it allows with the existing treatment levels and through the use of crisis reactants such as
powder active carbon.

The conjugation of the computer model and treatability tests makes it possible to define the
measures to be taken in the plant.

Therefore, the time necessary for the arrival of the front of polluted water makes it possible to
store the largest amount possible of drinking water in order to fill treated water reserves.

The second stage comprised between the arrival of ground water and the limit in terms of
concentration of the polluting factor corresponding to the treatability maximum level will still
be used in order to produce clean water, but with a crisis treatment. The level above the ground
water will be too polluted to be treated, and the water supply will be guaranteed by reserves
and intercommunications with neighboring networks.

The computer model offers the possibility to calculate the duration of this halt phase of the
plant, which will make it possible for the distributor to use the emergency supplies in an
optimal way. When the concentration diminishes and goes below the treatability level, the
plant uses crisis configuration until the end of the pollution groundwater passage.

Continuous analysis is a quality management tool that is gaining more and more importance in
water professions, particularly on the level of treatment units. It might also be considered as a
monitoring tool that provides measures contributing to enriching the water quality databases.
Continuous analyses have several application, among which :

• They are representative vis-à-vis the laboratory measures.

• Accuracy and repetitiveness of the obtained data.
• Real time monitoring of water quality.

This technology can constitute a very important tool to be set up in the treatment stations that
supply big cities in Islamic countries.

c- Wastewater Purification.

Wastewater purification generally includes the following stages :

Phase 1 or pre-treatment : consists in eliminating rude elements, organic debris and
minerals of significant dimensions.
Phase 2 or primary treatment : consists in eliminating the materials in , whose density
is significantly different from water density, by making use of this difference.
Phase 3 or secondary treatment : consists in eliminating the remaining pollution,
constituted of colloidal or dissolved materials, through the acceleration of the natural
destruction of these elements through the action of microbe flora in the presence of
oxygen.

31
Wastewater Purification Processes

- Surface spreading or filtration through the ground :

This purification mode can be adopted only after a serious geological study proving the
possibility of its implementation, without impairing the receiving water body. Surface
spreading has necessarily to be preceded by screening, fine screening, or even primary settling.

- Lagooning :
This is a natural wastewater purification process that allows a separation of the solid elements
from the liquid phase by settling, and a biological purification mainly due to the action of
bacteria. The process consists in placing wastewater in stabilization basins.

- Seepage infiltration :
This type of treatment requires very little mechanical equipment and provides very good
quality water.

- Activated sludge :
The settled effluents are subjected to violent ventilation in activation basins where the organic
matter is oxidized. This technique corresponds to the artificial acceleration of the auto-
purification process in natural environments. The effluents from activation basins regain a
secondary settling tank where the flocs sediment.

- trickling filters :
The principle consists in streaming wastewater elutriated on porous materials covered by a
bio-film made up with purifying micro-organisms (bacteria, mushrooms, animals).

10-2 - Identification of Accompanying Measures

The success of pollution control efforts depends largely on the available financing and on the
legislative and institutional framework. It rests on suitable and sustainable strategies of
financing that satisfy the rigorous cost-benefit ratio analysis. It is significant to well measure
the costs of pollution (costs of depollution, of health and environment degradation and in terms
of missed opportunities), and the necessary budget to achieve water quality objectives, on the
one hand, and to identify all the possible sources of financing for each considered type of
action, on the other. In addition, it is necessary to evaluate the urgent character and the
profitability of projects, in order to set up the definite priority projects, in a first stage, and to
gather the necessary funds or to obtain rapid and sustainable financing.
For each action type, some financing modes are more suitable than others. Thus the private
initiatives could be requested in the case of the control of industrial pollution, while the control
of domestic pollution has a mainly public character. In many cases, it will be necessary to
constitute joint partnerships public/private in order to reduce the costs.
For the case of some countries, law on water introduces the principle of payer-pollutant and
the discharges authorizations that fix the limiting values of waste disposal and the royalties to
be paid. The royalty can be of the type of royalties or taxes on disposal, according to the
alteration of water, of fines in the event of non-observance of the legal standards, financial
sanctions in the event of accidental pollution, and of the taxes on the polluting products.

32
It is important to develop knowledge of the real costs of water preservation, improvement and
protection, in order to be able to determine the appropriate royalties and sanctions. The payer-
pollutant principle has to be based on precise calculations approved by all the participants
before the setting up of the program. The financial royalties and sanctions have to be discussed
with the various pollutants, on the national level, according to national principles and water
quality objectives, but the implementation has to be carried out on the local level in order to
fulfill the local needs and conditions.

The financing of prevention, control and removal of accidental pollution can be achieved only
through the adoption of a tax on the potentially polluting products and materials transported
through the country. A similar tax could be imposed on the products used in agriculture,
intended for the financing of diffuse pollution sources control.

10-3 - Monitoring Water Quality and Data Management

In some countries, we notice that the follow-up and the evaluation of water quality, is
characterized by the intervention of several institutions, according to specific missions. In
order to deal with this situation and avoid the accumulation of unused or unusable data, the
strategy recommends that any collection and evaluation of data on the quality of water
resources have to be accompanied by preset objectives and by an improvement of the
standards of evaluation and distribution as well as the standards of data quality insurance and
control.

10-4- A programme for fighting pollution

The objective of the programme is the reinforcement and the installation of an information
communication and transmission structure and the preparation and coordination of the
interventions in the event of disposal of polluting substances, in addition to the census of all
activities and expenditure so as to fine the polluters that have been recognized as such.

10-5 Use of Information Technologies for Water Resources Management

Information technologies, mainly databases management systems, geographical information

systems and mathematical models, are a very useful technical tool for water resources
management.

The objective, within the framework of this strategy is the creation of a water resources
observatory comprising a database related to a geographical information system and to a series
of computerized mathematical models.

- The elaboration of technical tools to assist in decision-making

This base comprises the following models :

• models of simulation of surface water;
• models of forecasting of the contributions of water and floods
• models of optimization of hydraulic systems;
• hydraulic models of quality management and erosion;
• groundwater management models.

33
- The development of an interface that will allow :
• calculations and checking of the results;
• an easy communication between the models and the databases
• recording of the data;
• making graphic charts of a given zone;
• intelligent support of the system operating;
• providing information useful to decision-making

11- Socio-economic Aspects

This section aims at improving the economic and financial mode so as to allow the setting up
of a water resources management strategy. It also aims at setting up national strategies to
involve the users and the private sector in water resources management.

11-1- Pricing and Recovery of costs

The strategy aims at analyzing the existing tariff systems in various Islamic countries,
establishing the guiding principles of water pricing, and establishing a methodology of water
costing.

a- Diagnosis of the tariff systems

The objective here is to analyze and develop a water valorization system which should be set
up by the institutions in charge of water resources management, and which takes account of the
principles of a rational and sustainable water management and of the financial capacities of the
population with low income, in rural and urban areas. This consists in carrying out a critical
analysis of the tariffing systems in force applied on drinking water, water for industrial use and
irrigation water, and to specify the factors that obstruct the setting up of a powerful water
tariffing system.

The strategy thus aims at achieving the following specific objectives:

• Critical analysis of the tariffing systems in force, which aim at identifying the strong
points and the weak points with the principle of covering all water mobilization costs;
• Identification of the real or predictable problems related to the current water pricing
systems, particularly concerning the evaluation and the conservation of water
resources, in terms of quality and quantity;
• The estimation of water mobilization costs included in the currently applied tariffs on
irrigation water, drinking, water and water used in industry.
• The analysis of the level of investments recovery .
• The specific analysis of the contribution of water tariffs in the recovery of operation
and maintenance charges for water management.

b-Water Tariffing Principles

Three primordial conditions should be fulfilled in order to follow an integrated water prices
policy :

34
 - Prices should be theoretically fair, fit and in conformity with the objectives set by the
public authorities.
- Water producers and distributors should be able to recover the costs of the services they
provide.
- Public authorities should state the objectives of the general policy, set the standards, provide
the institutional and legal frameworks allowing a better effectiveness, define a favourable tax
and subsidies system, and follow the performance of partners in the sector of water.
In order to achieve a sustainable use of water resources, it is necessary to reduce consumption,
even when the consumers are willing to pay the average cost or even the marginal one. The
evaluation of water costs on these two criteria does not guarantee that the water resources will
not be overexploited.
The marginal costs of water mobilization and production increase with time, given that sites of
future dams are less and less favourable (long distances, unfavourable geological and
hydrological conditions, deeper wells, more polluted resources, etc).

11-2- The Elaboration of a water cost evaluation methodology

A model should be suggested with the aim of evaluating the cost of water on a
geographical entity (the catchment area for example) on the basis of an analysis of
expenses and charges incurred by the elaboration of the studies, the mobilization of water
resources, along with the management of transport and distribution of water. This water
tariffing methodology has to be established for irrigation water as well as drinking water
and water used in industry. The royalty to be calculated will be based on an analysis of the
marginal costs (that is the additional volumes provided by these works with respect to the
costs of mobilization and the annual charges).
In order to calculate the water mobilization cost, we suggest that an evaluation should be
made, over 10 years, of the sum of investments and of the increase of the volume that has
become available, while calculating marginal costs in the long term. Thus, the cost of
water mobilization amounts to the price entailed by adding the marginal costs of the
facilities, in the long term, to the average charges pertaining to the exploitation and
maintenance achieved by the institutions in charge of the water resources management,
according to each unit of crude water distributed among the user sectors.

35
Chapter 3 : Towards an integated water resources management in
the Islamic world
In order for the Muslim countries to be able to face the great challenges of the third
millennium as regards water, the integrated administration of water resources through modern
ways requires redoubling our efforts in the legal, regulatory and technical fields. It has become
necessary to agree on setting strategies of cooperation in the field of the conservation of the
available water resources in each country, as well as the scientific cooperation to rationalize
water consumption and agree on a full-scale method of preserving water resources from
pollution in its various forms. It is advisable that these strategies be undertaken between the
States that have shared water resources or unified political mechanisms.

1- The Legal Field

A water legislation is required, as it regulates the various uses of water, and defines the
appropriate techniques for its management. There is a need to use new methods and modern
techniques in order to elaborate legal texts, and to adopt the method of full-scale evaluation in
order to measure the extent to which the projects and programs are compatible with the reality
and achieve the sought results. There is also a need to create mechanisms of anticipation. The
collection of data would be a first step towards futuristic planning, the creation of data banks,
the coordination between these banks, and the promotion of the legal culture of the human
resources operating in the field of water resources.

Nevertheless, however important the legal and technical aspects are, their effectiveness is
contingent upon the climatic conditions, even if modern technology has offered great potentials
of investment, as it has alleviated the water crisis in some Muslim countries. This technology
requires, however, heavy investments which cannot be afforded by all Muslim countries,
though there remains a possibility within the framework of technical and financial cooperation,
either between the States of the North or those of the South, or else within the framework of
cooperation with the specialized, financial international organizations. It is worth noting that
the future of the coming generations depends on this possibility.

