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probability of an event. In what follows, S is the sample space of the experiment in question and E is the event of
interest. n(S) is the number of elements in the sample space S and n(E) is the number of elements in the event E.
Question 2
Two coins are tossed, find the probability that two heads are obtained. Note: Each coin has
two possible outcomes H (heads) and T (Tails).
Solution
The sample space S is given by.
S = {(H,T),(H,H),(T,H),(T,T)}
Let E be the event "two heads are obtained".
E = {(H,H)}
We use the formula of the classical probability.
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 1 / 4
Question 3
Which of these numbers cannot be a probability? a) -0.00001
b) 0.5
c) 1.001
d) 0
e) 1
f) 20%
Solution
A probability is always greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 1, hence
only a) and c) above cannot represent probabilities: -0.00010 is less than 0 and 1.001 is
greater than 1.
Question 4
Two dice are rolled, find the probability that the sum is a) equal to 1
b) equal to 4
c) less than 13
Solution
a) The sample space S of two dice is shown below.
S = { (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6)
(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6)
(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)
(6,1),(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6) }
Let E be the event "sum equal to 1". There are no outcomes which correspond to a sum
equal to 1, hence
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 0 / 36 = 0
b) Three possible outcomes give a sum equal to 4: E = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)}, hence.
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 3 / 36 = 1 / 12
c) All possible outcomes, E = S, give a sum less than 13, hence.
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 36 / 36 = 1
Question 5
A die is rolled and a coin is tossed, find the probability that the die shows an odd number and
the coin shows a head. Solution
The sample space S of the experiment described in question 5 is as follows
S = { (1,H),(2,H),(3,H),(4,H),(5,H),(6,H)
(1,T),(2,T),(3,T),(4,T),(5,T),(6,T)}
Let E be the event "the die shows an odd number and the coin shows a head". Event E may
be described as follows
E={(1,H),(3,H),(5,H)}
The probability P(E) is given by
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 3 / 12 = 1 / 4
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Question 6
A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting the 3 of
diamond. Solution
The sample space S of the experiment in question 6 is shwon below
Let E be the event "getting the 3 of diamond". An examination of the sample space shows
that there is one "3 of diamond" so that n(E) = 1 and n(S) = 52. Hence the probability of
event E occurring is given by
P(E) = 1 / 52
Question 7
A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting a
queen. Solution
The sample space S of the experiment in question 7 is shwon above (see question 6)
Let E be the event "getting a Queen". An examination of the sample space shows that there
are 4 "Queens" so that n(E) = 4 and n(S) = 52. Hence the probability of event E occurring is
given by
P(E) = 4 / 52 = 1 / 13
Question 8
A jar contains 3 red marbles, 7 green marbles and 10 white marbles. If a marble is drawn
from the jar at random, what is the probability that this marble is white? Solution
We first construct a table of frequencies that gives the marbles color distributions as follows
color frequency
red 3
green 7
white 10
We now use the empirical formula of the probability
P(E) = Frequency for white color / Total frequencies in the above table
= 10 / 20 = 1 / 2
Question 9
The blood groups of 200 people is distributed as follows: 50 have type A blood, 65
have B blood type, 70 have Oblood type and 15 have type AB blood. If a person from this
group is selected at random, what is the probability that this person has O blood
type? Solution
We construct a table of frequencies for the the blood groups as follows
group frequency
a 50
B 65
O 70
AB 15
Exercises
a) A die is rolled, find the probability that the number obtained is greater than 4.
b) Two coins are tossed, find the probability that one head only is obtained.
c) Two dice are rolled, find the probability that the sum is equal to 5.
d) A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting the King of
heart.
8.) What is the product of three consecutive odd integers if the middle
integer is ?
10.) Write the fraction in lowest terms and without negative exponents:
.
12.) Expand:
13.) Simplify:
14.) The length, width and height of a box are in the ratio of 5 : 4 : 7. If the
perimeter of the base is 54 cm, find the volume of the box.
25.) If you want to determine the favorite subject of your class, which
measure of central tendency should you use?
27.) What is the difference between the mean and the median of 2, 3,
3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 15?
28.) The surface area of a cube is 50% more than its volume. Find the
total length of the edges of the cube.
29.) What is the slope of the line with y-intercept 6 and x-intercept
?
35.) If line l passes through the origin and the point , what is the
equation of l in slope- intercept form?
37.) If Liza is half as old as Paul and Paul will be x years old in five
years, what is Liza’s age 10 years ago?
38.) If two dice are rolled, what is the probability that the sum of the
numbers showing is 7 or 11?
40.) Mark and Marry left home together and drove to their mother’s
house which was 84 km away. Mary drove at 60 kph and Mark drove
20 kph faster than Marry. After travelling 2/7 of the journey, Mark
stopped and wait for Marry. How long did Mark wait?
42.) James and John can finish a job in 51 hours. If James can finish
the job in 3 hours less time 7 than John, how long will each one finish
the job alone?
43.) The number of girls in a school is 160 more than 1/3 of the total
enrolment in the school. The number of boys is 280 more than 1/7 of
the total enrolment in the school. How many pupils in the school are
girls?
44.) The graph of two linear functions and are
perpendicular. If , what are the possible values of ?
45.) If the sum of two numbers is 7 and their product is 8. What is the
sum of their cubes?
is an integer.
Solution:
Number of blue triangles in a container = 4
Number of green squares = 5
Number of red circles = 7
Total number of objects = 4 + 5 + 7 = 16
(i) The objects is not a circle:
P(the object is a circle)
= Number of circles/Total number of objects
= 7/16
P(the object is not a circle)
= 1 - P(the object is a circle)
= 1 - 7/16
= (16 - 7)/16
= 9/16
Solution:
Total number of playing cards = 52
(i) The card is a diamond:
Number of diamonds in a deck of 52 cards = 13
P(the card is a diamond)
= Number of diamonds/Total number of playing cards
= 13/52
= 1/4
Another example is the rolling of dice. When a single die is rolled, the sample space is
{1,2,3,4,5,6}.
What is the probability of rolling a 5 when a die is rolled?
No. of ways it can occur = 1
Total no. of possible outcomes = 6
So the probability of rolling a particular number when a die is rolled = 1/6.
Compound probability
Compound probability is when the problem statement asks for the likelihood of the
occurrence of more than one outcome.
Example 2: Consider the example of finding the probability of selecting a black card or a 6
from a deck of 52 cards.
Solution:
We need to find out P(B or 6)
Probability of selecting a black card = 26/52
Probability of selecting a 6 = 4/52
Probability of selecting both a black card and a 6 = 2/52
P(B or 6) = P(B) + P(6) – P(B and 6)
= 26/52 + 4/52 – 2/52
= 28/52
= 7/13.
Example 1: Say, a coin is tossed twice. What is the probability of getting two consecutive tails
?
Probability of getting a tail in one toss = 1/2
The coin is tossed twice. So 1/2 * 1/2 = 1/4 is the answer.
Here’s the verification of the above answer with the help of sample space.
When a coin is tossed twice, the sample space is {(H,H), (H,T), (T,H), (T,T)}.
Our desired event is (T,T) whose occurrence is only once out of four possible outcomes and
hence, our answer is 1/4.
Example 2: Consider another example where a pack contains 4 blue, 2 red and 3 black pens.
If a pen is drawn at random from the pack, replaced and the process repeated 2 more times,
What is the probability of drawing 2 blue pens and 1 black pen?
Solution
Here, total number of pens = 9
Probability of drawing 1 blue pen = 4/9
Probability of drawing another blue pen = 4/9
Probability of drawing 1 black pen = 3/9
Probability of drawing 2 blue pens and 1 black pen = 4/9 * 4/9 * 3/9 = 48/729 = 16/243
Dependent Events
When two events occur, if the outcome of one event affects the outcome of the other, they are
called dependent events.
Consider the aforementioned example of drawing a pen from a pack, with a slight difference.
Example 1: A pack contains 4 blue, 2 red and 3 black pens. If 2 pens are drawn at random
from the pack, NOTreplaced and then another pen is drawn. What is the probability of
drawing 2 blue pens and 1 black pen?
Solution:
Probability of drawing 1 blue pen = 4/9
Probability of drawing another blue pen = 3/8
Probability of drawing 1 black pen = 3/7
Probability of drawing 2 blue pens and 1 black pen = 4/9 * 3/8 * 3/7 = 1/14
Conditional probability
Conditional probability is calculating the probability of an event given that another event has
already occured .
The formula for conditional probability P(A|B), read as P(A given B) is
P(A|B) = P (A and B) / P(B)
Complement of an event
A complement of an event A can be stated as that which does NOT contain the occurrence of
A.
A complement of an event is denoted as P(Ac) or P(A’).
P(Ac) = 1 – P(A)
or it can be stated, P(A)+P(Ac) = 1
For example,
if A is the event of getting a head in coin toss, Ac is not getting a head i.e., getting a tail.
if A is the event of getting an even number in a die roll, Ac is the event of NOT getting an even
number i.e., getting an odd number.
if A is the event of randomly choosing a number in the range of -3 to 3, Ac is the event of
choosing every number that is NOT negative i.e., 0,1,2 & 3 (0 is neither positive or negative).
Probability Example 2
A box contains 4 chocobars and 4 ice creams. Tom eats 3 of them, by randomly choosing.
What is the probability of choosing 2 chocobars and 1 icecream?
Solution
Probability of choosing 1 chocobar = 4/8 = 1/2
After taking out 1 chocobar, the total number is 7.
Probability of choosing 2nd chocobar = 3/7
Probability of choosing 1 icecream out of a total of 6 = 4/6 = 2/3
So the final probability of choosing 2 chocobars and 1 icecream = 1/2 * 3/7 * 2/3 = 1/7
Probability Example 3
When two dice are rolled, find the probability of getting a greater number on the first die
than the one on the second, given that the sum should equal 8.
Solution
Let the event of getting a greater number on the first die be G.
There are 5 ways to get a sum of 8 when two dice are rolled = {(2,6),(3,5),(4,4), (5,3),(6,2)}.
And there are two ways where the number on the first die is greater than the one on the
second given that the sum should equal 8, G = {(5,3), (6,2)}.
Therefore, P(Sum equals 8) = 5/36 and P(G) = 2/36.
Now, P(G|sum equals 8) = P(G and sum equals 8)/P(sum equals 8)
= (2/36)/(5/36)
= 2/5
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37 Comments
1. algia logan says:
November 20, 2016 at 3:40 am
a number of people gave a hat check girl one hat. suppose all the tickets got misplaced, so all
the hat were given back randomly.
a) if its 2 people determine the probability at least one person got their hat returned.
b) if its 3 people determine the probability at least one person got their hat returned.
c) if its 4 people determine the probability at least one person got their hat returned.
d) if its 5 people determine the probability at least one person got their hat returned.
Hi I’m Algia and I need help in solving this problem, can you help me please.
Reply
Random says:
February 3, 2018 at 1:58 am
The math here is totally wrong
Reply
2. abdullah says:
December 5, 2016 at 9:58 pm
Hi
Last question must be 212/216 right ?
Reply
o Santhosh says:
December 12, 2016 at 7:48 pm
Tell me the way u did that sol. Plzz…
Reply
shaily says:
April 25, 2017 at 1:05 pm
yes its must be 212/216
Reply
4. ramanan says:
April 26, 2017 at 4:22 pm
the personal director of a company wishes to select applicant for advanced training without
regard to sex. let “W” denotes women and “M” denotes men and the pattern of arrival be M
WWW MMM WW M WWW MMMM W M W MM WWW MM W MMMM WW M WW
MMMM WW M WWWW MM WW M W WW. will you conclude that the applicants have
arrived in a random fashion?