The integrated management of water resources is based on a basic, modern legislation and
workable measures. However, the irremediable problems reside in the multiplicity of the actors
intervening in the field of waters, in their lack of a strong coordination, and in the presence of
important loopholes in the laws and regulations in force, especially those related to the
protection of water resources and the anti-pollution measures, etc.

Despite the measures undertaken against water pollution, this water management remains
ineffective. This is shown by the spreading of water-transmitted diseases, such as typhoid,
meningitis and poliomyelitis.

In order to develop the legal frameworks of water resources in Muslim countries, the latter
have to redouble their efforts if they are to ensure water security in the Islamic world. These
efforts consist in designing general rules and principles that inspire the drafting of new,
comprehensive water laws which suit the situation and specificities of every Muslim country,
or at least the amendment or finalization of the laws in force, supplementing them with the
basic, general principles governing the rules of the integrated management of water resources,

36
while they are based on the linkages between both subterranean and surface resources. These
resources should also be submitted to an integrated investment plan and take account of the
modern techniques that have affected the modes of irrigation, discharge and utilization of
treated and return waters.

The standardization of criteria and definitions aiming at harmonizing the water laws within the
Islamic world requires the setting of a unified reference law of water resources that includes the
basic rules of a rational management, which consist in basin-level management and the
management of demand rather than supply. It also calls for the application of the-polluter-pays
principle and that of sustainable development, as well as the creation of a police for the riparian
water resources, the energizing of the State water police, the adoption of a water tariff policy,
and courts entitled to settle disputes. It needs as well the issuing of new laws aiming basically
at closing the loopholes in the existing water laws, or at their finalization, concerning the
following issues:
* the restrictedness of water resources in Muslim countries and the variability of their produce;
* the coast law, as most Islamic seashores are subject to many types of pollution;
* the law on the protection of seasides against erosion;
* the passing of a law adopting new measures related to arsenical pollution of subterranean
waters;
* the passing of a law that regulates the general rules and joint measures to ensure the shares
of Muslim countries lying downstream from the mouth of rivers, when it comes to
international rivers;
* a law providing for anti-desertification, anti-drought and anti-floods measures;
* a law providing for measures against the pollution of waters, including the continent-
originating sea pollution, and prohibiting the discharge of untreated, sanitary and
industrial waste water into the seas and oceans;
* a law addressing the multiplicity and inconsistency of the uses of water, while there is no
alternative to it;
* a law on the pricing of the water resources and the imposing of taxes on the air pollution;
* the passing of a law on non-classical waters along with their usages;
* a law on the adverse effects of water resources in the case of extreme scarcity and extreme
abundance alike;
* the passing of a law on drinking water;
* the importance attached to the principle of the sustainability of water resources;
* the setting of a comprehensive strategy in order to determine the sites at risk because of
desertification and drought, and also the setting of objective, measurable standards while
assessing the projects and programs, with a view to defining their profitability and interest
for Muslim countries.

2- The Regulatory Aspect

The integrated management of water resources in Muslim countries requires the defining of the
responsibility lines and the relationships between all units. Since the water resources need a
unified management to be in line with the unity of the matter, the comprehensive perspective

37
towards water calls for standardizing the supervision in such fields as the investigation,
prospection and the design of schemes, so as to create a framework that makes it possible to
allocate quantities to all uses, and to entrust each unit with the attributions that suit its technical
and regulatory specifications.

By doing this, along with the passing of the necessary laws, the integrated water management
will have found a favorable context for the investment of the water resources in a rational way,
so as to put an end to the inconsistency and multiplicity of action, with a view to raising the
utility and profitability.

As the water resources are increasingly subject to many impurities, it becomes necessary to
further control water consumption, define more clearly the attributions of every unit, and
achieve cooperation between the control departments, local communities, and the judicial
bodies entitled to rule judgments over the water-related infractions.

In order for the integrated water management to coordinate between all units, it should have a
regulatory character on all levels. Besides, the regulatory framework of the water police should
be supported, with a view to improving the effectiveness of monitoring over all water uses to
preserve it from any impurity. This is only possible through sturdier efforts on the part of the
units in order to achieve the unity of work, hence the unity of the purpose of using water in a
rational way. However, the conservation of water resources presupposes the adoption of
modern methods to involve the public in the responsibility along with the government, and to
arouse its enthusiasm so that its participation would be stronger. It also implies that the Islamic
countries experiencing a critical water situation carry out radical reforms on the institutional
level, regarding the management of water resources and the change in the patterns of behavior.

3- Privatisation and water users’ participation in water resources

management
In many developing countries, the state conceived and planned irrigation networks according to
its own needs, without consulting the users. The weakness of this step lies in the difficulty in
maintaining irrigation networks for long periods. Often, the institutions in charge of irrigation
sought to set up new networks, at the expense of the maintenance of those that already existed.
Once the building works completed, many organizations are often unable to ensure the
necessary exploitation and maintenance. Those that take a royalty for the consumed water in
order to cover the exploitation and maintenance expenses have difficulties in recovering them,
because farmers often refuse to pay a poor quality service. Thereafter, public subsidies
intended to cover exploitation and maintenance expenses are often used to finance new works.

For these and other reasons, the participation of farmers in the management of irrigation is
regarded as a means of stabilization, if not a means to increase the share of irrigations
networks. A new method should be devised, consisting in increasing the participation of users,
which facilitates the circulation of information, gives consumers the impression that they
control the situation, and encourages them to ensure the installations’ continuity. These
principles are absent in many systems managed by public authorities. As long as they do not
have a say in the initial design and planning of the public irrigation system, farmers do not feel
concerned by its maintenance. Examples show that when farmers’ experience and knowledge
are taken into account in the planning and implementation of irrigation systems, the results are

38
much better. In addition, farmers are more willing to contribute in the maintenance if they
benefit of the system’s good functioning.

Another step consists in encouraging farmers to develop irrigation through a private

commercial system or the equipment of private wells. These and the communal systems have
considerably contributed to the development of irrigation.

International experience makes it possible to bring into shape four conceptions that are
different from the participation in the management of irrigation water and that can be adopted
within the framework of this strategy, namely :

- the creation of water users associations;

- the delegation of the functions of the public management institutions to water users
associations;
- the adoption of royalties for irrigation services;
- the development of private irrigation.

- The case of drinking water supply systems

In most developing countries, water and purification services work badly, and maintenance
problems are chronic. Given that leakages are not repaired, that the old drainpipes are not
replaced, and because of illegal connections and the lack of water meters, a high proportion of
supplied water is not counted. In industrialized countries, this proportion ranges between 10
and 15 % of the net production of water. The proportion can reach 50% in developing
countries.

a) Supply of water to urban zones

In urban zones there are four principal systems of the involvement of the private sector in water
management. This is done through service contracts, management contracts, leasing contracts
and concessions.

Within the framework of service contracts : the public water service concludes a contract
with a private company stipulating that the company provides specific services such as the
reading of meters, invoicing, the recovery and exploitation of the equipment.

Within the framework of a management contract : The contractor assumes entire

responsibility for the exploitation and the maintenance of the water supply system and is free to
take routine decisions.

Within the framework of leasing : a private company leases the equipment from the
authorities and assumes the responsibility for the exploitation and maintenance. The contractor
is in charge of operation fees and the replacement of the material whose economic lifespan is
limited, the public authority being responsible for the fixed assets.

Within the framework of a concession : a private company finances the investments for the
fixed assets and the operation capital. The installations remain the property of the companies
until the end of the concession, and then they are handled back to the authorities.

39
These provisions were adopted long ago in various Islamic countries, with a view to achieving
a better water management. The strategy will try to popularise these management modes in
order to benefit from their advantages whenever the social context is favourable.

b) Water supply to rural zones

The success of a small number of drinking water supply programs in the rural zones,
implemented by the World Bank in Africa has shown that there is a link between the
community’s involvement in the conception of projects, the users’ participation in the
exploitation, maintenance and the quality of the provided services and consequently to ensure
the durability of water services.

The merits of the community’s participation do not need to be proved. Consequently, a radical
change of the attitudes of the public actors towards the adoption of a participative approach in
every intervention in rural areas is necessary.

4- Sensitization and Social Responsibility in Water Resources Management

Islam is an authority and charter which guides people in their behavior in general, and in the
water resources management in particular. Man is seen in Islam as a vicegerent on earth whose
task and responsibility is nothing more than ensuring the utilization of all resources, including
the water resources, in a rational, fair and sustainable way. It has turned out from the
experiences of the pioneer countries in the field of water resources management that
participation consists in spreading a feeling of ownership through the involvement of the
stakeholders who can influence policies, alternative designs and the investment options. The
increasing participation of local communities in the water management will undoubtedly
increase the chances of improving the modes of selection of projects, services accessibility and
cost recovery.

The rational water resources management, through raising the awareness of the public and all
users about the responsibility incumbent upon them in using these resources in a rational way,
requires us to take into account the role played by the population, which makes their
participation very significant for the development and preservation of water. Most
recommendations of the international conferences stress the positive side of this participation.
Moreover, the majority of developed countries having abundant supplies of water involve
consumers in the integrated management of water resources thanks to the instruction efforts
and focusing on the nexus between water resources and the cultural and economic aspects of
societies, through educational and research institutes and institutions, as well as the NGOs and
international governmental institutions. Such an approach aims at striking a viable balance
between water supply and demand. The fact that the above-mentioned institutions are
overlapping makes it easier to find solutions to the water problems not by having recourse to
mere technical reasoning, but rather by adopting a global approach based on visibility and
stabilization.

The creation and promotion of irrigation systems will enable the public to participate in the
water management and prompt it to assume its responsibility in using water in a rational way,
and see to it that water facilities are preserved from deterioration and waste, which allows the
State to get progressively freed from the maintenance and protection costs. Some forms of

40
cooperation have begun to emerge between governments and the private sector regarding the
protection of water resources in particular, and the environment in general.

The mass media play an extremely important role in liberalizing people’s outlook on the issue
of water, and in rationalizing their behavior while using it. They also show its importance and
the risks that are entailed by its loss or scarcity. They are also effective in complementing the
efforts made in water-related fields. Hence the necessity to include awareness- raising into the
plans of preserving natural resources in general, and protecting the water resources in
particular. In this regard, it is imperative to devise strategies and plans of water resources
management, an to economize on their use, relying on Islamic concepts and means in the
general sensitization campaigns. It seems the absence of a public participation and the fact that
consumers are misinformed are the two main reasons behind this gap.

Besides, the management systems in place within Muslim countries are often inappropriate,
due to the prevailing central management regime and to the local operators not assuming their
responsibility regarding the issue of water. Furthermore, the private sector suffers the slackness
of administrative procedures, which affects the effectiveness of the measures undertaken.