Reply
5. haval says:
May 9, 2017 at 12:24 am
pavement.before any 250 m length of a pavement is accepted by the state highway
department,the thickness of a30 m s mointored by an altrasonic to verify compliance to
specification .each section is rejected if a measurment thickness less than 10cm;otherwise the
all section is accepted .from past experment ,the stat highway engineer know the 85%of all
section constructed by the contructor comply with specification . however the relability of
altrusonic thickness testing is only 75 ,so that there is a 25 percent chane of errorneous
concolusion based on the determenation of thickness with ultrasonic . what is the probablity
that a poorly constructed section is accepted on the base of ultrasonic test?
Reply
6. diriba says:
May 26, 2017 at 5:09 pm
solution
the possible out come of rolling die is =6 here in this case since it is rolled 3 our sample space
is 6×6×6=216
we have asked to solve the probability of sum which will be atleast 5 this means 5 and more is
possible. so that we have to search the possibilities of less than five to easy our work this will
be like[111][112][121] = 3 out comes onlywso p(s`)=3/216 when p(s`) is probability of sum
less than five or probability of sum greater than equal to five.
since the sum of p(s) and p(s`)=1
p(s)=1-p(s~)
1-3/216=213/216
Reply
o Sunny says:
October 14, 2017 at 11:18 pm
what about 2,1,1?
Reply
7. Meychou says:
July 10, 2017 at 8:06 am
Two cards are drawn at random from an ordinary deck of 52 card. Find the probability P that
(a) Both are spade
(b) One is a spade and one is heart
Reply
o Arjuna says:
August 19, 2017 at 6:52 am
Ans:
(a) Probability of getting spade 1st time is 13/52 and Probability of getting
spade 2nd time is is 12/51
Total Probability is 13*12/(52*51) = 156/2652
(b) Probability of getting spade is 13/52 and Probability of getting Heart is
12/51
Total probability is 13*13/(52*51) = 169/2652
Reply
Michael says:
July 27, 2018 at 11:43 pm
Question ‘b’ says that one is a spade and one is a heart. Therefore the
possibilities are ‘heart-spade’ and ‘spade-heart’.
The answer should be:
((13*13/52*51) + (13*13/52*51)) = 169/2652 + 169/2652 =338/2652 =
13/102
Reply
9. Hema says:
August 15, 2017 at 5:02 pm
A bag contains blue and red balls. Two balls are drawn randomly without replacement. The
probability of selecting a blue and then a red ball is 0.2. The probability of selecting a blue
ball in the first
draw is 0.5. What is the probability of drawing a red ball, given that the first ball drawn was
blue? Solution please
Reply
o Sunny says:
October 14, 2017 at 11:23 pm
Lets assume probability of picking a red ball is X.
The probability of selecting a blue ball and then a red ball,
P(B)*P(R)=.2
.5*X=.2
x=.5/.2
x=.4
Reply
o Findme says:
June 9, 2018 at 12:00 pm
A) 10/15*9/14*5/13
B) 1st case:
1st & 2nd are boys & 3rd is girl
10/15*9/14*5/13
2nd case:
1st & 2nd are girls & 3rd is boy
5/15*4/14*10/13
Reply
o quark says:
October 24, 2017 at 11:23 pm
Hi Lei,
It’s a Monty Hall problem. You can google it.
As for your question,
As the first box chosen if found empty is removed and you HAVE/Switch
to pick from other two, the P(W) = 2/3.
Above answer can be explained as Prob. of winning on first box + Prob. of
choosing wrong * Prob. of Choosing right between the two => 1/3+2/3*1/2
=> 2/3
The answer to the second: Yes probability increases as its a 50% chance to
win as 1 wrong box is eliminated.
Reply
o Jesse says:
December 1, 2017 at 2:11 pm
1) 10C2*5C1/15C3?
2) (10C1*5C1*9C1/15C3) + (5C1*10C1*4C1/15C3)?
Reply
Right Triangles
In order for a triangle to be a right triangle, one angle must be a 90 degree
angle. The sides of the triangle are in special relationship with one
another, expressed by the Pythagorean Theorem, such that a 2+ b2 =
c2. Right triangles are a special case of the Triangle Inequality, such that
the measure of the hypotenuse c is greater than the measure of either leg a
or leg b. However, the measure of c must also be less than the sum of both
legs. Suppose an isosceles triangle ABC is constructed so that AB and BC
are equal. By definition, the base angles B and C are also equal. If an
altitude CD is constructed, it will divide ABC into two right triangles,
ACD and CBD. Euclid showed that both AD and CD are shorter than the
hypotenuse AC. According to the Triangle Inequality, the measure of AD
+ CD must be greater than AC.
Non-Triangles
A figure made up of three line segments is not a triangle if any of the
inequalities are untrue. Therefore, all three conditions must be satisfied
such that a + b >c; a + c >b, and b + c =a. If any of the elements are
untrue, the entire statement is untrue. Students can use the Triangle
Inequality as a test for geometric figures, if given the lengths of any three
line segments.
Ordered-Pair Numbers
An ordered-pair number is a pair of numbers that go together. The numbers are written within
a set of parentheses and separated by a comma.
For example, (4, 7) is an ordered-pair number; the order is designated by the first element 4
and the second element 7. The pair (7, 4) is not the same as (4, 7) because of the different
ordering. Sets of ordered-pair numbers can represent relations or functions.
Relation
Suppose the weights of four students are shown in the following table.
Student 1 2 3 4
Weight 120 100 150 130
The pairing of the student number and his corresponding weight is a relation and can be
written as a set of ordered-pair numbers.
The set of all first elements is called the domain of the relation.
The domain of W = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A function is a relation in which no two ordered pairs have the same first element.
A function associates each element in its domain with one and only one element in its range.
Example:
Solution:
a) A = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)} is a function because all the first elements are different.
b) B = {(1, 3), (0, 3), (2, 1), (4, 2)} is a function because all the first elements are different. (The
second element does not need to be unique)
c) C = {(1, 6), (2, 5), (1, 9), (4, 3)} is not a function because the first element, 1, is repeated.
A function can be identified from a graph. If any vertical line drawn through the graph cuts the
graph at more than one point, then the relation is not a function. This is called the vertical line
test.
Examples:
1. Using a mapping diagram, determine whether each relation is a function.
2. Using a vertical line test, determine whether the relation is a function.
3. Make a table for f(t) = 0.5x + 1. Use 1, 2, 3, and 4 as domain values.
4. Evaluate the function rule f(g) = -2g + 4 to find the range for the domain (-1, 3, 5).
Show Step-by-step Solutions
Determine if a Relation is a Function
This video explains the concepts behind mapping a relation and the vertical line test.
Show Step-by-step Solutions
Relations and Functions
Show Step-by-step Solutions
Easy
1.) What is the slope of the line with equation ?
2.) Arnold is 7 years older than her sister Rica. If Arnold will turn 36 seven years from now, how old is Rica now?
4.) Find the area of the triangle bounded by the line and the coordinate axes.
5.) Factor completely: .
6.) If the base angles of an isosceles triangle measure and degrees, find the measure of the vertex angle.
7.) If , what is ?
8.) If the sides of a triangle have integral lengths, and its perimeter is 13 cm, what is the largest possible length of one
side?
11.) Find the distance between the points (2, 1) and (-3, 4).
Average
1.) Find the measure of the acute angle between the hour and the minute hands of 12:15 PM.
2.) If , what is ?
3.) Christine can paint a whole table in 50 minutes, while Vicky can do it twice as fast as Christine. If they continuously
work together, how ling will it take them to finish 15 such tables?
5.) One leg of an isosceles right triangle measures 12 cm. What is the area of the circle that passes through the vertices
of the triangle?
Difficult
1.) If is the largest negative integer that satisfies , what is >
2.) What is the equation (in the form ) of the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining the points (4, -
2) and (-1, 4)?
3.) James jogs every morning, while Dina cycles on the same route. If Dina’s speed is 3.5 times that of James, and Dina
starts 2 hours after James, how many minutes does Dina cycle before she overtake James?
4.) With what polynomial must be divided to get the quotient and a remainder
of ?
5.) Let ABCD be a square, and let E, F, G and H be the midpoint of sides CD, AD, AB and BC, respectively. The segments
AE, BF, CG, and DH create a smaller square inside ABCD. If the area of this smaller square is 1.5 sq. units, what is the
area of ABCD?
6.) The sides of a right triangle are , , , where and are positive numbers. What is the ratio of to ?
Clincher
1.) What is the equation of the line (in the form ) that passes through and the origin?
2.) Two consecutive interior angles of a parallelogram measure and degrees. What is ?
3.) A chemist has two alcohol solutions of the same kind but of different strengths, one with 35% alcohol and another
with 50% alcohol. How many liters of each solution must be mixed to produce 60 liters of solution with 40% alcohol?
Do or Die Question
1.) Find all positive integers , , and d that satisfy the equation , , and .
Answers:
Easy
1.)
2.) 22 years old
3.) -1
4.) 4 sq. units
5.) xy(x – y)(x + y)
6.) 100°
7.) 6
8.) 6 cm
9.)
10.) 74
11.) units
Average
1.) 82.5°
2.) x^2 + 3x + 5
3.) 250 min
4.) 462
5.) 72π sq. cm.
6.) 7, 8, 9
Difficult
1.) 29
2.)
3.) 48
4.)
5.) 7.5 sq. units
6.) 1 : 3
Clincher
1.)
2.) 28
3.) 40 L of 35% alcohol, 20 L of 50% alcohol
Do or Die
1.) , , ,
Solution
Answer: -12
12.) Simplify .
Solution
Answer:
Solution
Note that , and
Now
This is already correct, but if you want your answer in radical form, the previous expression can be converted to
Answer: or
14.) What is the quotient when is divided by ?
Solution
Answer: remainder .
15.) In Item 14, what is the remainder?
Answer:
16.) If , what is ?
Solution
Answer:
17.) If and , what is ?
Solution
and
Answer: 238
18.) If the length, width, and height of an open-top rectangular box are cm, cm, and cm, what is its
surface area?
Solution
The formula for finding the surface area of a rectangular prism with length , width and
height is . Since the box is open, we subtract lw, which is the top face. So, the surface area of
the open box is .
Substituting, we have
Answer:
19.) A man walked km for 2.5 hrs, then jogged km for 3.5 hrs, and finally walked again km for 4
hrs. If his average speed for the entire exercise was 4 kph, what is x?
Solution
Solution
We can group the expressions as sum and difference of two cubes.
Answer:
21.) When is divided by , the quotient and remainder are both . What is ?
Solution
If we divide 5 by 3, then we get a quotient of 1 and a remainder of 2. If we generalize latex the dividend, as the
divisor, as the quotient and as the remainder, we can form the equation
(*).
Substituting in *,
Now .
Answer: -4
22.) If two more than twice p is four less than twice q, express q in terms of p.
Solution
Answer:
23.) If x is nonnegative and 3x – 4 ≤ x, what is the least value of x?
Solution
3x – 4 ≤ x
3x – x ≤ 4
2x ≤ 4
x≤2
So the lowest non-negative value is x = 0.
Answer: x = 0
24.) In Item 23, what is the maximum value of x?
Answer: x = 2 (Obvious!)
25.) Solve for in the equation .
Solution
Answer: 56/55
26.) Solve for in the equation .
There are two values for :
Also,
Answer: -1 and 4
27.) If ∠B is the complement of ∠A, and the supplement of ∠A is 138°, what is ∠B – ∠A?
Solution
Complementary angles add up to 90° and supplementary angles add up to 180°. So,
∠A + 138 = 180
∠A = 42.
Now since ∠A and ∠B are complementary,
∠A + ∠B = 90
42 + ∠B = 90
∠B = 90 – 42
∠B = 48.
Now, ∠B – ∠A = 48 – 42 = 6
Answer: 6°
28.) If the diagonals of rectangle ABCD meet E and ∠AEB = 140°, what is ∠EBC?
Solution
∠A + ∠B + ∠E = 180°
∠A + ∠B + 140 = 180°
∠A + ∠B = 40°
Answer: 70°
29.) If two exterior angles of a triangle measures 80° and 130°, what is its smallest interior angle?
Solution
The adjacent interior and exterior angles of a triangle are supplementary. Therefore, the largest exterior angle has the
smallest adjacent interior angle.
Among the three angles, 150° is the largest and its adjacent interior angle is 30°.
Answer: 30°
30.) In a grouped data, if 100 – 200 forms one class, what is the class interval of the data?
Answer:
Solution
The class interval is the difference between the upper class limit and the lower class limit of a class. Here, the
upper class limit is 200 and the lower class limit is 100. So, the class interval is 200 – 100 = 100.
Answer: 100
32.) Simplify .
Solution
Answer:
Answer: 1/x
34.) Perform the indicated operations.
Solution
We can factor the given completely into the following expressions and change division into multiplication by
multiplying the first two expressions with the reciprocal of the third expression. The result of these operations is shown
below.
Answer: 3/2
35.) Simplify .
Solution
Simplifying the rational expressions, we have
.
This simplifies further to
Answer:
Answer: x = 1
37.) The points (0, 0), (2, 3), and (4, 0) form a triangle. What is its perimeter?
Solution
To find the perimeter of the triangle, we need to find the distance between these points and add them. Let’s name the
points A, B, and C respectively.
Using the distance formula, we can subtract the corresponding coordinates, square them, and get the square root.
Answer: .
38.) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining the points (-3, 2) and (5, 2)?
Solution
Let A be the point with coordinates (-3,2) and B be the point with coordinates (5,2). Notice that AB have the same y-
coordinates which mean that it is a horizontal segment. This means that the perpendicular bisector is a vertical line.
To get the perpendicular bisector, we get the midpoint M of AB and find the equation of the vertical line passing
through M.
.
Answer: x = 1
39.) A man agrees to invest part of his 1-million-peso inheritance at an annual interest rate of 5%, while the rest at 6%
interest. If, at the end of the year, he needs a total interest of Php 56, 200, how much should he invest at 5%?
Solution
Answer:Php380,000
40.) If 2x + 5y = 10 and x = 3y + 1, what is 11x + 11y?
Solution
Substituting the expression on the right hand side of the second equation to x in the left hand side of the first equation,
we have
(*)
(##)
(**)
By * and **
Answer: 43
41.) If , what is ?
Solution
, .
Answer: – 13
42.) What is the equation of the line that is parallel to and passes through ?
Solution
Parallel lines have the same slope, so we get the slope of the given line. That is,
Simplifying, we have
Answer:
43.) What is the domain of the function ?
Solution
We know that we cannot have a negative square root, so . By squaring both sides and simplifying, this
means that .Since we can substitute any value for except the mentioned restriction, the domain is therefore the
set of real numbers greater than or equal to 1.
Answer: or .
46.) Let be an isosceles right triangle with C as its hypotenuse, and let and be midpoints on and ,
respectively, such that . If and , what is the area of the trapezoid in terms
of and ?
Solution
The area of a trapezoid is where and are the bases, and is the height. From the given we can
see that , and .
Substituting we have .
This simplifies to
Answer:
47.) If and , what is ?
Solution
Assuming that . From the second equation . This is impossible because . So, y is
negative.
This means that the second equation becomes . Now, suppose is negative, then the first equation
becomes which is impossible because we have already shown that is negative. So, we are left with the systems of
linear equations.
Answer: 2
48.) If and , what is ?
Solution
Draw line perpendicular to and passing through .
Let be the intersection of and and be the intersection of and . Then, (Why?). If we
let be the side of the square,
So,
Answer: 41
50.) At least how many numbers should be selected from the set {1, 5, 9, 13, … , 125} to be assured that two of the
numbers selected have a sum of 146?
Solution: 20 .
3.) A furniture shop offers a 15% discount in all its terms, and a sala set was marked Php 14, 000. What was the selling
price of the sala set?
Answer: Php 11, 900
4.) Solve for x in the equation |1 – x| = 8.
Answer: 9, -7
5.) If , what is ?
Answer: 4
6.) Factor completely the algebraic expression .
Answer:
11.) Ana can paint their bedroom in 4 hours, while her older sister, Carla, can paint it in 3 hours. If they work together,
what part of the bedroom can they paint in half an hour?
Answer: 7/24
4.) Find the equation of the line, in slope-intercept form, that passes through the points (-1, 0) and (1, -6).
Answer: y = -3x – 3
5.) Triangle ABC has sides 13, 13, and 10 cm long. What is the area of the triangle?
Answer: 60 sq. cm.
2.) Simplify: .
Answer: 0
3.) What is the area of the region described by the inequalities x ≥ 0, y ≤ 2x, and 2y + 6 ≥ 7x?
Answer: 3 square units
4.) Find the domain of the function
Answer: {x| – 3/2 ≤ x < 0 or x > 0}
5.) State the inverse of the statement “If P(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R, then x < 0 for some x ∈ R.”
Answer: If P(x) < 0 for some x ∈ R, then x ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R.
6.) The sides of a right triangle are x, x + y, and x + 2y, where x and y are positive numbers. What is the ratio of y to x?
Answer: 1:3
Clincher Question
1.) What is the sum of the x- and y-intercepts of line ?
Answer: 7
2.) In ∆ABC, half of ∠A is 30° less than ∠B, and ∠C is twice the complement of ∠A. What kind of triangle is ∆ABC?
Answer: Equilateral or equiangular.
3.) In tossing a pair of dice and a pair of coins simultaneously, what is the probability of getting a sum of 6, a tail, and a
head?
Answer: 5/72
Do or Die Question
In the equations and , where , what is the least possible integral value of ?
Answer: 2
Math series
x+4 2x + 4 2x + 4y
More examples:
Linear equation, solving example #1:
Find x if: 2x + 4 = 10
x=3
3. Check your work with the original equation: 2x + 4 = 10
(2 * 3) + 4 = 10
6 + 4 = 10
If the problem involves a single person, then it is similar to an Integer Problem. Read the
problem carefully to determine the relationship between the numbers. This is shown in
the examples involving a single person.
If the age problem involves the ages of two or more people then using a table would be a good
idea. A table will help you to organize the information and to write the equations. This is
shown in the examples involving more than one person.
Example:
Five years ago, John’s age was half of the age he will be in 8 years. How old is he now?
Solution:
Step 1: Let x be John’s age now. Look at the question and put the relevant expressions above
it.
2. In 20 years, Kayleen will be four times older than she is today. What is her current age?
Example:
John is twice as old as his friend Peter. Peter is 5 years older than Alice. In 5 years, John will be
three times as old as Alice. How old is Peter now?
Solution:
2x + 5 = 3(x – 5 + 5)
2x + 5 = 3x
Isolate variable x
x = 5
Example:
John’s father is 5 times older than John and John is twice as old as his sister Alice. In two years
time, the sum of their ages will be 58. How old is John now?
Solution:
John’s father is 5 times older than John and John is twice as old as his sister Alice. In two years
time, the sum of their ages will be 58. How old is John now?
Let x be John’s age now. Add 2 to get the ages in 2 yrs.
2. Kim is 6 years more than twice Timothy's age. 2 years ago, Kim was three times as old as
Timothy. How old was Kim 2 years ago?
3. Leah is 2 less than 3 times Rachel's age. 3 years from now, Leah will be 7 more than twice
Rachel's age. How old will Rachel be in 3 years from now?
4. Becca is twice as old as Susan and Greg is 9 years older than Susan. 3 years ago, Becca was
9 less than 3 times Susan's age. How old is Greg now?
5. Lauren is 3 less than twice Andrew's age. 4 years from now, Sam will be 2 more than twice
Andrew's age. 5 years ago, Sam was three times Andrew's age. How old was Lauren 5 years
ago?
6. Gabby is 1 year more than twice Larry's age. 3 years from now, Megan will be 27 less than
twice Gabby's age. 4 years ago, Megan was 1 year less than 3 times Larry's age. How old will
Megan be 3 years from now?
1) The present age of Jacob’s father is three times that of Jacob. After 5 years, sum of their ages would be 70 years.
Find their present ages.
Solution :
Let Jacob’s age = x years
After 5 years
Jacob’s age = x + 5
Father’s age = 3x + 5
X + 5 + 3x + 5 = 70
4x + 10 = 70
4x = 60
X = 15
Jacob’s age = 15 years and his father’s age = 3(15) = 45 years
2) After 15 years, Ariel’s age will become four times that of her present age. Find her age.
Solution :
Let Ariel’s present age = x years
X + 15 = 4x
X – 4x = -15
-3x = -15
X=5
3) John’s mother’s age is 5 years more than the three times of John’s present age. Find John’s present age, if his
mother is 44 years old.
Solution :
Then 3 x + 5 = 44
Or 3 x = 44 – 5 = 39
Or x = 13 years
___________________________________________________________________
4) The present ages of Deklerk and Saniya are in the ratio 3:4. Five years from now, the ratio of their ages will be
4:5. Find their present ages.
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Solution :
Let the present age of Deklerk and Saniya be 3x and 4x years respectively.
After 5 years,
Deklerk's age = 3x + 5
Saniya's age = 4x + 5
(3x + 5) / (4x + 5) = 4 /5
⇒ 15x + 25 = 16x + 20
⇒ -x = -5
⇒x=5
A System of Linear Equations is when we have two or more linear equations working
together.
Example: Here are two linear equations:
2x + y = 5
−x + y = 2
Can you discover the values of x and y yourself? (Just have a go, play with them a bit.)
It's a race!
The Horse can run 0.5 km every minute. But it takes 6 minutes to saddle the horse.
How far can you get before the horse catches you?
d = 0.2t
d = 0.5(t−6)
Do you see how the horse starts at 6 minutes, but then runs faster?
It seems you get caught after 10 minutes ... you only got 2 km away.
Solving
There can be many ways to solve linear equations!
x+y=6
−3x + y = 2
Hmmm ... how to solve this? There can be many ways! In this case both equations have "y"
so let's try subtracting the whole second equation from the first:
x + y − (−3x + y) = 6 − 2
Now let us simplify it:
x + y + 3x − y = 6 − 2
4x = 4
x=1
And we can find the matching value of y using either of the two original equations (because we
know they have the same value at x=1). Let's use the first one (you can try the second one
yourself):
x+y=6
1+y=6
y=5
x = 1 and y = 5
And the graph shows us we are right!
Linear Equations
Only simple variables are allowed. No x2, y3, √x, etc:
Linear vs non-linear
Dimensions
A Linear Equation can be in 2 dimensions ...
(such as x and y)
... or in 3 dimensions ...
(it makes a plane)
... or 4 dimensions ...
... or more!
Common Variables
For the equations to "work together" they share one or more variables:
Many Variables
So a System of Equations could have many equations and many variables.
2 equations in 3 variables,
6 equations in 4 variables,
9,000 equations in 567 variables,
etc.
Solutions
When the number of equations is the same as the number of variables there is likelyto be a
solution. Not guaranteed, but likely.
No solution
One solution
Infinitely many solutions
When there is no solution the equations are called "inconsistent".
One or infinitely many solutions are called "consistent"
Example:
x+y=3
2x + 2y = 6
Those equations are "Dependent", because they are really the same equation, just
multiplied by 2.