In order to consecrate social responsibility regarding water, the following measures should be
undertaken:
* the incorporation of the Islamic teachings on water conservation in the Friday sermons, in
education and in the mass media, so as to enhance the general awareness of the
importance of dealing with the issue of water scarcity. This requires the redoubling of
efforts and coordination between all stakeholders, so that they take part in the integrated
water resources management.
* The setting of a comprehensive, interactive strategy regarding the economy in water use,
involving all consumers and all relevant potentialities, such as religion and politics, along
with the local actors.
* The promotion of the participation of civil society in the water resources management, and
the implementation of related strategies and programs, and the creation of civil society
organisms, and the setting of a legislation in support of its participation.
* The organization of training sessions for the supervisors of the literacy campaign to
integrate the strategic aspect of the water resources, as well as the importance of
economizing on them, into the literacy programs.
* The organization of information campaigns with a view to improving the citizens’
behavior towards the water resources, health, and employing the Islamic teachings in this
regard.

5- Cooperation between Islamic countries in the field of water resources

The most important condition in the problem-solving and good employment of water resources
is the existence of systems aiming at a rational use of these resources instead of their
exhaustion. Rational use means the use of small amounts in the long run in place of rapid use
in the short run.

41
The concern about the issue of the water resources exploitation mechanisms along with the
emphasis on the importance of their optimization is not new. More than thirty years ago, the
World Bank has been working towards developing many strategies including capacity building.
However, the problem lays in the fact that the traditional way is characterized by impatience,
and the leniency to consider institutions as a static fact, and an all-inclusive means of honoring
commitments and securing rights.

To shed light on the different mechanisms liable to promote relations among Islamic countries,
we will expose the various fields which could lead to the exploitation of water resources
according to modern techniques, with a view to securing a sustainable security to the water
resources in the Islamic countries, as well as food security, provided such fields are exploited
in a modern and methodological way.

5-1- Cooperation

An exemplary society is one that follows the model of well-structured human societies and
avoids discord and hostilities. To achieve this purpose, Islam has recommended cooperation for
the well-being of all members of the Muslim nation. God says : “Help ye one another in
righteousness and piety, but help ye not one another in sin and rancour”. From this perspective,
cooperation in good and righteousness leads undoubtedly to accord on every fruitful endeavor
considered a source of joy in life or in the hereafter.

In this respect, cooperation can work out the most feasible policies to manage water resources
as well as widening our knowledge of some influential factors in the official and unofficial
practices and implement policies to come up with the best means to manage water resources.
This brings to the fore the dynamism, flexibility and solid reasoning of Islamic rules in meeting
the challenges faced by Islamic countries concerning fundamental issues such as the issue of
water. This is clear through :

- The realization of pioneering local development projects to limit the scope of the
phenomena of desertification and drought;

- The elaboration of mechanisms to protect the ecological systems of joint watercourses,

and to prevent, minimize and fight against pollution which may cause considerable
harm to other countries from among the joint water course countries or their
environments;

- The elaboration of techniques and practices to deal with pollution, and maintain
installations, facilities and other works related to a given international water course, and
its protection against deliberate pervasive actions or those resulting from carelessness or
nature’s forces;

- The setting up of an all-inclusive strategy to designate sites threatened by

desertification and drought in Islamic countries;

- Support of Islamic countries in the preparation and implementation of its strategies and
national and quasi-regional work programs to fight against desertification and minimize
the effects of drought;

42
 - Contribution to the enhancement of national and local policies and institutional
arrangements liable to optimize water resources and their utilization methods;

- Cooperation on the basis of fairness in sovereignty, regional security and mutual benefit
to realize the utmost profit from the international water course and provide it with
enough security;

- The preparation of lists of the goods to be prohibited from being used in the
international water course or limit and control its use;

- Promotion of benefit from the international water course, and its protection and control
in a reasonable and exemplary way;

- The Sketching out of the international watercourse’s sustainable development plans and
work towards the implementation of adopted plans.

5-2- Financing
The heavy debt burden and the brain drain towards the “North” in addition to national
catastrophes including drought, desertification, social regression resulting from illiteracy,
poverty and illness constitutes one factor leading to the deterioration of the water problem. The
Islamic countries are no longer able to bear the consequences of this fact, particularly in a
context characterized by a decrease in capabilities and increase in needs, which necessitates the
adoption of a bold approach and the reformation of the mechanisms undertaken in financing.

The existing financing resources of projects pertinent to water resources in Islamic countries
can be summed up in three principal public and foreign sources:

Public financing consists in the amounts allocated by the state from its public expense balances
for water resources. This shows that public financing consists of all transferred expenses
seeking to secure supply water to all productive sectors.

Foreign financing consists in the foreign transfers allocated by granting bodies in the form of
donations and loans in addition to “softly-paid” loans in case these are government institutions.
Foreign financing plays an increasingly important role in financing investment in the field of
water resources in Islamic countries whenever these countries are poor in terms of resources
and modest in their growth level. The states are also required to find the role that can be played
by the private sector in this regard.

5-3- Scientific Research

Islam calls for knowledge and learning and did not put limits or obstacles to knowledge. The
Prophet (PBUH) said : “seeking knowledge is an obligation for every Muslim”. There is no
limit for learning, and man is supposed to remain in a continuing learning process whatever his
age or knowledge. The Almighty God says: “but say : O my Lord ! advance me in knowledge”.
The care for and concern about scientific research certainly determine the future and the
position of states among nations of the world. In the same way, Universities cannot perform
their role unless scientific research contributes effectively to economic and social development.

43
Research economically and scientifically entails deep thinking about the means of its
investment, and the highlighting of the steady interaction between the world of economics on
the one hand, and technological research, development and innovation on the other hand.

The concretization of scientific gains in the form of skills, expertise, techniques and
technologies leads definitely to guaranteeing sustainable development. Within this framework,
it is desirable to enhance capabilities in the research field and the transfer of technology in the
following domains:

- Enhancement of the capabilities of the research and academic centers in the Islamic
countries, particularly in the field of water economy, desalination, purification and
recycling of waste water, and the techniques of combating desertification, soil erosion,
meteorology, and protection against flood....

- Facilitation of access to modern techniques of information and communication, which

open new horizons for the orientation of the use of resources in the Islamic countries.

- Development of the desalination techniques with the aim of reducing its costs and
making it accessible to all.

- Promotion of scientific research to the level required to face challenges and achieve the
desired development through associating university research with development projects.

- Carrying out studies, making the necessary legal, institutional and economic reforms,
and working out a model bringing together integrated administration of water and the
participation of the public to make use of water in a well-planned way liable to serve the
interests of the community;

- Allocating financial resources to higher studies in universities and specialized higher

centers to work on the better management of water resources and economy in its
consumption.

5-4-Technology Transfer

The twenty first century is considered to be a decisive period laden with challenges that should
be overcome to meet expectations. This period is characterized by the impacts of globalization
on the productive structures including agriculture and industry. The outcome of these impacts
cannot be controlled unless the science and techniques liable to achieve a planned development
strategy are acquired.

In this respect, The international scientific community, donor parties and United Nations
Organizations should be oriented towards promoting the capabilities of academic and research
centers in the Islamic countries, particularly in the field of programs development,
consolidation of capabilities related to the local priorities of each region, the most important of
which are desalination, new and renewable energies, development of traditional techniques and
the use of modern irrigation means promoting a rational use of water. Besides, it is required to
extend the use of plants varieties adapted to local environments, especially the scarcity of
water, the rise in temperature and salinity degrees, to transfer and develop modern techniques
suitable for water resources, encourage researchers, and provide a better scientific practice

44
considered as one of the reasons for the advancement and persistence of developmental action.
Raising awareness about the importance of scientific reflection, research in fields of sustainable
development, advancement of action means, and the pushing forward of society to advanced
levels of progress and development in furthered speed and with less costs should be associated
with all this.
5-5- Enhancement of knowledge capabilities in the field of water resources management
The transformation of scientific gains, in the form of skills, expertise, techniques and
technologies for the well-being of people, leads to human, social and economic development
devoted to valorizing scientific and technical knowledge through :
- Taking action to fight against illiteracy among women, representing a high illiteracy
level, in the countryside and in cities via providing learning conditions particularly in
the countryside, and removing the hurdles that stand against the accomplishment of
learning objectives, and making available the means required for its promotion.
- Giving importance to Islamic information media on women and water issues, considered
as immediate and primary. Emphasis should be put on programs and information
material targeting women to upgrade their level and make prevalent social
consciousness of water.
- Using on a wider scale the pilot projects in sanitary water drainage as well as in the
treatment and safe recycling of waster water.
- Exploiting the available water resources in a reasonable way, sketching out special
programs to rationalize its consumption, and searching for unpreserved water resources
including rainfall waters and unconventional resources.
5-6- Human Resources Development
At the turn of the twenty first century, and with the events and new changes taking place in the
world, leading to the promotion of the value of globalization and competition, joining of
forces, seeking power through information, revolution in science, communication and genetic
engineering, investment in human development has become the weapon of this century,
especially that Islamic countries are in need of promoting the values of innovation, exploration,
and respect for the intellect. In fact, getting people ready to face the future is part of the global
re-construction of this future. People are the real fortune of the Muslim nation, being the means
and the end of any developmental endeavor.

Investment in human capital is a non-ending operation. Human development concentrates,

besides the impacts of the improvement of nutrition, health and education levels on
productivity and economic advancement, on the furtherance of productive skills and promotion
of innovative potential. Here, we have to ask the following question : Why should we be
concerned about human development ? The answer comes readily as : development will not
persist after foreign aid and loans from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund
have ceased.
5-6-1- Formal Training and Continued Training
Training aims to develop the skill of the person dealing with water resources. The meaning of
skill development is embodied in the promotion of the level of the person’s capabilities to
improve and upgrade their professional status through carrying out their duties and assuming

45
their responsibilities. Developing the person’s skill is highly valued as it provides them with
the necessary means to perform properly through :

- Building scientific, technical and legal capacities at the Islamic level, and energizing
specialized organizations and centers for research and strategic studies.

- Working out a plan framework for training sessions in the water resources field.

- Including issues dealing with water resources and economy in its consumption in the
educational programs;

- Sketching out plans at the level of directorates for training and continued training in the
water resources filed.

- Setting up integrated programs in training and continued training in the fields of

investment techniques, the development of water resources and its modes of exploitation
in different usages, and highlighting of the particularity of each country.

- Exchanging visits between instructors, supervisors and technicians of all Islamic

countries in the water resources field.

5-6-2- In-service Training

In-service training is the most important integral component in filling the gaps existent in the
educational system and its revitalization. Investment in human capital is indeed the most
rewarding kind of investment. For this reason, It is imperative to organize regular training
sessions to keep the trainees updated on all new and modern techniques of water usage
(irrigation, industry, drinking water, tourism) and the techniques used to economize in water
consumption, fight against desertification, perform water desalination, etc. This will enable the
trainee to acquire knowledge and expertise. To make the training achieve its objective, it is
advisable to convince the trainee of the profitability of the training and his own commitment to
its practical purposes.

6- Database
To face these inconsistencies, it is advised to observe the scientific and legal competencies in
the water resources domain in the Islamic countries, draw a map of human capital displaying
the Islamic countries undergoing shortage or need in this capital, work out the necessary
mechanisms allowing the free movement of this human capital within the framework of
cooperation and experts exchange, and enhance scientific and practical research.