The "you" line is true all along its length (but nowhere else).
at t=5 and d=1, the equation is true (Is d = 0.2t? Yes, as 1 = 0.2×5 is true)
at t=5 and d=3, the equation is not true (Is d = 0.2t? No, as 3 = 0.2×5 is not true)
Likewise the "horse" line is also true all along its length (but nowhere else).
But only at the point where they cross (at t=10, d=2) are they both true.
d = 0.2t
d = 0.5(t−6)
d = 0.2t = 0.5(t−6)
t = 10 minutes and d = 2 km
Algebra vs Graphs
Why use Algebra when graphs are so easy? Because:
Solving By Substitution
Solving By Elimination
We will see each one, with examples in 2 variables, and in 3 variables. Here goes ...
Solving By Substitution
These are the steps:
Example:
3x + 2y = 19
x+y=8
Let's use the second equation and the variable "y" (it looks the simplest equation).
We can subtract x from both sides of x + y = 8 to get y = 8 − x. Now our equations look like
this:
3x + 2y = 19
y=8−x
3x + 2(8 − x) = 19
y=8−x
Expand 2(8−x):
3x + 16 − 2x = 19
y=8−x
Then 3x−2x = x:
x + 16 = 19
y=8−x
x=3
y=8−x
x=3
y=8−3=5
x=3
y=5
Check: why don't you check to see if x = 3 and y = 5 works in both equations?
Example:
x+z=6
z − 3y = 7
2x + y + 3z = 15
We should line up the variables neatly, or we may lose track of what we are doing:
x + z = 6
− 3y + z = 7
2x + y + 3z = 15
WeI can start with any equation and any variable. Let's use the first equation and the variable
"x".
x = 6−z
− 3y + z = 7
2x + y + 3z = 15
x = 6−z
− 3y + z = 7
2(6−z) + y + 3z = 15
2(6−z) + y + 3z = 15 simplifies to y + z = 3:
x = 6−z
− 3y + z = 7
y + z = 3
Now repeat the process, but just for the last 2 equations.
Write one of the equations so it is in the style "variable = ...":
x = 6−z
− 3y + z = 7
z = 3−y
x = 6−z
− 3y + 3−y = 7
z = 3−y
x = 6−z
y = −1
z = 3−y
Almost Done!
x = 6−z
y = −1
z = 4
x = 2
y = −1
z = 4
We can use this method for 4 or more equations and variables... just do the same steps again
and again until it is solved.
Conclusion: Substitution works nicely, but does take a long time to do.
Solving By Elimination
Elimination can be faster ... but needs to be kept neat.
"Eliminate" means to remove: this method works by removing variables until there is just one
left.
x−5=3
5=5
x−5 +5 =3 +5
x=8
It will still work just fine, because both sides are equal (that is what the = is for!)
We can also swap equations around, so the 1st could become the 2nd, etc, if that helps.
OK, time for a full example. Let's use the 2 equations in 2 variables example from before:
Example:
3x + 2y = 19
x+y=8
3x + 2y = 19
x + y = 8
3x + 2y = 19
2x + 2y = 16
x = 3
2x + 2y = 16
Next we see the 2nd equation has "2x", so let's halve it, and then subtract "x":
x = 3
x + y = 8
x = 3
y = 5
Done!
x = 3 and y = 5
At x=3, y=5 (where the lines cross) they are both true. That is the answer.
Example:
2x − y = 4
6x − 3y = 3
2x − y = 4
6x − 3y = 3
6x − 3y = 12
6x − 3y = 3
Subtract the second equation from the first equation:
0 − 0 = 9
6x − 3y = 3
0 − 0 = 9 ???
What is going on here?
And lastly:
Example:
2x − y = 4
6x − 3y = 12
Neatly:
2x − y = 4
6x − 3y = 12
6x − 3y = 12
6x − 3y = 12
0 − 0 = 0
6x − 3y = 3
0−0=0
Well, that is actually TRUE! Zero does equal zero ...
... that is because they are really the same equation ...
... so there are an Infinite Number of Solutions
And so now we have seen an example of each of the three possible cases:
No solution
One solution
Infinitely many solutions
ALSO, we will find it is easier to do some of the calculations in our head, or on scratch paper,
rather than always working within the set of equations:
Example:
x+y+z=6
2y + 5z = −4
2x + 5y − z = 27
Written neatly:
x + y + z = 6
2y + 5z = −4
2x + 5y − z = 27
Subtract 2 times the 1st equation from the 3rd equation (just do this in your head or on
scratch paper):
And we get:
x + y + z = 6
2y + 5z = −4
3y − 3z = 15
Next, eliminate y from 3rd equation.
We could subtract 1½ times the 2nd equation from the 3rd equation (because 1½ times 2 is
3) ...
x + y + z = 6
2y + 5z = −4
z = −2
x + y + z = 6
y = 3
z = −2
x = 5
y = 3
z = −2
General Advice
Once you get used to the Elimination Method it becomes easier than Substitution, because you
just follow the steps and the answers appear.
Substitution is often easier for small cases (like 2 equations, or sometimes 3 equations)
Elimination is easier for larger cases
And it always pays to look over the equations first, to see if there is an easy shortcut ... so
experience helps.
Complex Fractions
I sometimes refer to complex fractions as "stacked" fractions, because they tend to have fractions stacked on top of each
other, like this:
This fraction is formed of two fractional expressions, one on top of the other. There are two methods for simplifying complex fractions.
The first method is fairly obvious: find common denominators for the complex numerator and complex denominator, convert
the complex numerator and complex denominator to their respective common denominators, combine everything in the
complex numerator and in the complex denominator into single fractions, and then, once you've got one fraction (in the
complex numerator) divided by another fraction (in the complex denominator), you flip-n-multiply. (Remember that, when
you are dividing by a fraction, you flip the fraction and turn the division into multiplication.)
(The "for x not equal to zero" part is because, in the original expression, " x = 0" would have caused division by zero in
the complex fraction. Depending on your book and instructor, you may not need to account for this technicality . If you're
not sure, ask now, before the test.)
The other method is to find one common denominator for all the fractions in the expression, and then multiply both the complex
By multiplying through, top and bottom, by the same thing, I was really just multiplying by 1. This is similar to multiplying the
fraction 1/2 by 2/2 to convert it to 2/4. In my experience, books and teachers often use the first method, but students generally
prefer the second method. When I was in school, I was taught the first method. As soon as I encountered the second method,
I switched to it. In the remaining examples, I will demonstrate this second method, but you can use either method you prefer.
(If your text or instructor requires that you find the restrictions on the domains [the " x not equal to zero" part in the above example],
you might find it helpful to use the "flip-n-multiply" method covered first, since this will give you the full fraction form of the
denominator at some point in the computations.)
Can I start by hacking off the x's? Or lopping off the 3's? (Hint: No!) I can only cancel off factors, not terms, so I can't do
any canceling yet. The first thing I'll do is find the LCM for this expression.
The LCM (Least Common
Multiple, or, for us older
types, the LCD, Lowest
Common Denominator) of
the given denominators
within this complex fraction
is (x – 1)(x + 4), so I'll
multiply through, top and
bottom, by this expression:
lesson on multiplying
polynomials.)
Can I now cancel off the x3's? Or cancel the 6's into the 12? Can I go inside the adding and rip out parts of some of the
terms? (Hint: No!) Nothing cancels, so this is the final answer:
p n
= ·
q m
Example 1. Simplify
x2 − 25 x³
Solution. = ·
x 8
x−5
(x + 5)(x − 5) x³
= ·
x8 x−5
x+5
=
x5
Division -- which effectively this is -- becomes multiplication by the reciprocal.
on canceling the x + 2's.
Problem 2. Simplify.
6 x2 3
a) = · =
x 5 8 4x 3
4 1 _4_
b) = · = 2
x−1 x−1 x − 2x + 1
x−2
c) = (x + 2) · = x−2
x+2
x+2 x−2 x2 − 4
d) = · = 2
x+1 x−1 x −1
−h 1 1
e) = · = −
x(x + h) h x(x + h)
The h's cancel. And according to the Rule of Signs, the product is negative. (It's all
right to leave the product in its factored form.)
(x + 2)(x − 2) _x_
f) = ·
3x 2 (x + 2)(x + 3)
x−2 1 x−2
= · =
3x x + 3 3x(x + 3)
Example 3. If a complex fraction looks like this --
_(x + 1) − 1_ __x__
= =
(x + 1)(x − 1) x2 − 1
Example 4. Simplify
x+1
a) = b) = x−1
x
WORD PROBLEMS
Examples
Problems
2x = 42 + 14 (Lesson 9)
= 56.
56
x=
2
= 28.
The blouse cost $28.
Example 2. There are b boys in the class. This is three more than four times the number
of girls. How many girls are in the class?
Solution. Again, let x represent the unknown number that you are asked to find: Let x be
the number of girls.
(Although b is not known, it is not what you are asked to find.)
The problem states that "This" -- b -- is three more than four times x:
4x + 3 = b.
Therefore,
4x = b − 3
b−3
x= .
4
The solution here is not a number, because it will depend on the value of b. This is a
type of "literal" equation, which is very common in algebra.
Example 3. The whole is equal to the sum of the parts.
The sum of two numbers is 84, and one of them is 12 more than the other. What are
the two numbers?
Solution. In this problem, we are asked to find two numbers. Therefore, we must let x be
one of them. Let x, then, be the first number.
We are told that the other number is 12 more, x + 12.
The problem states that their sum is 84:
= 84
The line over x + 12 is a grouping symbol called a vinculum. It saves us writing
parentheses.
We have:
2x = 84 − 12
= 72.
72
x=
2
= 36.
This is the first number. Therefore the other number is
x + 12 = 36 + 12 = 48.
The sum of 36 + 48 is 84.
Example 4. The sum of two consecutive numbers is 37. What are they?
Solution. Two consecutive numbers are like 8 and 9, or 51 and 52.
Let x, then, be the first number. Then the number after it is x + 1.
The problem states that their sum is 37:
= 37
2x = 37 − 1
= 36.
36
x=
2
= 18.
The two numbers are 18 and 19.
Example 5. One number is 10 more than another. The sum of twice the smaller plus three
times the larger, is 55. What are the two numbers?
Solution. Let x be the smaller number.
Then the larger number is 10 more: x + 10.
The problem states:
2x + 3(x + 10) = 55.
That implies
2x + 3x + 30 = 55. Lesson 14.
5x = 55 − 30 = 25.
x = 5.
That's the smaller number. The larger number is 10 more: 15.
Example 6. Divide $80 among three people so that the second will have twice as much as
the first, and the third will have $5 less than the second.
Solution. Again, we are asked to find more than one number. We must begin by
letting x be how much the first person gets.
Then the second gets twice as much, 2x.
And the third gets $5 less than that, 2x − 5.
Their sum is $80:
5x = 80 + 5
85
x=
5
= 17.
This is how much the first person gets. Therefore the second gets
2x = 34.
And the third gets
2x − 5 = 29.
The sum of 17, 34, and 29 is in fact 80.
Example 7. Odd numbers. The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 52. What are
the two odd numbers?
Solution. First, an even number is a multiple of 2: 2, 4, 6, 8, and so on. It is conventional
in algebra to represent an even number as 2n, where, by calling the variable 'n,' it is
understood that n will take whole number values: n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.
An odd number is 1 more (or 1 less) than an even number. And so we represent an odd
number as 2n + 1.
Let 2n + 1, then, be the first odd number. Then the next one will be 2 more -- it will be
2n + 3. The problem states that their sum is 52:
2n + 1 + 2n + 3 = 52.
We will now solve that equation for n, and then replace the solution in 2n + 1 to find
the first odd number. We have:
4n + 4 = 52
4n = 48
n = 12.
Therefore the first odd number is 2· 12 + 1 = 25. And so the next one is 27. Their
sum is 52.