It is also recommended to provide and develop national and regional centers for information
documentation, its preservation, retrieval and management. The administration of these centers
should be entrusted to the concerned states, and the different regional institutions should
concentrate on developing regional strategies for water resources management in neighboring
water courses and rivers and underground water sources, in accordance with the principles of
fairness and equality, along with the clarification of the importance of having recourse to a
strategy relying on water demand. It is also advisable to set up information rules, joint

46
geographical information systems, and an early warning system to observe and control the
phenomenon of desertification.

7- Mechanisms
To strengthen relations between Islamic countries in the field of water resources, and enhance
cooperation in all technical, legal, organizational, field-specific and sensitization domains, the
mechanisms listed below can turn out to be a primary condition for the success of the strategy
to be adopted by Islamic states.

- Institution of a consultative council for water resources in Islamic states, whose role will
be to prepare and sketch out Islamic policies in water resources, and set up an Islamic
law for water. When these Islamic countries shall agree on the institution of an Islamic
law on shared waters, the establishment of pilot projects including all situations may
become feasible in the Islamic countries.

- Institution of an Islamic center for water resources to be concerned with the basic studies
for the development of water resources in Islamic countries. Its main duties will be to :
* Carry out studies to set incentive taxes for investment in water saving techniques in
industry and agriculture, and discounts on the use of domestic appliances
consuming less water along with loans, discounts and technical assistance;
* Devise an integrated methodology to organize and develop water resources
management and other associated activities to make it compatible with the water
resources integrated management method in accordance with the unity of the
material;
* Develop the techniques of water markets’ organization as it is the case in developed
countries. The growing scarcity of water in Islamic countries and the increase in its
costs in the black market have led to the emergence of disorganized water markets.
The existence of these markets may lead to inconsistent practices in the absence of
the necessary institutional, economic and legal procedures.

8- Information Network
To communicate with the largest number of people benefiting from the institutions attached to
the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in the field of water resources,
and to extend its radiance to the Islamic countries, it is required to establish a website on the
Internet to achieve the following objectives :

- The preservation of the competencies, be they technical or legal in the water resources
domain, found in the Islamic countries, to benefit from the expertise and capabilities
which the Islamic countries can boast in this field;

- The preparation of a water monograph for all Islamic countries and its publication on the
Internet to facilitate its exploitation by specialized international or regional bodies or by
researchers or other parties.

47
 Chapter 4 : Recommendations and Conception of an Action
Programme

From what has preceded one can say that the water situation has become critical in many
Muslim countries. Although most of them have overcome the obstacle of water shortage, there
are still some which witness an extremely serious water shortage. Also, the failure of most of
them to have full autonomy in their water resources can only add to the complication of the
development issues. Hence, it is imperative to derive the necessary mechanisms to achieve
water security in the Muslim countries.

The impediments to development can be summarized as follows:

1- The general problems relating to the assessment, development and

exploitation of water resources

1-1. The general problems of water resources

In the light of the analysis of the water situation in the Islamic world, we can classify water-
related problems into two main categories.

First category :

Attributed to natural factors, it consists mainly in the problem of scarcity and shortage of
conventional water resources. The geographical position of the Islamic world lies behind this
water shortage, in addition to the successive waves of drought that have raged through most
Islamic countries.

Second category :

This category is induced by artificial factors relating to human activities affecting the water and
environmental balance. One particular example of these activities consists in the water policies
adopted, which have to take into account modern basics, such as sustainability, equal distribution
and environment safety. As to the population policies adopted, they have been unable so far to put
an end to overpopulation, which puts some constraints on the water resources, both quantitatively
and qualitatively, and contributes to a great extent to the worsening of the water shortage. This calls
for a judicious population policy in order to face this situation.

Water problems could be summarized as follows :

- The unequal distribution of water, as some countries witness a critical water situation
while some other countries have a suitable water situation. Yet the availability of
water resources for these countries is not enough to make them secure, that is making
it possible to exploit these resources, utilize them to improve the living standards of
the population, and achieve sustainable development.

48
 - The non-availability, for the Muslim countries witnessing a critical water situation, of
enough financial and technological resources appropriate for dealing with this
shortage, while the countries that have considerable financial means can have access
to water, using modern methods despite the exorbitant cost of such processes.

- Some Muslim countries have abundant water resources, as they have a suitable
sewerage system, while other countries suffer the accumulation of surface waters,
whose stagnation brings about epidemics.

- The increasing scarcity of water, the rise of its cost, its draining off, along with the
process of desertification, soil erosion, the depletion and overexploitation of some
water layers. This only damages the groundwater reserves. Also, some developed
countries in South East Asia are experiencing a poorer quality as far as their waters are
concerned, as well as a higher degree of water pollution and dilapidation as they are
failing to rationalize its use, which has increased the quantity of suspended sediments
in the rivers’ water as a result of the corrosion factors affecting the water canals.

- The contamination of water by organic matter, pathogenic substances and toxic wastes
represents a serious problem facing Muslim countries.

In the light of the above-mentioned factors, the general policies regarding the use and
management of water resources still fall short of the modern concepts of integrated
management despite the efforts being made. Moreover, the issue of riparian waters is likely to
make the water crisis even more serious in certain Muslim countries, as many of them derive
most their renewable, surface or groundwater resources from water resources that are shared
with neighbouring countries.

Moreover, the legal and regulatory frameworks governing the existing resources suffer some
deficiencies and loopholes, and the utilization of some of them is done according to methods
and techniques that are inconsistent with the modern techniques of integrated water
management.

What we are referring to here is capacity building with its three components :

The institutional frameworks, human resources along with the legislation, which are extremely
important, as they support water policies, programs and projects. In fact, the multiplicity of the
institutional frameworks, the weakness of coordination mechanisms between them, the failure
to take into account environment considerations, the irrelevance of the water legislation, the
lack of qualified scientific and technical executives, the absence of many modern specialties,
the insufficient number of scientific research institutions, along with the lack of coordination
and of information exchange among them, are all the features that characterize, partly or fully,
the institutional frameworks of the Muslim countries. It is, therefore, imperative to overcome
these obstacles, which impede the water sector and weaken its performance.

1-2. The problem of assessing and developing water resources

Despite the great efforts that are being extended to assess and develop water resources in
various Muslim countries, there are still many problems that obstruct these endeavors, namely
the lack of know-how about the water resources, as many of the elements of the hydrological

49
cycle remain unknown in many countries, the lack of information on the deteriorating quality
and pollution of water and the sensitivity of water environments to pollutants, as well as their
quasi-stagnancy, and the inaccuracy of the assessment of the seasonal rivers’ water, etc. By
and large, the Islamic world’s resources remain undetermined. This lack of knowledge is a
main impediment to water resources assessment, as it leads to unrealistic planning which could
cause considerable damage and bring about many other problems hampering the water
resources management and development, in addition to the limited use of modern and
appropriate technologies in the water sector, such as the large-scale use of modern monitoring
networks, computer systems, information systems, mathematical models, systems analysis and
other water resources assessment technologies. There is also a need to use modern technologies
on a wider scale in rationalizing water use in agriculture, industry, as well as the domestic uses,
and non conventional water resources techniques.

1-3- Water uses problems

The problems become apparent when there is a growing demand for water in the various
sectors, especially in the agriculture sector. In fact, most waters exploited in the Islamic world
are used in irrigation, leaving over huge quantities that are wasted, which is inconsistent with
agricultural production. In addition, the lack of infrastructure, including the system of water
pipes and sewage, its treatment plants, irrigation and disposal channels, and all accompanying
operating and maintenance devices, all make the water problem even worse, and creates other
problems, at the forefront of which are water wastage and pollution.

2- The broad lines of the proposed solutions within the framework of the
Strategy
Upon analysing the above-cited problems, and according to their varying degrees in Muslim
countries, some broad lines could be put forth as a solution to such problems. As a matter of
fact, each country could envisage to adopt one or more of these solutions to overcome the
difficulties facing it, and the solution is not necessarily unique for all countries:

ƒ Deriving the maximum benefit from rain water, to be used directly for irrigation or to
be stored through the setting up of dams, mountain lakes and surface tanks. Are also
subsumed under these benefits the techniques of rainwater harvesting and utilizing it
in agricultural soil through building chains and planting trees. There are lessons to be
learnt from some countries in the Islamic world with regard to both the techniques to
be used and the anti-flood measures.

ƒ Developing new principles, such as water desalination and waste water treatment.
Water desalination has become an alternative in its own right in many countries. There
are some of them, in fact, which have made considerable progress in this field,
especially the countries, and some other which still consider it as one of the strategic
choices due to its high cost. Therefore, there is a dire need to support scientific
research with a view to developing the water desalination technique and improve its
performance. Sanitary, agricultural and industrial water treatment and recycling can
also be an alternative, since a large amount of this water is wasted.

50
 Muslim countries are called upon to set up an information network on water
desalination and recycling, so as to create an Islamic nucleus for desalination-related
research and technology development.

ƒ The shared water resources are undoubtedly among the main issues that the Islamic
world should be concerned with, especially regarding rivers with external sources and
deep groundwater reserves. It is then a must to pursue dialogue between States with a
view to signing permanent agreements for sharing the waters of these basins on an
equitable basis, after a study of the shared water resources has been conducted or
updated.

ƒ Any adopted policy must take into account the existing objective circumstances and
external factors affecting it, and should be founded on a sufficient, accurate and clear
scientific basis. It should also aim at sustainable development, without any prejudice
to the environmental balance. Such factors also include the availability of information
and data through water monitoring networks (quality and quantity) designed to
prepare databases allowing to make the right and necessary information available at
the right time and place.

Moreover, using, on a wider scale, modern techniques allowing an accurate water resources
assessment like the mathematical models for groundwater flow and pollution and hydrological
models for surface water, and using the Geographical Information Systems contribute to the
best decision-making in any development process.

In order to achieve this goal, the following conditions must be fulfilled:

ƒ The availability of the technical, administrative and legal framework which guarantees
the implementation of the water policy and its requirements, like the restructuring of
the various sectors concerned with water issues and enacting the appropriate
legislation.

ƒ Involving the parties directly concerned with the water policy, such as the
beneficiaries of water utilization, while assigning an economic value to water in
development policies so that it could be no longer wasted and polluted.

ƒ Continuous qualification along with training on the various techniques play an

important role, as it allows a better assessment of the water resources and the
improvement of the management, protection and rationalizing of the use of such
resources. Scientific research is no less important, as it contributes to removing
obstacles and finding effective solutions to the water problems. Thus, it is necessary to
support scientific research which takes into consideration the circumstances prevailing
in the Islamic world so that they provide the appropriate solutions through techniques
maximizing the benefits derived from the water sources with a view to protecting and
exploiting them on a sound technical and economic basis.

In order to be able to establish a standardized policy for developing water resources in the
Islamic world, attention must be focused on the development of the Islamic world’s water
information systems within two complementary trends. First, the support and development of
the water databases on the national level for the countries that have made good progress in this

51
area, and the focusing on standardizing the methodologies used and making them compatible
with one another in order to facilitate the collection and exchange of information between
Muslim countries, particularly the ones sharing surface or groundwater territorial basins. This
trend consists, on the other hand, in backing the efforts being made in the other countries,
which are still in the phase of setting up water databases.