Problems
Problem 1. Julie has $50, which is eight dollars more than twice what John has. How
much has John? (Compare Example 1.)
First, what will you let x represent?
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
The unknown number -- which is how much that John has.
What is the equation?
2x + 8 = 50.
Here is the solution:
x = $21
Problem 2. Carlotta spent $35 at the market. This was seven dollars less than three times
what she spent at the bookstore; how much did she spend there?
Here is the equation.
3x − 7 = 35
Here is the solution:
x = $14
Problem 3. There are b black marbles. This is four more than twice the number of red
marbles. How many red marbles are there? (Compare Example 2.)
Here is the equation.
2x + 4 = b
Here is the solution:
b−4
x= 2
Problem 4. Janet spent $100 on books. This was k dollars less than five times what she
spent on lunch. How much did she spend on lunch?
Here is the equation.
5x − k = 100
Here is the solution:
100 + k
x= 5
Problem 5. The whole is equal to the sum of the parts.
The sum of two numbers is 99, and one of them is 17 more than the other. What are
the two numbers? (Compare Example 3.)
Here is the equation.
INEQUALITIES
The number line
"Or" versus "and"
A continued inequality
Some theorems of inequalities
Solving inequalities
THIS SIGN < means is less than.. This sign > means is greater than. In each case,
the sign opens towards the larger number.
For example, 2 < 5 ("2 is less than 5"). Equivalently, 5 > 2 ("5 is greater than 2").
These are the two senses of an inequality: < and > .
The number line
−1 < 2
−4 < −1
1 > −4
Problem 1. Between each pair, place the correct sign of inequality.
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Do the problem yourself first!
It is within that interval that x takes its values. The endpoint 1 is not included. x is
definitely greater than 1; we indicate that by placing a parenthesis "(". The endpoint 5 is
included; we indicate that by placing a bracket "]".
Now consider this compound inequaltiy:
x < 1 or x > 5.
the values of x fall inside a certain interval. But when the conjunction is or,
x < 1 or x > 5.
b) x ≥ −1 and x < 3.
A continued inequality
a<x<b
That is called a continued inequality. It means
a < x and x < b.
A continued inequality always implies the conjunction and. The sense is always < or ≤.
The continued inequality means:
x falls in the interval between a and b.
"a < x < b" illustrates that.
Note: When neither end point is included, as in this example, we call that
an open interval. When both end points are included --
-- we call that a closed interval. (Otherwise, like the proverbial glass, the interval is half-
open, or half-closed.)
Problem 3. Write as a continued inequality.
a) x > −3 and x < 1.
−3 < x < 1.
b) Graph that continued inequality.
* * *
Problem 7. Write in symbols.
a) x is a positive number. x > 0
b) x is a negative number. x < 0
c) x is a non-negative. x ≥ 0. "x is greater than or equal to 0."
Some theorems of inequalities
To prove a statment whose predicate is "is greater than," we must have a definition of "is
greater than." We shall adopt the following. We shall define "a is greater than b" to
mean: a − b is positive. Algebraically:
a > b if and only if a − b > 0.
On the basis of this definition, we can prove various theorems about inequalities.
Theorem 1. We may add the same number to both sides of an inequality, and the sense will not
change.
If
a > b,
then
a + c > b + c.
Note: If c is a negative number, then the theorem implies that we may subtract the
same number from both sides. Just as with equalites, any theorem of addition is also true for
subtraction.
It follows, from this Theorem, that we may transpose.
x+d > e
implies x > e − d.
We could prove that by adding −d to both sides.
We can prove Theorem 1 as follows:
a>b
means
a − b > 0.
Therefore, upon adding and subtracting c :
a − b + c − c>0
(a + c) − (b + c) > 0 (Lesson 7)
Therefore,
a + c > b + c.
Which is what we wanted to prove.
Note that any theorem of inequality is true for an inequality of the opposite sense. For,
we could write: b < a implies b + c < a + c.
Theorem 2. We may multiply both sides of an inequality by the same positive number, and the
sense will not change.
If
a > b, and c > 0,
then
ca > cb.
For example:
4 > −5.
12 > −15.
The sense does not change.
The proof is similar to that of Theorem 1. Simply apply the Rule of Signs.
a>b
implies
a − b > 0.
Therefore, if c is positive, then
c(a − b) > 0
ca − cb > 0.
This means
ca > cb.
This theorem also allows us to divide both sides by the same positive number, because
division is multiplication by the reciprocal.
Theorem 3. If we multiply both sides of an inequality by the same negativenumber, the sense of the
inequality changes.
If
a > b, and c < 0,
then
ca < cb.
Here is an example:
−2 < 5.
a > b.
then
1 1
< .
a b
We can prove that by dividing both sides by ab (which, since a and bhave the same sign,
will be positive) -- but that will depend on knowing how to reduce fractions.
In any event, since
2 < 5,
then
1 1
2
> 5
x<6 x < 10
12 12
then x < 3 then x > −3
x<4 x > −4
On dividing by a negativenumber, the sense
changes.
Equivalenly, we can think of it as changing
the signs on both sides.
Problem 9. Use Theorem 2 to prove: If a is a positive number less than 1, then a2 is less
than a.
For example, (½)2 = ¼, which is less than ½.
a<1
implies a· a < 1· a
a c b d
If < then > , according to Theorem 5.
b d a c
Problem 11. −a > 0. How is that possible?
a is not a number. It is a variable. It takes values which are numbers. To
find the values of a such that −a > 0, applyTheorem 4, and change the signs on
both sides. But then we must change the sense.
−a > 0
implies a < −0.
That is, since −0 = 0,
a < 0.
a must be a negative number. For example, if a = −5, then −a = −(−5) =
+5, that is, −a is a positive number.
Solving inequalities
A linear inequality has this standard form:
ax + b < c.
When a is positive, then solving it is identical to solving an equation:
ax < c − b
c−b
x<
a
As with equations, the inequality is "solved" when positive x is isolated on the
left. (The above steps follow from Theorems 1 and 2.)
The only difference between solving an inequality and solving an equation, is the
following:
When when we multiply or divide by a negative number,
the sense must change. (Theorem 3.)
Equivalently, when the signs on both sides change, then the sensealso must change
(Theorem 4), as in Example 1.
Example 2.
−2x + 5 < 11
−2x < 6
x > −3.
On going to the last line, the signs on both sides changed. Therefore, the sense also
changes.
The signs changed, of course, because we divided both sides by negative 2.
Alternatively, we could immediately make 2x positive -- by changing all the signs on
both sides. But then we must also change the sense.
−2x + 5 < 11 implies 2x − 5 > −11,
and so on.
Problem 12. Solve each inequality for x. Write a logical sequence of statements.
a) 5x + 3 < 38 b) 5x − 3 < 12
5x < 35 5x < 15
x<7 x<3
c) −2x + 7 < 19 d) −2x − 1 < −9
x > −6 x>4
e) −3x < x − 8 f) 4x − 7 < 11x + 7
x>2 x > −2
Problem 13. In each of the following, what can you conclude about the signs of a and b?
a) ab > 0
a and b must have the same signs. Formally,
a > 0 and b > 0, or a < 0 and b < 0.
Lesson 4: The Rule of Signs.
b) ab < 0
a > 0 and b < 0, or a < 0 and b > 0.
c) ab = 0
Either a = 0 or b = 0.
a
d) >0
b
Same as a). a, b ≠ 0.
a
e) <0
b
Same as b). a, b ≠ 0.
a
f) =0
b
The numerator must be 0. a = 0.
Lesson 5, Problem 17.
Example 3. Solve this inequality for x :
x−3
> 0.
x+5
Solution. According to d) above, the numerator and denominator must
have the same sign. Therefore, either
1) x − 3 > 0 and x + 5 > 0,
or
2) x − 3 < 0 and x + 5 < 0.
Now, 1) implies
x > 3 and x > −5.
Which numbers are these that are both greater than 3 and greater than −5?
Clearly, any number greater than 3 will also be greater than −5. Therefore, 1) has the
solution
x > 3.
Next, 2) implies
x < 3 and x < −5.
Which numbers are these that are both less than 3 and less than −5?
Clearly, any number less than −5 will also be less than 3. Therefore, 2) has the solution
x < −5.
The solution, therefore, is
x < −5 or x > 3.
MULTIPLYING BINOMIALS
Quadratic trinomials
Vocabulary
A binomial is a sum of two terms. a + b.
A trinomial is a sum of three terms, while a multinomial is more than three.
Quadratic is another name for a polynomial of the 2nd degree. For example,
2x2 − 7x + 5.
Problem 1. Which of the following is a quadratic?
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Do the problem yourself first!
a) 5x2 − 2x + 4 Yes. 2 is the highest exponent.
b) 4x − 9 No. c) x3 + x2 + 1 No.
-- then which steps produce the middle term, which is the sum of the like terms?
The 2nd plus the 3rd.
Or as we often call them, the "Outers" plus the "Inners."
It is skillful to be able to pick out the like terms quickly -- to point at them mentally
with your eyes. Because in the next Lesson we will want to factor 2x2 + 13x + 15.
Will it be factored as
(2x + 5)(x + 3) ?
Or as
(2x + 3)(x + 5) ?
The key lies in choosing the combination that correctly gives the middle term, 13x.
In the first possibility, can we make 13x by combining the Outersplus
the Inners: 6x with 5x ?
No, we cannot. But in the second possibility we can:
10x + 3x = 13x.
2x2 + 13x + 15 will therefore be correctly factored as
(2x + 3)(x + 5).
To check that, the student should practice adding the like terms mentally. That is, to
multiply
(2x + 3)(x + 5) ,
look at 2x and x and write 2x2.
Next, look at 2x· 5 and 3· x together -- "10x + 3x" -- and write 13x.
Finally, 3· 5 = 15.
(2x + 3)(x + 5) = 2x2 + 13x + 15.
With practice, your eye will get used to picking out the Outers plus the Inners. Those
are the like terms. You do algebra with your eyes.
Example 1. (3x − 1)(x + 2). Write only the sum of the like terms.
Answer. 5x. That is,
6x − x = 5x.
Example 2. Multiply (3x − 1)(x + 2).
Answer. 3x2 + 5x − 2
The first term of the trinomial is 3x· x = 3x2.
The middle term we found to be 5x.
And the third term is −1· 2 = −2.
Problem 3. Write only the sum of the like terms.
a) (2x + 1)(x + 3). 7x b) (3x − 2)(x + 4). 10x
When we add the outers plus the inners, the coefficient of x is the sum of the two
numbers. The constant term, as always, is their product.
Example 4. (x − 1)(x + 5) = x2 + 4x − 5.
The outers plus the inners give 4x. More simply, the coefficient of xis −1 + 5. The
constant term is −1· 5.
Problem 6. Write only the trinomial product.
a) (x + 2)(x + 4) = x2 + 6x + 8
b) (x + 2)(x − 4) = x2 − 2x − 8
c) (x − 2)(x − 4) = x2 − 6x + 8
d) (x + 1)(x − 8) = x2 − 7x − 8
e) (x − 1)(x + 8) = x2 + 7x − 8
f) (x − 1)(x − 8) = x2 − 9x + 8
g) (x + 4)(x + 5) = x2 + 9x + 20
h) (x + 2)(x − 8) = x2 − 6x − 16
i) (x − 3)(x − 7) = x2 − 10x + 21
Example 5. Multiply 2(x + 3)(x − 1)
Solution. We can multiply only two factors at a time. First multiply the binomials, then
distribute 2:
2(x + 3)(x − 1) = 2(x2 + 2x − 3)
= 2x2 + 4x − 6.
= −x2 + x + 20.
Multiply the binomials. Then remove the parentheses.
Example 7. (x − 4)(x + 5)(x − 2)
Multiply two of the binomials. Then multiply that product with third. (Lesson
14, Example 4.)