The second trend consists in setting an Islamic database covering the Islamic world and giving
top priority to the data collected about the basins that are shared between Muslim countries, as
it is considered to be one of the most important databases in the Islamic water network which
allows the exchange of information pertaining to the basins that are common to the riparian
States for a better management of water resources. It is then crucial to set an Islamic water
information network, which consists in a national network as well as an Islamic one.

ƒ As regards capacity building and human resources development, they must receive
special attention so as to fulfil the water sector needs. Hence the need to work out a
territorial program in support of the national programs in the field of formal and
in-service training and awareness-raising in the water sciences. Further interaction
must also be achieved between universities, research Institutes and water institutions,
since the responsibility for water sciences curricula lies with these institutions. This
program could cover, among other things:

- Defining the needs of Islamic countries in terms of professional and legal senior
executives in the long and medium terms.
- Determining the priorities and the fields of training on the short term.
- Elaborating a mechanism to co-ordinate the national, regional and international
training programmes.
- Electing a work board entrusted with elaborating scientific and legal theoretic and
practical syllabi and programmes geared to sessions to which great Islamic
attention is attached, according to the priorities defined by the Member States.
- Performing the activities scheduled in the programmes through a training network.

3- Recommendations
The shortage of water resources in the Islamic world is all the more increasing as the available
resources do not suffice to meet the ensuing demand. Therefore, the Islamic countries are
called upon to step up their efforts to face this potential shortage in the future. It is also
indispensable for the Islamic countries to draw up a strategy for water security geared to
ensuring food security in the Islamic world. The dearth of water resources is all the more
increasing and its corollary pollution is more and more spreading. In the light of this situation
and the possibilities of its ramifications in the future, we suggest the following
recommendations which may serve as guidelines for any strategy :

3.1- In the field of measuring and assessing water resources :

Promoting knowledge of water resources and continuously bringing it up to date in order to

check the mutations that the increasing demographic growth may yield. This can be achieved
through assessing the quantities of renewable waters, the permanent strategic water reserves
and the quality of water, while making use of the new technology.

52
 3.2- In the field of developing water resources :

Developing water resources in the light of water policies and available means and stepping up
efforts through programmes geared to exchanging information in terms of traditional and
developed technology in the field of promoting water resources. Supporting current studies,
and conducting the necessary research which is conducive to generalizing experiences in the
field of desalination and recycling of water falls within the set of suggestions aimed at
promoting water resources.

3.3- In the field of managing water resources and rationalizing their exploitation :

Re-elaborating water policies by integrating the sectoral water policies into the comprehensive
economic and social development plan geared to managing water resources in such a full-scale
way as to ensure the promotion of the situation of water resources and protecting them in terms
of quantity and quality. Incorporating, into the national legislation of each country, the
“polluter-paies” principles as well as the principle of “Sustainable development”, working
towards implementing them, and creating a water police.

3.4- In the field of water and environment legislation :

Water-related legislation, regulating the diverse uses of water and defining appropriate
management techniques, are all the more indispensable that it is substantially important to draw
on the updated programmes and avail of modern technology in elaborating legal texts, adopting
a comprehensive assessment approach to gauge the extent to which programmes and projects
are adapted to reality, and the feasibility of the predefined objectives, and devising mechanisms
geared to apprehending future changes. It follows from the above that gleaning necessary
information and data, within legal data banks, the basis for future planning. There is also an
urgent need for mustering efforts in this field to achieve joint coordination between Islamic
States and cooperation with the competent organisations.

3.5- In the field of scientific research :

Scientific research should be attached ample importance geared to promoting and assessing
conventional and non conventional water resources, rationalizing their exploitation, preserving
them and protecting them from pollution. It follows that the Islamic States are called upon to
work towards achieving mechanisms to avail scientific research of support and necessary
funding.

3.6- In the field of promoting human resources :

Developing human resources-related strategies geared to achieving the objectives of an integrated

water resources management. The realization of these objectives hinges upon the elaboration, within
an Islamic network, of education curricula aimed at raising awareness and continuing training
programmes to keep up with the scientific and technological changes in this field.

53
 Suggestions of the Member States
Regarding the Strategy for Management
of Water Resources in Islamic Countries

54
Republic of Azerbaijan

Proposals to be included in the Strategy

for Water Resource Management in the Islamic Countries

- Scientific-ecological substantiation of water resources, their complex and protection;

- Enhancement of application of contemporary irrigation technologies and progressive
elaboration and the usage of unconventional water (waste, collector-drainage, etc.) in
agriculture in order to provide the protection of water resources and to frustrate the
water-deficit;
- Establishment of scientific-based monitoring system in water facilities;
- Elaboration of scientific and ecological-based arrangements in order to enhance the
exploitation reliability of water facilities;
- Scientific-ecological substantiation of the environmental security provision of water
farm facilities;
- Elaboration of ecological-economic and legal bases of management of water resources;
- To hold joint researches and exchange of experience with the experts of Islamic
countries in domain of the research of water resources, their complex usage and
protection, as well as to establish the information basis;
- Organization of scientific symposia and conferences, as well as exhibition on efficient
usage and protection of water resources in Islamic countries.

55
 Republic of Pakistan

Water is one of the most important factors for the existence of life
on the earth. However, due to increase on demands, the resources are
being depleted worldwide. Most of the Islamic countries already in the
arid regions, are also affected by the shortage of water either due to its
scarcity or poor management. The integrated and sustainable
development and management of water resources in these countries is
essential to avoid any future crisis of water shoratge (both quantitatively
and qualitatively). The development of water resources is sustainable
only if it meets the needs of present without compromising the ability of
the future generations to meet their requirements. The following
strategies may help for sustainable water resources development and
management in Islamic countries:
• To set and maintain a data bank in the field of water resources development and
management for use of the Member States taking into account national interests of
the subscribing countries;
• To conduct and coordinate research on water resource development and its efficient
utilization;
• To develop methods for use of non-conventional sources of water such as sewerage,
rainwater effluent, etc;
• To initiate dialogue on cooperation between the members countries to use and share
water resources in an equitable manner;
• To establish water development and management technology centres.

56
 Kingdom of Bahrain

Ministry of Electricity and Water

Broad Lines of the Joint Water Policy of the Arab Gulf Countries Co-operation Council

The devising of a joint water policy was undertaken in implementation of a decision

taken during by the meeting of their excellencies the ministers of agriculture and water
(Commission for Agricultural and Water Co-operation), the ministers of water and electricity
(Commission for Electricity and Water Co-operation), held at the head quarters of the
Secretariat General on 4 February 2001. The meeting recommended that a Permanent
Commission for Water be tasked with the devising of the guidelines of a joint referential water
policy for the countries of the Gulf Co-operation Council that would take into consideration
local water policies existing in some of these countries, and on condition that this joint policy
be submitted to the Commission for Agricultural and Water Co-operation and to the
Commission for Electricity and Water Co-operation in their future meetings.

Following is a summary of the objectives and policies to be implemented according to

the conclusions drawn by the Water Committee in September 2001:

1- Providing drinking water in sufficient quantities and satisfactory quality to

meet the current and future demand, and granting priority to water use for
human consumption.
2- Providing the necessary water (after fulfilling human consumption
requirements) for industrial and agricultural development and other present
and future uses.
3- Assessing and developing the various resources and monitoring their quality
and quantity to cater to long-term needs.
4- Searching for new water sources and technologies
5- Preserving existing water resources
6- Developing human resources operating in the water sector and increasing
their productive capacity.
7- Ensuring the integrated and effective management of water resources.
8- Consolidating the desalination research and industry.

57
Republic of Benin

The devising of the strategy should take into consideration the following elements:

- The legal and regulatory aspects

- The institutional aspects
- The economic and financial aspects
- The human resources and training aspects

58
Bosnia and Herzegovina

Main elements to be included in the study or research:

1. Definition of water resources per category (ground/surface)

2. Definition of water resources per end use (drinking/agriculture/industry/other)
3. Possibilities of using modern technology to transform one category into another
4. Geographical locations of the most important resources and the degree of their
relevance to countries outside the Islamic world
5. Risk elements endangering these resources (whether internal or external)
6. Dividing the Islamic countries into:
- Water importing countries, indicating the names of major importers
- Water exporting countries, indicating the names of major exporters
7. Identifying Islamic countries that possess the technical and human means
necessary for desalination of seawater or treatment of used waters
8. Exploring the possibilities of co-operation among Islamic countries to ensure
total or partial self-sufficiency in water.

59
 Republic of Tunisia

The devising of a national strategy for the integrated management of

water resources should cover the following:

1- Mobilisation of water resources

2- Renovation and maintenance of irrigation and sewage networks in
irrigated perimeters
3- Encouraging rational irrigation practices
4- Developing water collection facilities
5- Pricing policy of irrigation waters
6- Practical research

Major Elements for Water Resources Management:

The strategy for the management of water resources in Tunisia is based on the following
main elements:
- Developing water resources through the global evaluation of these resources,
conventional and unconventional alike, with an emphasis on the need to meet the
various needs of all economic sectors in water through the management of water
demand.
- Adopting a set of mechanisms that enable parties in charge of implementing water
development plans to achieve their objectives. Foremost among these mechanisms are:
• Continuous and systematic monitoring of climate and hydrological systems
• Upgrading the procedures in force in water research
• Bolstering the human resources operating in the fields of water resources

- Devising national water-saving programmes in all economic sectors, particularly in

the case of water used in irrigation, largest water consuming activity, by adopting
modern irrigation techniques, implementing price polices, and creating water
consumers interest groups for the purpose of improving water utilization.

All these programmes are supported by large-scale awareness-raising campaigns and

allocation of incentives.

- Endeavouring to maximise the mobilisation of water resources, with a greater

tendency to use unconventional waters, desalinated or semi-desalinated waters, and
treated waste waters.

60
Republic of the Sudan

Devising a Strategy for the Management of Water Resources in Islamic Countries

(Major Elements Proposed for the Strategy)

Part I : Water Resources in Islamic Countries

1-1 Water resources in Islamic countries
1.1.1. Conventional water sources
1.1.1.1. Rainfall
1.1.1.2. Surface waters
1.1.1.3. ground waters
1.1.2 Unconventional water sources
1.1.2.1. Seawater
1.1.2.2. Waste waters
1.1.2.3. Agriculture irrigation waters
1.2. Demographic fluctuations and water consumption per capita
1.2.1. Demographic fluctuations in Islamic countries
1.2.2. Water consumption per capita
1.3. Institutional structures for management and development of water
resources
1.3.1. Institutional framework at the national level
1.3.2. Institutional framework at the regional level
Part II : Current usage of available water resources
1-2 Distribution of water resources per end use
1-3 Per capita share of water resources
1-4 Water uses in Islamic countries
2.3.1. Drinking
2.3.2. Agriculture (Rain-dependent and irrigated cultures)
2.3.3. Industry
2.3.4. Other
4.2. Water Resources and their Constraints in Development Programmes

Part III : Problems and Constraints of Water Resources Usage in

Islamic Countries

3.1. Natural and Environmental Constraints

3.1.1. Climatic changes
3.1.2. Water quality variations
3.1.3. Agricultural lands
3.1.4. International water issues

3.2. Technical and Technological Constraints

61
 3.2.1. Lack of Scientific Research and Shoratge of Specialised Researchers
3.2.1. Inadequacy of water distribution infrastructure
3.2.3. Traditional methods and practices

3.3. Economic Constraints

3.3.1. Energy sources
3.3.2. Reduced income levels
3.3.3. Fluctuations in product pricing

3.4. Demographic Constraints

3.4.1. High demographic rates
3.4.2. Urban expansion
3.4.3. Inadequate performance of water sensitisation officers

3.5. Institutional and Legislative Constraints

3.5.1. Inadequacy of institutional entities in charge of water
3.5.2. Lack of co-ordination among authorities and parties in charge of water
and water use
3.5.3. Land tenure systems
3.5.4. Legislation and laws regulating water usage
3.5.5. Government intervention in orientation and planning of development

Part IV : Trends and main axes for the development of water utilization policies
and the management of water resources in Islamic countries

4.1. General Framework of the strategy for water resources development

4.2. Main axes of the development of water utilization policies
4.2.1. Developing water resources
4.2.2. Enhancing water usage performance
4.3. Economic aspects of the development of water usage and management policies
4.3.1. Using price and water value policies as a mechanism for controlling production
4.3.2. Eonomic criteria of water resources development
4.3.3. Integrating water costs in the economics of development projects
4.4. Institutional and Organisational Aspects
4.4.1. Developing water databases and analysis and early warning systems
4.4.2. Co-ordination among water management authorities
4.4.3. Managing environmental impacts of water projects
4.4.4. Sensitisation and guidance programmes
4.4.5. Enhancing public involvement in water resources management
5.5. Legal, Legislative And Ethical Aspects
4.5.1. Organising water resources development
4.5.2. Imposing restrictions on water pollution sources
4.5.3. Regulating possession of water sourcing devices
Part V : Impacts of Water Resource Development and Utilization Policies
in Islamic Countries

5.1. Horizontal development of available water resources

62
 5.2. Rationalisation of water uses

Syrian Arab Republic

Water Strategy:

The global water strategy reflects the various strategies set up by relevant water-
consuming ministries by target year. The objectives of this strategy are to provide an updated
identification of domestic and international surface and ground water resources, conventional
and unconventional alike, in terms of quality and quantity, prepare a demographic study that
highlights the growth of the labour force and its distribution on economic sectors, and conduct a
categorisation of lands and link them to the water and human resources. Other objectives
include the identification of possible future water resources and the development of existing
water projects in such a way as to ensure sustainable development and drinking water security
for the whole population. The strategy also aims at developing tourism and industry, promoting
rain-dependent and irrigated agriculture, and developing rural areas to ensure relative food
security by target date. This would involve limiting the general pollution of water by sewage and
industrial and agricultural waste waters, evaluating the cost of these projects and conducting a
technical-economic comparative study of projects and their classification according to a priority
scale that would guarantee the best economic profitability without neglecting social objectives. It
would also entail the creation of sufficient job opportunities, the scheduling of these projects
over the future five-year plan in order to earmark the financial resources necessary for their
study and implementation in local and foreign currency. This would serve to raise the Syrian
population's living standards to possible internationally accepted standards and guarantee a good
life for future generations. The strategy would also contain the necessary proposals for the
development of institutions operating in the water sector, the training of staff, the formulation of
water-related legislation and the activation of cooperation with international organisations active
in all water-related fields, in such a way as to ensure the fulfilment of its objectives.

This strategy must be flexible and modifiable to cater for future developments that would
be integrated through the use of appropriate computer programmes for the creation of databases,
the application of geographical data programmes and the conducting of multiple objective
analysis in water reservoirs and at the level of centre (Ministry of irrigation). It should also
contain several potions that determine the years of the water offer-demand balance as per
internal water resources, the quotas to be obtained from international water sources (which may
represent about 60% of Syria's total future water resources), the conveyance of water from one
reservoir to another and the need to meet the requirements of various economic sectors that must
be developed in the future in order to achieve optimal results at all levels by the target date.

The water strategy must also adopt the optimal utilization and rationalisation of water
resources through the use of modern irrigation techniques and developing irrigation practices,
redress the situation of makeshift wells and limit or control the drawing of water from these
wells. It would also endeavour to avoid the excessive exploitation of water reservoirs within the
country while striving to enlarge the surface area of irrigated farmlands, improve the economic
output of various crops, search for cultures that use suitable and limited quantities of water,
benefit from unconventional sources in irrigation identified according to clearly defined criteria,

63
and devise mechanisms, policies and procedures for their financial and technical
implementation following a planned schedule.

Republic of Senegal

Strategy for the Management of Water Resources in Islamic Countries

The strategy may be devised around the following non-exhaustive axes:

- Identification and mastering of management technologies and tools

- Identification of additional tools necessary for a better knowledge of water
resources in Islamic countries
- Identification of the economic and financial aspects of the management of
water resources
- Definition of a just, rational and environment-conscious water resources
management policy that provides for the needs of future generations
- Reinforcement of human capacities

64
 Sultanate of Oman

Summary of Main Elements Proposed for Implementing the Strategy for the Management
of Water Resources in Islamic Countries

• Water Resources Available in Islamic Countries

- Traditional Natural Resources

- Unconventional Water Resources
- Theoretical Imported Water Resources

• Current Water Needs and Consumption in Islamic Countries

- Domestic, industrial, commercial and urban uses

- Agricultural uses
- Environmental needs
- Determining shortage or excess of water and its distribution on Islamic
countries
- Anticipate needs in water by 2020 and beyond
- Identifying safe drinking water sources for all cities and other priority
purposes
- Developing water resources and increasing water recovery rates
- Developing and improving conventional water use systems such as
waterways
- Managing water needs for various end uses - particularly agricultural
ones

• Requirements for Implementing the Strategy

- Institutions
- Legislation and regulations
- Sensitisation and involving concerned sectors
- Privatisation
- Investment and Securing Funding Sources
- Impact of the Implementation of the strategy on Islamic Countries
- Repercussions and expenses that may result from the non-
implementation of the Strategy in Islamic Countries

• Main Objectives of the Strategy to be implemented by 2020:

- Ensuring Water security in Islamic Countries

- Guaranteeing the availability of the water resources necessary for
meeting development needs and building a modern economy for future
generations, and preventing the current shortage experienced in some
countries from worsening

65
 - Raising living standards and improving quality of life and health
conditions
- Providing the minimal degree of protection for water-dependent
environmental elements.

Republic of the Gambia

Major elements that could be incorporated in the water resources

management strategy in Islamic countries

We recommend consideration of the following elements in the

Strategy :
- Cooperation protocols with major regional and other Islamic organizations
stakeholder participation;
- An institutional framework for building
partnerships (exchange/sharing of data, information,
and expertise);
- Capacity building/strengthening within
municipalities/local government administrations and
national apex institutions responsible for water
resources affairs;
- A research programme on various aspects of water
resources management (scientific, economic, legal,
etc.);
- An Action Plan (projects/programmes) to implement
the shared vision inspiring the strategy;
- Option for mobilization of funds to implement the
Action Plan agreed upon one research area of
immense interest is the possibility of mainstreaming
Muslim laws on ownership of, and usufructuary
rights to natural resources, as distinct from those
based on the Napeleonic code and Anglo-Saxon
Common Law tradition.

66
 State of Qatar
Axes of Water Resources Management

1- Definition of Water Resources

a) Surface waters
b) Renewable surface and ground waters
c) Ground waters
d) Desalinated waters
e) Treated industrial and domestic waste waters
f) Dam waters

I- Factors that increase water consumption

a) Geographical environment and nature of climate

b) Population growth and diversity
c) Water production and distribution costs
d) Economic activities and factors
e) Water loss (squandering)
f) Expansion of tourist facilities

II- Means of Rationalising Water Uses

1- Methods of Rationalising domestic water consumption

a) The role of the woman in rationalising domestic water consumption

b) The role of the school in rationalising domestic water consumption
c) The role of religion in rationalising domestic water consumption
d) Technical means and their role in rationalising water consumption

2- Methods of Rationalising water consumption in the agricultural sector

a) Rationalisation through the use of treated waste waters

b) Rationalisation through the use of rainwater and trapped chute waters

3- Methods of Rationalising water concumption in the industrial sector

67
 State of Kuwait
Comments on the main Elements of the Strategy
for Water Resources Management in Islamic Countries

Considering that most Islamic countries are located in the arid regions, the key points that
must serve as guidelines in the drawing up of the Strategy for the Management of Water
Resources in the Islamic countries can be summarised as follows:
1- Achieve sustainable water security through an integrated management and
creation of regional water resources management networks.
2- Build the capacity of institutions in charge of water management and improve the
performance of their personnel.
3- Focus on the ratio of water demand and supply and the need to control
squandering.
4- Consider waste water as an essential source of water while keeping in mind its
possible impacts on health and environment.
5- Protect water sources from pollution.
6- Identify a mechanism for financially supporting applied scientific research while
involving the industrial sector in this support process

Water Resource Management in Arid Regions :

Recommendations
Water resources in arid regions of the world are scarce and constitute a major deterrent
to their sustainable economic development. The availability of these resources is being further
constrained by increasing demand and growing contamination due to burgeoning population,
agricultural expansion, industrialization, environmental degradation, rising standard of living,
mushrooming urbanization, and deforestation. A long-term water policy and a plan for
integrated water resources management (IWRM) have been lacking. Further exacerbating is
the looming climate change. To meet the growing demand for water, more and more water
resources are being extracted and their use is growing. When placed in the context of limited
water, the prospects for water security and sustainable economic development do not seem
bright. Thus, national planning and integrated water resources management must receive top
priority. Indeed, these issues must be viewed in the international context.

1. Perspective on Management
Integrated water resources management (IWRM) must span the entire spectrum from the
point of water resources development to the end user consuming water, involving storage,
conveyance, distribution, and use. This applies to both terrestrial and subterranean environs.
The management spectrum allows for integration of engineering, earth sciences,
meteorology and physical sciences on one hand, and socio-economic sciences on the other.

68
Thus, management has two aspects to it : (1) technological and (2) non-technological,
including economic, social, cultural, political, judicial, administrative, etc.
The objective of IWRM is to achieve water security and an optimal balance between
demand and supply within the aforementioned constraints. Based on the presentations and
deliberations during the International Conference on Water Resources Management in
Arid Regions (23-27 March 2002), Kuwait, the following recommendations are made. It is
deemed that the future of mankind in these regions is intimately linked to water resources.