(x − 4)(x + 5)(x − 2) = (x − 4)(x2 + 3x − 10)
= x3 + 3x2 − 10x
− 4x2 − 12x + 40
= x3 − x2 − 22x + 40.
Problem 7. Multiply.
a) 4(x − 1)(x + 3) = 4(x2 + 2x − 3) = 4x2 + 8x − 12
b) x(x − 2)(3x + 4) = x(3x2 − 2x − 8) = 3x3 − 2x2 − 8x
c) −(x + 1)(x − 2) = −(x2 − x − 2) = −x2 + x + 2
d) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) = (x + 1)(x2 + 5x + 6)
= x 3 + 5x 2 + 6x + x 2 + 5 x + 6
= x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
e) (x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5) = (x − 2)(x2 − x − 20)
= x3 − x2 − 20x − 2x2 + 2x + 40
= x3 − 3x2 − 18x + 40
FACTORING TRINOMIALS
2nd Level:
Positive leading term
Quadratics in different arguments
FACTORING IS THE REVERSE of multiplying. Skill in factoring, then, depends upon skill in
multiplying: Lesson 16. As for a quadratic trinomial --
2x2 + 9x − 5
-- it will be factored as a product of binomials:
(? ?)(? ?)
The first term of each binomial will be the factors of 2x2, and thesecond term will be
the factors of 5.
Now, how can we produce 2x2? There is only one way: 2x· x :
(2x ?)(x ?)
And how can we produce 5? Again, there is only one way: 1· 5. But does the 5 go
with 2x --
(2x 5)(x 1)
or with x --
(2x 1)(x 5) ?
Notice: We have not yet placed any signs
How shall we decide between these two possibilities? It is the combination that will
correctly give the middle term, 9x :
2x2 + 9x − 5.
Consider the first possibility:
(2x 5)(x 1)
Is it possible to produce 9x by combining the outers and the inners:
2x (that is, 2x· 1) with 5x ?
No, it is not. Therefore, we must eliminate that possibility and consider the other:
(2x 1)(x 5)
Can we produce 9x by combining 10x with 1x ?
Yes -- if we choose +5 and −1:
(2x − 1)(x + 5)
(2x − 1)(x + 5) = 2x2 + 9x − 5.
Skill in factoring depends on skill in multiplying -- particularly in picking out the middle
term
Problem 1. Place the correct signs to give the middle term.
a) 2x2 + 7x − 15 = (2x − 3)(x + 5)
b) 2x2 − 7x − 15 = (2x + 3)(x − 5)
c) 2x2 − x − 15 = (2x + 5)(x − 3)
d) 2x2 − 13x + 15 = (2x − 3)(x − 5)
Note: When the constant term is negative, as in parts a), b), c), then the signs in each
factor must be different. But when the constant term is positive, as in part d), the signs must
be the same. Usually, however, that happens by itself.
Nevertheless, can you correctly factor the following?
2x2 − 5x + 3 = (2x − 3)(x − 1)
Problem 2. Factor these trinomials.
a) 3x2 + 8x + 5 = (3x + 5)(x + 1)
b) 3x2 + 16x + 5 = (3x + 1)(x + 5)
c) 2x2 + 9x + 7 = (2x + 7)(x + 1)
d) 2x2 + 15x + 7 = (2x + 1)(x + 7)
e) 5x2 + 8x + 3 = (5x + 3)(x + 1)
f) 5x2 + 16x + 3 = (5x + 1)(x + 3)
Problem 3. Factor these trinomials.
a) 2x2 − 7x + 5 = (2x − 5)(x − 1)
b) 2x2 − 11x + 5 = (2x − 1)(x − 5)
c) 3x2 + x − 10 = (3x − 5)(x + 2 )
d) 2x2 − x − 3 = (2x − 3)(x + 1)
e) 5x2 − 13x + 6 = (5x − 3)(x − 2)
f) 5x2 − 17x + 6 = (5x − 2)(x − 3)
g) 2x2 + 5x − 3 = (2x − 1)(x + 3)
h) 2x2 − 5x − 3 = (2x + 1)(x − 3)
i) 2x2 + x − 3 = (2x + 3)(x − 1)
j) 2x2 − 13x + 21 = (2x − 7 )(x −3)
k) 5x2 − 7x − 6 = (5x + 3)(x − 2)
l) 5x2 − 22x + 21 = (5x − 7)(x − 3)
Example 1. 1 the coefficient of x2. Factor x2 + 3x − 10.
Solution. The binomial factors will look like this:
(x a)(x b)
Since the coefficient of x2 is 1, it will not matter in which binomial we put the numbers.
(x a)(x b) = (x b)(x a).
Now, what are the factors of 10? Let us try 2 and 5:
x2 + 3x − 10 = (x 2)(x 5).
We must now choose the signs so that -- as always -- the sum of the outers plus
the inners will equal the middle term, which is +3x.
Choose +5 and −2.
x2 + 3x − 10 = (x − 2)(x + 5).
When the coefficient of x2 is 1, we may simply look for two numbers whose product is
10, the numerical term, and whose algebraic sum is +3, the coefficient of x. That will ensure
that the sum of the outers plus the inners will equal the middle term.
Again, the order of the factors does not matter.
(x − 2)(x + 5) = (x + 5) (x − 2).
Example 2. Factor x2 − x − 12.
Solution. <="" td="" style="font-size: 15pt; font-family: Garamond, serif; font-weight: 500;
color: rgb(0, 0, 102); width: 85px;">
(x ?)(x ?)
There are several factors of 12. Let us try 2 and 6.
(x 2)(x 6)
But there is no way to choose signs for 6x and 2x to give the middle term, which is −x.
Let's try 3 and 4:
(x 3)(x 4)
That will work. Choose −4 and +3.
(x + 3)(x − 4) = x2 − x − 12.
Skill in factoring depends on skill in multiplying, specifically in constructing the middle
term. (Lesson 16.)
Problem 4. Factor. Again, the order of the factors does not matter.
a) x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
b) x2 − x − 6 = (x − 3 )(x + 2)
c) x2 + x − 6 = (x + 3 )(x − 2)
d) x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 3)(x − 2 )
e) x2 + 7x + 6 = (x + 1)(x + 6 )
f) x2 − 7x + 6 = (x − 1)(x − 6 )
g) x2 + 5x − 6 = (x − 1)(x + 6 )
h) x2 − 5x − 6 = (x + 1)(x − 6 )
Problem 5. Factor.
a) x2 − 10x + 9 = (x − 1 )(x − 9)
b) x2 + x − 12 = (x + 4)(x − 3)
c) x2 − 6x − 16 = (x − 8)(x + 2)
d) x2 − 5x − 14 = (x − 7)(x + 2)
e) x2 − x − 2 = (x + 1)(x − 2)
f) x2 − 12x + 20 = (x − 10 )(x − 2)
g) x2 − 14x + 24 = (x − 12 )(x − 2)
Example 3. Factor completely 6x8 + 30x7 + 36x6.
Solution. To factor completely means to first remove any common factors (Lesson 15).
6x8 + 30x7 + 36x6 = 6x6(x2 + 5x + 6).
Now continue by factoring the trinomial:
= 6x6(x + 2)(x + 3).
Problem 6. Factor completely. First remove any common factors.
a) x3 + 6x2 + 5x = x(x2 + 6x + 5) = x(x + 5)(x + 1)
b) x5 + 4x4 + 3x3 = x3(x2 + 4x + 3) = x3(x + 1)(x + 3)
c) x4 + x3 − 6x2 = x2(x2 + x − 6) = x2(x + 3)(x − 2)
d) 4x2 − 4x − 24 = 4(x2 − x − 6) = 4(x + 2)(x − 3)
e) 6x3 + 10x2 − 4x = 2x(3x2 + 5x − 2) = 2x(3x − 1)(x + 2)
f) 12x10 + 42x9 + 18x8 = 6x8(2x2 + 7x + 3) = 6x8(2x + 1)(x + 3).
2nd Level
Example 4. Factor by making the leading term positive.
−x2 + 5x − 6 = −(x2 − 5x + 6) = −(x − 2)(x − 3).
Problem 7. Factor by making the leading term positive.
a) −x2 − 2x + 3 = −(x2 + 2x − 3) = −(x + 3)(x − 1)
b) −x2 + x + 6 = −(x2 − x − 6) = −(x + 2)(x − 3)
c) −2x2 − 5x + 3 = −(2x2 + 5x − 3) = −(2x − 1)(x + 3)
Quadratics in different arguments
Here is the form of a quadratic trinomial with argument x :
ax2 + bx + c.
The argument is whatever is being squared. x is being squared. x is called the
argument. The argument appears in the middle term.
a, b, c are called constants. In this quadratic,
3x2 + 2x − 1,
the constants are 3, 2, −1.
Now here is a quadratic whose argument is x3:
3x6 + 2x3 − 1.
x6 is the square of x3. (Lesson 13: Exponents.)
But that quadratic has the same constants -- 3, 2, − 1 -- as the one above. In a sense, it
is the same quadratic only with a different argument. For it is the constants that distinguish a
quadratic.
Now, since the quadratic with argument x can be factored in this way:
3x2 + 2x − 1 = (3x − 1)(x + 1),
then the quadratic with argument x3is factored the same way:
3x6 + 2x3 − 1 = (3x3 − 1)(x3 + 1).
Whenever a quadratic has constants 3, 2, −1, then for any argument, the factoring will
be
(3 times the argument − 1)(argument + 1).
LET US BEGIN by learning about the square numbers. They are the numbers
1· 1 2· 2 3· 3
and so on. The following are the first ten square numbers -- and their roots.
Square numbers 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Square roots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 is the square of 1. 4 is the square of 2. 9 is the square of 3. And so on.
The square root of 1 is 1. The square root of 4 is 2. The square root of 9 is 3. And so
on.
In a multiplication table, the square numbers lie along the diagonal.
c) (x + 2)2 = x2 + 4x + 4 d) (x − 3)2 = x2 − 6x + 9
2nd Level
THE DIFFERENCE
OF TWO SQUARES
Geometrical algebra
Summary of Multiplying/Factoring
2nd level:
The form (a + b)(a − b)
Factoring by grouping
The sum and difference of odd powers
The difference of even powers
b) 1 − z8 = (1 + z4)(1 − z4)
The entire figure on the left is a square on side a. The square b2 has been inserted in the
upper left corner, so that the shaded area is the difference of the two squares, a2 − b2.
Now, in the figure on the right, we have moved the rectangle (a − b)b to the side. The
shaded area is now equal to the rectangle
(a + b)(a − b).
That is,
a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b).
*
The Difference of Two Squares completes our study of products of binomials. Those
products come up so often that the student should be able to recognize and apply each
form.
Summary of Multiplying/Factoring
In summary, here are the four forms of Multiplying/Factoring that characterize algebra.
Problem 5. Distinguish each form, and write only the final product.
a) (x − 3)2 = x2 − 6x + 9. Perfect square trinomial.
b) (x + 3)(x − 3) = x2 − 9. The difference of two squares.
c) (x − 3)(x + 5) = x2 + 2x − 15. Quadratic trinomial.
d) (2x − 5)(2x + 5) = 4x2 − 25. The difference of two squares.
e) (2x − 5)2 = 4x2 − 20x + 25. Perfect square trinomial.
f) (2x − 5)(2x + 1) = 4x2 − 8x − 5. Quadratic trinomial.
Problem 6. Factor. (What form is it? Is there a common factor? Is it the difference of
two squares? . . . )
a) 6x − 18 = 6(x − 3). Common factor.
b) x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 = x3(x3 + x2 + x + 1). Common factor.
c) x2 − 36 = (x + 6)(x − 6). The difference of two squares.
d) x2 − 12x + 36 = (x − 6)2. Perfect square trinomial.
e) x2 − 6x + 5 = (x − 5)(x − 1). Quadratic trinomial.
f) x2 − x − 12 = (x − 4)(x + 3)
g) 64x2 − 1 = (8x + 1)(8x − 1)
h) 5x2 − 7x − 6 = (5x + 3)(x − 2)
i) 4x5 + 20x4 + 24x3 = 4x3(x2 + 5x + 6) = 4x3(x + 3)(x + 2)
2nd Level
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
The principle of equivalent fractions
Reducing to lowest terms
2nd Level
6 18
=
n 3n
The denominator has been multiplied by 3; therefore the numerator will
also be multiplied by 3.
Problem 2. Write the missing numerator.
4 4x
=
x x2
The denominator has been multiplied by x; therefore the numerator will
also be multiplied by x.
Problem 3. Write the missing numerator.
m 8x2m
=
x 8x3
The denominator has been multiplied by 8x2; therefore the numerator will
also be multiplied by 8x2.
The student should expect that the original denominator on the left will be a factor of
the new denominator on the right. It must be a factor because to produce the new
denominator, the original denominator was multiplied
Problem 4. Write the missing numerator.
("The denominator has been multiplied by _____. Therefore the numerator will also be
multiplied by ____.")
a 5a 3 6 5 5y
a) = b) = c) = 2
b 5b x 2x y y
8 8y a 2x2a b bx2y
d) = e) = f) = 22
x xy x 2x3 y xy
5+x
Example 3. Reduce .
5+y
Answer. This can not be reduced. We cannot "cancel" the 5's, because 5 is not a factor of
either the numerator or the denominator. In both of them, 5 is a term.
We cannot cancel terms.
The word term does double duty in algebra. We speak of the terms of a
sum and also the terms of a fraction, which are the numerator and
denominator. A fraction is in its lowest terms when the terms -- the
numerator and denominator -- have no common factors.
3a + 6b + 9c
Example 4. Reduce .
12d
Answer. When the numerator or denominator is made up of a sum, then if every term has a
common factor, we may divide every term by it.
In this example, every term in both the numerator and denominator has a factor
3. Therefore, upon dividing every term by 3, we can write immediately:
3a + 6b + 9c a + 2b + 3c
=
12d 4d
There is no more reducing. The numerator and denominator no longer have a
common factor.
We could show the common factor explicitly, by writing
3a + 6b + 9c 3(a + 2b + 3c)
12d
= 3·4d
But to actually write that is not required.
3a + 6b + 8c
Example 5. Reduce .
12a
Answer. Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factor. 3 is not
a common factor, because 3 is not a factor of 8. 2 is not a common factor, because 2 is not a
factor of 3. And a is not a common factor. That fraction is in its lowest terms.
Again, to divide a sum, every term must have a common factor, as in Example 4.
8x
Example 6. Reduce .
8x + 10
Answer. 2 is a factor of every term in both the numerator and denominator. Therefore we
may divide every term by 2.
8x 4x
= .
8x + 10 4x + 5
There is no more dividing. We cannot "cancel" the 4x's, because 4xis not a factor of
the denominator. 4x is not a factor of 5.
Problem 6. Reduce to lowest terms.
3a a 8xy 2y 56y 8
a) = b) = c) =
3b b 12x 3 77xy 11x
2x + 6 x + 3 , on dividing every term in both the numerator
d) =
4x + 8 2x + 4 and denominator by 2.
2x + 3 Not possible. The terms of the numerator and denominator have no
e) =
4x + 9 common factor.
x
Example 7. Reduce .
4x
x 1
Answer. = ,
4x 4
on dividing both the numerator and denominator by x.
Note that we must write 1 in the numerator, for x = 1· x.
4x
Example 8. Reduce .
x
4x
Answer. = 4.
x
It is not the style in algebra to write 1 as a denominator.
x−3
Example 9. Reduce .
6(x − 3)
x−3 1
Answer. = .
6(x − 3) 6
15x
Example 10. Reduce .
5x − 3
Answer. Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factor.
x2 − x − 6
Example 11. Reduce .
x2 − 4x + 3
Answer. In its present form, there is no reducing -- because there are no factors. But we
can make factors:
x2 − x − 6 (x − 3)(x + 2) x + 2
= =
x − 4x + 3 (x − 3)(x − 1) x − 1
2
(x −3) is now seen to be a common factor. We can divide by it. And when we do, the
numerator and denominator no longer have a common factor. The end.
4x³ − 9x2
Example 12. Reduce: .
4x³ + 6x2
Answer. The only common factor is x2. And we could display it by factoring both the
numerator and denominator:
4x³ − 9x2 x2(4x − 9) 4x − 9
= 2 =
4x³ + 6x 2x (2x + 3) 2(2x + 3)
2
3x − 12 3(x − 4) x − 4
b) = =
3x 3x x
2m 2m 2
d) = =
m2 − 2m m(m − 2) m − 2
x2 − x x(x − 1)
e) = = x−1
x x
12x2 12x2 3
f) = = 3
16x − 20x
5 2 4x (4x − 5) 4x − 5
2 3
x+3 x+3 1
g) = =
4x + 12 4(x + 3) 4
2x − 8 2(x − 4)
h) = =2
x−4 x−4
2x − 2y 2(x − y) 2
i) = =
3x − 3y 3(x − y) 3
Problem 9. Make factors, and reduce.
x2 − 2x − 3 (x + 1)(x − 3) x − 3
a) = =
x2 − x − 2 (x + 1)(x − 2) x − 2
x2 + x − 2 (x + 2)(x − 1) x − 1
b) = =
x2 − x − 6 (x + 2)(x − 3) x − 3
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2 x−1
c) = =
x2 − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1) x + 1
x+3 x+3 1
e) = =
x + 6x + 9
2 (x + 3)2 x+3
x³ + 4x2 _ x2(x + 4) x2
f) = =
x2 + x − 12 (x − 3)(x + 4) x − 3
Problem 10. Reduce to lowest terms -- if possible.
3+x
a) Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factors.
3x
8a + b
b) Not possible. Again, no common factors.
2ab
8a + 2b 2(4a + b) 4a + b
c) = =
2ab 2ab ab
6(a + b)
e) =2
3(a + b)
2x + 4y + 6z x + 2y + 3z
f) = Divide every term by 2.
10 5
(x + 1) + (x + 2)
h) Not possible. The numerator is not made up of factors.
(x + 1)(x + 3)
(x + 1)(x + 2) x + 2
i) =
(x + 1)(x + 3) x + 3
ab + c
j) = Not possible. The numerator and denominator have no common factors.
abc
ab + ac a(b + c) b + c
k) = =
abc abc bc
x2 − x − 12 (x + 3)(x − 4) x − 4
l) = =
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2) x − 2
2nd Level
Problem 1. Multiply.
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
2 5 10 3ab 4a2b 3a³b2
a) · = 2 b) · = The 4's cancel.
x x x 4c 5d 5cd
3x 6x2 18x³
c) · = 2 The Difference of Two Squares
x+1 x−1 x −1
x−3 x−2 x 2 − 5x + 6
d) · = 2
x+1 x+1 x + 2x + 1
b b
If a multiplication looks like this: a· or · a, multiply only
c c
the numerator.
b ab
a· =
c c
Problem 2. Multiply.
2x 2x 2 3x2 21x5
a) x · = b) · 7x3 =
3 3 4 4
x−3 x2 − 9
c) (x + 3)· =
x+6 x+6
x2 − 2x + 5
d) · 2x3 = No canceling!
6x2 − 4x + 1 6 x 2 − 4x + 1
Reducing
If any numerator has a divisor in common with any denominator,
they may be canceled.
a c e ce
· · =
b d a bd
The a's cancel.
For if we took the trouble to multiply, and write
ace
bda
then it's obvious that we could divide both the numerator and denominator by a. It is more
skillful, then, to reduce before multiplying.
Problem 3. Multiply. Reduce first.
ab ed hcf bh
a) · · =
cd fg ake gk
(x − 2)(x + 2) __2x__ x−2
b) · =
8x (x + 2)(x − 1) 4(x − 1)
b ab x+2
e) aq· = f) 10· = 5(x + 2) = 5x + 10
cq c 2
5x 5x 2
g) 3x· =
6 2
−a 1 1
h) · = −
b a b
The a's cancel as −1, which on multiplication with 1 makes the fraction
itself negative (Lesson 4).
x2 − 4x − 5 x2 − 5x + 6
Example 1. Multiply · 2
x2 − x − 6 x − 6x + 5
Solution. Although the problem says "Multiply," that is the last thing to do in
algebra. First factor. Then reduce. Finally, multiply.
And remember: Only factors can be divided.
x2 − 4x − 5 x2 − 5x + 6 (x + 1)(x − 5) (x − 3)(x − 2)
· = ·
x2 − x − 6 x2 − 6x + 5 (x + 2)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 5)
x+1 x−2
= ·
x+2 x−1
x2 − x − 2
=
x2 + x − 2
Problem 4. Multiply.
_x+3_
=
2 x 5 + 8x 4
x2 − 2x + 1 x2 + x − 6 __(x − 1)2__ (x + 3)(x − 2)
b) · = ·
x − x − 12 x − 6x + 5
2 2
(x − 4)(x + 3) (x − 1)(x − 5)
x−1 x−2
= ·
x−4 x−5
x 2 − 3x + 2
=
x2 − 9x + 20
x2 + 3x − 10 x2 + 5x − 6 (x + 5)(x − 2) (x − 1)(x + 6)
c) · = ·
x2 + 4x − 12 x + 4x − 5
2
(x + 6)(x − 2) (x − 1)(x + 5)
= 1
_x³_ x2 + x − 2 __x2__
d) · · 2
x2 − 1 x4 x + 4x + 4
___x³___ (x − 1)(x + 2) __x2__
= · ·
(x + 1)(x − 1) x4 (x + 2)2
1
= ·
x+1 x+2
_ _ x_ _
=
x 2 + 3x + 2
THERE IS ONE RULE for adding or subtracting fractions: The denominators must
be the same -- just as in arithmetic.
a b a+b
+ =
c c c
Add the numerators, and place their sum
over the common denominator.
6x + 3 4x − 1 10x + 2
Example 1. + =
5 5 5
The denominators are the same. Add the numerators as like terms.
6x + 3 4x − 1
Example 2. −
5 5
To subtract, change the signs of the subtrahend, and add.
6x + 3 4x − 1 6x + 3 − 4x + 1 2x + 4
− = =
5 5 5 5
Problem 1.
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
x y x+y 5 2 3
a) + = b) − =
3 3 3 x x x
x x + 1 2x + 1 3x − 4 x−5 4x − 9
c) + = d) + =
x−1 x−1 x−1 x−4 x−4 x−4
6x + 1 4x + 5 6x + 1 − 4x − 5 2x − 4
e) − = =
x−3 x−3 x−3 x−3
2x − 3 x−4 2x − 3 − x + 4 x+1
f) − = =
x−2 x−2 x−2 x−2
Different denominators -- The LCM
To add fractions with different denominators, we must learn how to construct the Lowest
Common Multiple of a series of terms.
The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of a series of terms
is the smallest product that contains every factor from every term.
For example, consider this series of three terms:
pq pr ps
We will now construct their LCM -- factor by factor.
To begin, it will have the factors of the first term:
LCM = pq
Moving on to the second term, the LCM must have the factors pr. But it already has the
factor p -- therefore, we need add only the factor r:
LCM = pqr
Finally, moving on to the last term, the LCM must contain the factors ps. But again it
has the factor p, so we need add only the factor s:
LCM = pqrs.