2. Recommendations
a. General
1. Water resource is the most precious natural resource and is linked to other natural
resources. Therefore, what is needed is the integrated resource management. This
must be the responsibility of national governments.
2. Development of a long-term national water policy and strategy is essential, including
water legislation and laws especially for safe water bodies.
3. Integrated water resources management must be the calling of the day. Depending on
the country, the responsibility must be borne by either the government or the private
sector or both.
4. The integrated water resources management must emphasize the demand management,
in addition to the supply management. This must be undertaken by both the
government sector and the private sector.
5. Water has an economic value and its valuation is urgently needed, taking into account
production and distribution costs in water services.
6. There must be contingency plans for alternative water security and supply during
emergencies.
7. Coordination among different institutions dealing with water resources is needed.
8. It is deemed essential that people are involved in the integrated water resources
management enterprise through education emphasizing the cultural and economic
linkages to water resources. This must be done by educational and research
institutions, NGOs, IGOs, and stakeholders. Exchange of people between countries
must be encouraged.

b. Technical
An Arab Water Research, Capacity Building and Training Network must be established
for the entire Arab region.
1. Mechanisms for funding for research projects must developed.
2. There must be national as well as regional archival centers for data acquisition, storage,
retrieval, and management. This must be the responsibility of national governments and
regional organizations.
3. Water supplies must be augmented, such as by water harvesting, desalination, etc.

69
 4. Reuse, recycle, and conservation of water must receive top priority, taking into account
the impact on human health and environement.
5. Reduction in biological and chemical pollution of water is needed to maintain public
health. This should be sponsored by national governments and World Healh
Organization (WHO).
6. Losses from water supply systems through evaporation and leakages must be
investigated and controlled.
7. Unaccounted water must be evaluated and included in water systems models.
8. Improved technology for demand management must be emphasized through more
efficient irrigation, better agricultural practices and forest management.

International Conference on Water Resources

Management in Arid Regions (23-27 March 2002)
Kuwait Water Declaration
On the invitation of KISR, over 350 scientists and government officials from 52
countries and representatives of international and regional agencies like UNESCO, ISESCO
and FAO participated in the “International Conference on Water Resources Management in
Arid Regions”, held in Kuwait during 23-27 March, 2002. Having deliberated the technical
research and policy aspects of Water Resources Management with a view to exchange and
identify trends and policy directions towards sustainable management of water resources, the
participants acknowledged and emphasized the following :
1. Water is life.
2. Groundwater constitutes the main source of freshwater in arid regions. However, other
resources should also be considered for the integral management.
3. Access to safe water is a basic human right that should not be compromised, and must
represent a global responsibility of all countries.
4. Poverty and aridity are common features in developing countries. Women play a vital
role in sustaining water resources.
5. In arid regions, the lack of water resources and poor water management processes are
at the center of land degradation, desertification and loss of biodiversity problems.
6. Problems of water scarcity in arid regions around the globe with specific reference to
the Arabian Peninsula will intensify due to population growth, and accelerated
agriculture, urban, and industrial developments.
7. The present global population growth rate and the continuation of present water
management policies and consumption patterns put water at the top of the priorities
during the 21st century. They further carry a great potential of political instability and
conflicts over scarce water resources.

70
 8. A holistic approach to water resources management within the framework of
ecosystem balance should form the basis for strategy development of sustainable
water resources.

Declare :
1. Sustainable management of water resources in arid countries is a global issue and not
only of national or regional dimensions.
2. Achieving sustainable water resources security through integrated water resources
management, especially in arid regions, should be at the top of the priorities of the
agenda of upcoming “World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)” to be
held in Johannesburg, South Africa (26th August – 3rd September 2002).
3. The upcoming Third World Water Forum (Kyoto, Japan 2003) should address :
a- Need of integrated water resources management in arid countries, with particular
emphasis on demand management, conservation and protection of water
resources.
b- Advanced and traditional techniques and methodologies should be fully adapted
for proper management of water resources.
c- The importance of capacity building of water management institutes and personnel
and public awareness on curbing sustainable water consumption practices should
be emphasized.
4. Specialized UN agencies, regional organizations, research centers, non governmental
institutes, and the private sector have the responsibility of consolidating resources and
efforts into development of regional programmes for water resources management in
arid regions. Available funds should first be directed to secure drinking water for
population in the least developed countries.
5. Concerned agencies are urged to embark upon the development of regional strategies
for management of water resources in river basins and aquifer systems in accordance
with the principles of equity and fairness to all users and with a view to adopting a
demand-driven approach.
6. Establishment of networks at regional and international levels and water management
strategies should be entrusted to independent agencies taking into consideration
demand and sustainability of water resources as bases for management.
7. Establishment of regional Water Resources Management Networks to promote
Regional Resources Management Approaches should be given high priority. The
Arab Water Research and Training Network is the first step in this direction.
8. Adverse impacts of water resources development projects should be considered and
minimized as much as possible.
9. Wastewater should be considered as a water resource and should be fully utilized
taking into consideration environmental and health impacts.
10. Surface water bodies and acquifer’s basins should be protected against pollution
from any source.

71
 11. The importance of institutional development and legal framework of water resources
management including wastewater reuse should be stressed.
12. Governments are urged to re-examine policies of subsidizing unsustainable irrigation
practices and to develop water evaluation schemes for various users. Economic
aspects of water production and distribution should always be at the center of any
water policy.
13. Funding mechanisms for scientific and applied water management research in arid
regions should be established with active participation of the industrial sector.
14. Water legislations and codes for water practices should be implemented to sustain
the limited water resources.
Republic of Lebanon
Strategy for the Management of Water Resources in Lebanon

The following paragraphs do not constitute a strategy for the management of water
resources in Lebanon. They only provide main guidelines that could be taken into
consideration when drawing up such a strategy.

First: Providing Information on the Water Situation

The networks of stations monitoring rainfall and river courses which used to operate
before the tragic events which wreaked havoc on Lebanon, starting 1975, are practically no-
existent today. It is necessary to rebuild, refurbish and expand these stations to cover snowfall
and ground water monitoring, and upgrade their performance through the use of modern
technology.

Second: Ensure Water Security in the Future

Contrary to the belief prevailing among many Lebanese, Lebanon is not at all rich in
water resources. The quantities of water available nowadays and the additional waters that
could be secured through conventional channels will not cover its future needs over the
medium term (2020). The large majority of Lebanese towns and villages suffers from an acute
shortage of drinking water, including the capital Beirut. Drinking water distribution to districts
and areas is carried out on a rotation basis.

It is therefore necessary to:

- Increase the quantities of available water.

- Rationalise water consumption.
- Identify new sources of water.

2.1. Increase the quantities of available water through the following actions:

a) Wherever possible, create dams to store surface waters. Before 1974, former
Lebanese governments had carried out preliminary studies for the creation of 30
dams on the many Lebanese rivers and to achieve a string capacity of 950 million

72
 cubic meters. Of these dams, only the Albert Naqqas one was built on the Laitani
river with a storing capacity of 220 million cubic meters. It is advisable to conduct
in-depth studies of the sites identified in order to confirm the technical feasibility
of building all these dams and evaluate inherent costs. If the studies confirm the
feasibility of these projects, they must be reserved for future implementation
when the need arises, but necessary measures for the protection of the sites should
be taken (banning construction and allotment of these lands for construction
purposes). Should the study confirm the opposite, then the dam project is to be
abandoned.
b) Benefit from Lebanon’s share in international rivers (Al Hassabani, AlOuazani,
Al ‘Assi and the Great River).

c) Increase underground water reserves by feeding them artificially from surface

water during winter. The General Directorate of Water and Electricity Equipment
had successfully carried out this process in the Hadath and Sahl Eddamour
regions, and initiated experiment in Baalakeck where it channelled the water of
Raas Al Aim source to underground reserves...We believe that this procedure
should be largely favoured in view of the ease of its implementation and the low
storage costs involved when compared to those of dams.

d) Create mountain lakes wherever possible.

e) Encourage individual storage for personal consumption in villages.

2.2. Rationalise water consumption through the following actions:

f) Sensitise the population and draw their attention to the fact that water is a
precious resource that can sometimes become scarce, that water needs increase
everyday without a parallel increase in water resources. Water use should
therefore be rationalised to the maximum possible.

g) Fix water sale prices in such a way as to incite the citizen to rationalise water
consumption, then introduce water meters at two different prices:

- A reduced price applied with regards to the basic water quantities necessary
for daily life and which would be set by the State,

- A high price to be applied to all water quantities consumed in excess of the

first share.

h) Use modern water-saving irrigation methods such as sprinkling or drop irrigation.

2.3. Identify new sources of water through the following:

a) Processing and recycling of used waters. This method would be much viable in
internal regions, particularly in Al Biqaa valley where it is difficult to eliminate
used waters in view of the region’s remoteness from the sewage network. This

73
 process, however, remains expensive compared to other possible sources that
could help secure additional water resources.

b) Study and conduct experiments on the possibility of benefiting from sea

sources.

c) Desalination of sea water. This remains a solution for the future though it
remains too expensive for Lebanon at the present juncture.

d) Artificial rain. Studies were carried out at the General Directorate of Water and
Electricity on the possibilities of inducing rain during summer to irrigate crops.
Though this procedure is feasible in winter, it has proved impossible in summer
in view of the reduced mass of clouds.

e) Study the possibilities of increasing the quantities of snow stocks during winter.
The melting of this snow during the spring months ensures the feeding of
underground and surface waters. The Directorate of Water and Electricity
Equipment had launched this study early the seventies of the previous century
and was forced by the 1975 events to abandon the project before reaching
conclusive results.

f) It is necessary here to mention the indirect but nonetheless vital role that could
be played by the Ministry of Agriculture through the protection of forests, the
reforestation of bare mountains, the expanding of planted perimeters and the
rehabilitation of lands. This contributes to increasing rainfall, slowing surface
water streaming and improving water seeping to the underground...

Third: Water Quality

3.1 The chemical composition of water in Lebanon, surface and underground alike, is in
general good, and may been be described as excellent is most cases. However, man’s
intervention has begun to negatively alter this composition, particularly in coastal areas
where seawater has started to seep trough to and mingle with underground reserves as
a result of the latter’s excessive consumption. The highest level of salt content in
waters destined for domestic use has been exceeded in Beirut and this imbalance has
started to impact negatively on sanitary installations within houses. It is also gauged
from the high salinity levels of underground waters in many coastal regions.

3.2 No exact data is available on the water’content in nitrate and phosphates that result
from the use of chemical fertilisers in agriculture. However all indicators point to the
existence of these elements in high concentrations.

3.3 Many factories dump their untreated used waters in rivers. Some of these rejects may
be highly dangerous for man. This is the case with the rejects of tanneries in the
southern Al Biqaa region. These rejects are dumped in the Laitani river only to mingle
with the drinking waters of Jabal ‘Amel, a situation made even worse by the fact that
drinking water treatment processes do not remove poisonous chemicals from the water
(arsenic, cyanide, chromium...).

74
 3.4 As regards the bacteriological aspect, the situation is worse and more eminently
dangerous as a result of the non-existence of sewage networks in many regions,
particularly internal ones. Even when such networks do exist, no worthwhile treatment
is conducted of these waters before they are dumped in the final drain. Since all
domestic waste, solid and liquid, is drained away untreated, all water sources located
downstream from agglomerations are either polluted or risk pollution at any moment.
This impeding danger will not spare the capital in spite of the existence of a sewage
network as a result of the deterioration of many sections of this network, and of the
rotation system observed in the distribution of water to districts. When the water
supply is cut in one section of the network, the pressure drops within the water main
and polluted waters from outside leak into the system through broken or deteriorated
pipes, only to be carried later with drinking water to the consumer.

Since the main risks of the bacteriological pollution of water lie in the insufficient
attention paid to the processing of used waters and the total disregard for their
treatment or the treatment of solid waste, only an effective ad serious treatment of
water can prevent such pollution. Public authorities have given serious consideration to
the matter of water since the end of World War I. Specialised technical departments
were created, substantial funds were earmarked to this end and water connections were
made available to the majority of the population (about 94% of the population by
1974). However, little importance was granted to the processing of used waters and this
task was delegated in general to local municipalities. Th results were far from
satisfactory for several reasons such as, inter alia, the inadequacy of the budgets of
municipalities, the existence of many villages that do not have a municipality in the
first place and therefore no authority to take over the processing of solid waste and
used waters.

It is high time that this matter be granted the importance it deserved and that the
authority that supplies water to the citizen’s house became also the one that ensures the
disposal of these waters after their use, so that the water cycle becomes integrated and
sound.

Fourth: Water Management

Of all water-related concerns in Lebanon, we think that water management is the most
important, being the direct cause of the many negative results that we have to endure
nowadays:

- The exploitation of water resources is unregulated and the citizen is free to

dispose of these resources as he wishes. It is doubtful that anyone knows the
number of wells in operation in Lebanon, or the quantities of water drawn
from these wells, despite the fact that the law stipulates that the authorities
should be informed before a well is exploited and that a meter must be placed
on this well.

- In spite of the clarity of the law that proclaims water public property that no
one can own or exercise rights over unless the ownership can be proven to
date to before 1962, citizens continue to exploit water as if it were private
property and with little regard for the rights of the others...

75
 - Poor management performances within drinking water projects are most
acute with all citizens bearing the brunt whether it terms of the quantity or
quality of water and in nearly all regions. A large number of institutions have
been put in charge of drinking water distribution but have small budgets that
hardly cover operation costs, let alone renovation or upgrading, and lack the
appropriate technical means.

- Water control was generally weak before the war which only exacerbated this
situation.

This reality dictates a radical reconsideration of the water management resources in

order to achieve the suitable standards in the management of this vital source.

76
 Republic of Mali

Having read your document on the elaboration of a strategy for water resources
management in the Islamic countries, I present you with a summary of the main points that can
be included in the strategy. These are as follows:

A- Identifying water resources in Islamic countries and their functions:

1- Identify the natural functions of water resources as regards national and regional
economics, local cultivation and biological diversity.
2- Evaluate the importance of water resources in regional economics, local cultivation
and biological diversity.
3- Find a solution to water resources problems.
4- Make recommendations as regards ways of restoring water resources natural
functions that have been destroyed or degraded.
5- Make suggestions in connection with ways of preserving existing natural functions
for the future.

B- Roles of scientific research in water resources management:

1- Identify the main scientific disciplines concerned with water resources.

2- Assess the importance of the techniques of scientific research findings in water
resources management.
3- Make recommendations as regards the new scientific domains to be addressed, with
a view to facilitating water resources management.

C- Using technology in water resources management in the Islamic countries:

1- Identify the various techniques that can be used in water resources management.
2- Evaluate the importance of such techniques as the economic valorisation of
environmental impact assessment in water resources management.
3- Make recommendations in order to better fulfil needs expressed by planning
institutions in terms of population and staff training as regards the use of such
techniques.
4- Suggest domains to the advantage of which new techniques can be developed.

D- The need for an integral management that encompasses various sectors :

1- Identify the various sectors that may involve water resources.
2- Evaluate the relative importance of each sector.
3- Suggest new mechanisms for an integral management.

77
 E- Transboundary river basins problems:
1- Identify the problems confronting water resources management.
2- Assess the extent to which the catchment basin constitutes an optimal unit as
regards water resources management.
3- Make recommendations with regard to the political, administrative and technical
measures conducive to an equal sharing out of resources.
4- Suggest institutions to assume management of water resources in across borders
river basins.

F- Elaboration of an Action Plan: (activities, stages, protagonists, support, collaboration)

G- Suggestion of a follow-up and evaluation programme for planned activities

78
 Arab Republic of Egypt

Elements that should be included in the Strategy:

- Optimising benefit from rainwater and torrents either through direct or indirect uses
- Optimising benefit from river waters
- Rationalising consumption and using modern technologies and irrigation methods
- Developing shallow and ground waters
- Treating and recycling waste waters
- Rain inducement (Centre for Environmental Research)

79
 Republic of the Yemen

The main elements to be included in the strategy for water resources Management in
Islamic countries are as follows:

1- Capacity building at the Islamic, national and regional levels to develop

monitoring, research and information systems for the accurate assessment of
water resources and their diverse uses.

2- Islamic scientific technical, administrative and legal capacity building at the level
of shared water reservoirs within the Islamic region, and creation of institutional
frameworks for cooperation among Islamic countries bordering water reservoirs.

3- Creation of institutional frameworks for countries bordering international rivers

that flow in from beyond the borders of Islamic countries, creation of a base for
cooperation among them as well as with other countries bordering rivers, the
exchange of information and protection of resources in a way conducive to a just
and equitable distribution of these resources.

4- Building technical, scientific and legal capacities at the level of Islamic states by
dynamising specialised organisations and centres for research and strategic
studies.

The said strategy should also have as starting point national water policies in force in
each Islamic country and based on the following:

* Creation of a database on renewable water resources

* Development of renewable conventional sources
* Long-term planning of water resources development
* Qualitative preservation of available water resources by protecting them
from pollution
* Preventing excessive exploitation of surface and underground waters
* Planning the development of non-renewable subterranean water resources
* Conscientious allotment and rationalisation of water resources as per the
various end uses
* Recycling of used waters

80
81
 Expert Group for Water Resource Management

S. No. Member State Expert nominated/Complete address Phone/Fax No. E-mail Address

1 Republic of Ganbarov Elchin Surkhay, Tel : 99412 31 31 08:61 -

Azerbaijan Director of of the Azerbaijan Research Institute of Water 50 28
Problems,
Fax : -
Baku 7mkr, house 14, flat 81,
Azerbaijan
2 Hashemite Kingdom Dr. Khair Hassan Al Hadidi, Director of Groundwater Tel : 962 6 5680100
of Jordon Basin Department, Ministry of Water and Irrigation, PO Fax : 962 6 5679143
box 2412, Amman, Jordan
3 Islamic Republic Dr. Muhammad Akram Kahlown, Tel : 51 9218984 (O) pcrwr@isb.paknet.com.pk
of Pakistan Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources Tel : 42 5152436 (H) Kahlown@hotmail.com
(PCRWR), Fax : 51 9218939
Islamabad,
4 People's Republic Mr. Hossain Shahid Mozaddad Faruque, Tel : 8810729 (H) -
of Bangladesh Director General, Tel : 604213 (Office)
Water Resources Planning Organization, Ministry of Fax : -
Water Resources, Saimon Center, House No-4/A,
Road No.22, Gulshan-1, Dhaka 1212,
Bangladesh
5 Republic of Benin Mr. André TOUPE, Tel : 229 31 32 98 dredh@intnet.bj
Directeur de l’Hydraulique, Fax : 229 31 08 90
01 BP 385, Cotonou,
Benin

26
S. No. Member State Expert nominated/Complete address Phone/Fax No. E-mail Address

6 Burkina Faso Mr. Lardia THIOMBIANO, Tel/Fax : 226 31 50 06 gire@liptinfor.bf

Chef du programme de gestion integrée des Tel : 226 34 09 66
resources en eau, Fax : 226 31 17 57 (O)
09 BP 240 Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso
7 Bosnia and Dr. Faruk Hazim Mekic, Professor, Faculty of Tel : isesco_bosnia@htmail.com
Herzegovina Forests, University of Sarajevo Fax : (Natcom)

8 Tunisian Mr. Mohamed Kamal, Tel : 216 1 781 756 pcrwr@isb.paknet.com.pk

Republic Directeur de l’Irrigation et de l’exploitation des Fax : 216 1 288 071 Kahlown@hotmail.com
eaux DGRE,
Ministère de l’Agriculture,
Tunisie
9 Republic of Dr. Othman Tom Hamad, Tel : 249 11 783 221 Osmantomhamad@hotmail.com
Director Water Resources, Tel : 249 11 464 872
the Sudan
Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources, Po Fax : 249 11 773 838
box 878, Khartoum, Sudan
10 Republic of Mr. N’DIAYE GORA, Tel : 221 822 2154 hydro@sentoo.sn
Senegal Ingénieur Hydrologue, Fax : 221 822 9581 comnat@sentoo.sn
Ministère de l’Hydraulique, Tel : 221 877 2005 (H) (Natcom)
Ex camp Lat Dior, BP 4021,
Dakar - Sénégal
11 Republic of Mr. Giran CORR, Tel : 220 228 214 / dwr@gamtel.gm
Department of Water Resources, 220 792 609 6154
the Gambia
7 Muamarr Ghaddafi Avenue, Fax : 220 225 009
Banjul, Gambia

27
S. No. Member State Expert nominated/Complete address Phone/Fax No. E-mail Address
12 State of Palestine Mr. Omar Mustafa Said Awwad, Director of Water Tel : - najomar@planet.edu
resource & Planning Directorate in the Palestinian Fax : - pncecs@palnet.com (Natcom)
Water Authority, PO box 660, Ramallah, West Bank,
Palestine

13 State of Kuwait Dr. Meshan M. Al-Otaibi, Manager Hydrology Tel : 965 4836613 motaibi@kisr.edu.kw
Department, Fax : 965 4818482
Kuwait Institute for scientific Research, PO Box
24885, Safat 13109 Kuwait
14 Republic of Mr. Mohamed Youssef Faouaz, Rue Mahmassani, Tel : 961 1 66 86 68 -
Lebanon Milk Essourouji, Ras Ennabaa, Beyrout 961 3 37 0 3 77
Fax : -
15 Republic Mr. Moulaye M. HAIDARA, Ingénieur Hydraulicien, Tel : 8810729 (H) -
of Mali Hippodrome Bamako, BP 2879, Rue 254 Porte 721, Tel : 604213 (Office)
Bamako - Mali Fax : -
16 Arab Republic Dr. Mohamed Abdel Motaleb, Director of Water Tel : 202 2189437 (O) ruwrri@rusys.eg.net
of Egypt Resources Research Institute, Tel : 202 74928481 (H) yhyh5@hotmail.com
El Qanater El Khairiya Po box 13621- Egypt Fax : 202 2184344

17 Republic of Dr. Mohamed Fara Doubai, Tel/fax: 967 1 253929 dr_fara52@yahoo.com

Yemen Professor of Hydrogeology, (Home)
Head of the Department of Environment and Tel : 967 1 200522 (O)
Geosciences, Fax : 967 1 214 075 (O)
Faculty of Sciences, University of Sanaa, Yemen

28