That product is the Lowest Common Multiple of pq, pr, ps. It is the smallest product
that contains each of them as factors.
Example 3. Construct the LCM of these three terms: x, x2, x3.
Solution. The LCM must have the factor x.
LCM = x
But it also must have the factors of x2 -- which are x ·x. Therefore, we must add one
more factor of x :
LCM = x2
Finally, the LCM must have the factors of x3, which are x· x· x. Therefore,
LCM = x3.
x3 is the smallest product that contains x, x2, and x3 as factors.
We see that when the terms are powers of a variable -- x, x2, x3 -- then their LCM is the
highest power.
Problem 2. Construct the LCM of each series of terms.
a) ab, bc, cd. abcd b) pqr, qrs, rst. pqrst
3 4 5
Example 4. Add: + +
ab bc cd
Solution. To add fractions, the denominators must be the same. Therefore, as a common
denominator choose the LCM of the original denominators. Choose abcd. Then, convert
each fraction to an equivalent fraction with denominator abcd.
It is necessary to write the common denominator only once:
3 4 5 3cd + 4ad + 5ab
+ + =
ab bc cd abcd
3
To change into an equivalent fraction with denominator abcd,
ab
simply multiply ab by the factors it is missing, namely cd. Therefore, we must also multiply 3
by cd. That accounts for the first term in the numerator.
4
To change into an equivalent fraction with denominator abcd,
bc
multiply bc by the factors it is missing, namely ad. Therefore, we must also multiply 4
by ad. That accounts for the second term in the numerator.
5
To change into an equivalent fraction with denominator abcd,
cd
multiply cd by the factors it is missing, namely ab. Therefore, we must also multiply 5
by ab. That accounts for the last term in the numerator.
That is how to add fractions with different denominators.
Each factor of the original denominators must be a factor
of the common denominator.
Problem 3. Add.
5 6 5c + 6b
a) + =
ab ac abc
7 8 9 7c + 8a + 9
c) + + =
ab bc abc abc
1 2 3 a2 + 2a + 3
d) + 2 + 3 =
a a a a3
3 4 3b + 4a
e) + 2=
ab
2 ab a2b2
5 6 5cd + 6ab
f) + =
ab cd abcd
_ 2x − 6 + 3x_
=
x(x + 2)(x − 3)
_5x − 6_
=
x(x + 2)(x − 3)
At the 2nd Level we will see a similar problem, but the denominators will not
be factored.
1 c+1
Problem 4. Add: 1 − + . But write the answer as
a ab
1 − A fraction.
2 1
Example 6. −
x−1 x
Solution. These denominators have no common factors -- x is not a factor of x − 1. It is a
term. Therefore, the LCM of denominators is their product.
2 1 2x − (x − 1) 2x − x + 1 _x + 1_
− = = =
x−1 x (x − 1)x (x − 1)x (x − 1)x
6 3 6(x + 1) + 3(x − 1)
c) + =
x−1 x+1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
6x + 6 + 3x − 3
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)
_9x + 3_
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)
6 3 6(x + 1) − 3(x − 1)
d) − =
x−1 x+1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
6x + 6 − 3x + 3
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)
_3x + 9_
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)
3 2 3x − 2(x − 3)
e) − =
x−3 x (x − 3)x
3x − 2x + 6
=
(x − 3)x
x+6
=
(x − 3)x
3 1 3x − (x − 3)
f) − =
x−3 x (x − 3)x
3x − x + 3
=
(x − 3)x
2x + 3
=
(x − 3)x
1 2 3 yz + 2xz + 3xy
g) + + =
x y z xyz
b
Example 7. Add: a + .
c
Solution. We have to express a with denominator c.
ac
a= (Lesson 20)
c
Therefore,
b ac + b
a+ = .
c c
Problem 6.
p p + qr 1 1−x
a) + r = b) − 1 =
q q x x
1 x2 − 1 1 x2 − 1
c) x − = d) 1 − =
x x x2 x2
1 x+1−1 x
e) 1 − = =
x+1 x+1 x+1
2 3x + 3 + 2 3x + 5
f) 3 + = =
x+1 x+1 x+1
1 1
Problem 7. Write the reciprocal of 2 + 3 .
a b
[Hint: Only a single fraction has a reciprocal; it is .]
b a
1 1 3+2 5
+ = =
2 3 6 6
6
Therefore, the reciprocal is 5 .
2nd Level
EQUATIONS
WITH FRACTIONS
Clearing of fractions
2nd Level
−6x = 2
2
x=
−6
1
x=−
3
Example 3. Solve for x:
½(5x − 2) = 2x + 4.
Solution. This is an equation with a fraction. Clear of fractions by mutiplying both sides by
2:
5x − 2 = 4x + 8
5x − 4x = 8 + 2
x = 10.
x x
Problem 1. − =3
2 5
The LCM is 10. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
5x − 2x = 30
3x = 30
x = 10.
On solving any equation with fractions, the very next line you write --
5x − 2x = 30
-- should have no fractions.
x 1 x
Problem 2. = +
6 12 8
The LCM is 24. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
4x = 2 + 3 x
4 x − 3x = 2
x= 2
x−2 x x
Problem 3. + =
5 3 2
The LCM is 30. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
6x − 12 + 10x = 15x
16x − 15x = 12
x = 12.
Problem 4. A fraction equal to a fraction.
x−1 x
=
4 7
The LCM is 28. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
7(x − 1) = 4x
7x − 7 = 4x
7 x − 4x = 7
3x = 7
7
x= 3
We see that when a single fraction is equal to a single fraction, then the equation can be
cleared by "cross-multiplying."
If
a c
= ,
b d
then
ad = bc.
x−3 x−5
Problem 5. =
3 2
2(x − 3) = 3(x − 5)
2x − 6 = 3x − 15
2x − 3x = − 15 + 6
−x = −9
x= 9
x−3 x+1
Problem 6. =
x−1 x+2
(x − 3)(x + 2) = (x − 1)(x + 1)
x² −x − 6 = x² − 1
−x = −1 + 6
−x = 5
x = −5.
2x − 3 x+1
Problem 7. + = x−4
9 2
The LCM is 18. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
4x − 6 + 9x + 9 = 18x − 72
13x + 3 = 18x − 72
13x − 18x = − 72 − 3
−5x = −75
x = 15.
2 3 1
Problem 8. − =
x 8x 4
The LCM is 8x. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
16 − 3 = 2x
2x = 13
13
x= 2
2nd Level
WORD PROBLEMS
THAT LEAD TO
EQUATIONS WITH FRACTIONS
2nd Level:
Same time problem
Total time problem
Job problem
HERE ARE SOME WORD PROBLEMS that lead to equations with fractions.
Example 1. Half of a number, added to a fifth of three less than the number, is equal to
two thirds the number. What is the number?
Solution. As in Lesson 10, always let x represent the unknown number that we are asked to
find. Let x answer the question.
x
In algebra, we express "half of a number" as 2 . Similarly, a third of a
x
number will be 3
. And so on.
Here is the equation:
x x−3 2
+ = 3x
2 5
The LCM of denominators is 30. And upon clearing of fractions, we have
15x + 6(x − 3) = 20x
15x + 6x − 18 = 20x
21x − 20x = 18
x = 18.
12x = 6x + 3x + 2x + 36
12x = 11x + 36
12x − 11x = 36
x = 36
There were originally 36 pearls on the strand.
Example 3. One number is three times another. The sum of their reciprocals is 4. What
are the two numbers?
Solution. Let x be the first number. Then the other is three times that: 3x. The problem
states that the sum of their reciprocals is 4:
1 1
+ = 4
x 3x
3 + 1 = 3x· 4
That is,
12x = 4
4
x= 12
1
= 3
1 1
3
is the first number. The other number is 3· 3 = 1.
(Note that the sum of their reciprocals -- 3 + 1 -- does equal 4.)
Problem 1. Half of a number added to its third part, is eight less than the number. What is
the number?
To see the equation, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
But do the problem yourself first!
In every case, let x represent the unknown number.
The equation is:
x x
+ = x−8
2 3
3x + 2x = 6x − 48
5x − 6x = −48
−x = −48
x = 48
Problem 2. Three fifths of a number, plus 8, is equal to the number. What is the number?
Here is the equation:
3
5
x+ 8 = x
3x + 40 = 5x
3x − 5x = −40
−2x = −40
x = 20
Problem 3. Half of a number, plus a fifth of two less than the number, is four less than the
number. What is the number?
Here is the equation:
x x−2
+ = x−4
2 5
The LCM is 10. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
5x + 2x − 4 = 10x − 40
7x − 10x = −40 + 4
−3x = −36
x = 12
Problem 4. Melissa went shopping and spent half of her money on shoes, a third on a
blouse, a tenth to take her boyfriend to lunch, and she came home with $12. How much did
she start out with?
Here is the equation:
x = 2x + x3 + 10
x
+ 12
The LCM is 30. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
2x = 360
x = 180
Problem 5. One number is four times another. The sum of their
5
reciprocals is 12 . What are the two numbers?
Let x be the first number. Then the other is 4x. Here is the equation:
1 1 5
+ = 12
x 4x
The LCM is 12x. Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
12 + 3 = 5x
5x = 15
x = 3.
4x = 12.
These are the two numbers.
Problem 6 If the same number is added to the numerator and
7 5
denominator of 9 the result is 6 . What is that number?
Here is the equation:
7+x 5
=
9+x 6
42 + 6x = 45 + 5x
6x − 5x = 45 − 42
x=3
2nd Level:
HERE ARE THE FIRST TEN square numbers and their roots:
Square numbers 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Square roots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
We write, for example,
= 5.
"The square root of 25 is 5."
This mark is called the radical sign (after the Latin radix = root). The number under
the radical sign is called the radicand. In the example, 25 is the radicand.
Problem 1. Evaluate the following.
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
a) = 8 b) = 12 c) = 20
7
d) = 17 e) = 1 f) = 9
Example 1. Evaluate .
Solution. = 13.
For, 13· 13 is a square number. And the square root of 13· 13 is 13
If a is any whole number, then a· a is a square number, and
c) = 2· 3· 5 = 30.
We can state the following theorem:
A square number times a square number is itself a square number.
For example,
36· 81 = 6· 6· 9· 9 = 6· 9· 6· 9 = 54· 54
Problem 3. Without multiplying the given square numbers, each product of square
numbers is equal to what square number?
a) 25· 64 = 5· 8· 5· 8 = 40· 40
b) 16· 49 = 4· 7· 4· 7 = 28· 28
c) 4· 9· 25 = 2· 3· 5· 2· 3· 5 = 30· 30
Rational and irrational numbers
The rational numbers are the everyday numbers of arithmetic: the whole numbers, fractions,
mixed numbers, and decimals; together with their negative images. A rational number has
the same ratio to 1 as two natural numbers.
That is what a rational number is. As for what it looks like, it can take the
form , where a and b are integers (b ≠ 0).
Irrational
Irrational
=2 Rational
, , , Irrational
= 3 Rational
And so on.
The square roots of the square numbers are the only square roots that we can name.
The existence of irrationals was first realized by Pythagoras in the 6th century B.C. He
called them "without a name." For if we ask, " How much is ? -- we cannot say. We can
only call it, "Square root of 2."
Problem 5. Say the name of each number.
a) Square root of 3. b) Square root of 8. c) 3.
2
d) 5
e) Square root of 10
As for the decimal representation of both irrational and rational numbers, see Topic 2
of Precalculus.
An equation x² = a, and the principal square root
Example 2. Solve this equation:
x² = 25.
In other words,
x= or − .
We say however that the positive value 5 is the principal square root. That is, we say that
"the square root of 25" is 5.
= 5.
As for −5, it is "the negative of the square root of 25."
− = −5.
Thus the symbol refers to one non-negative number.
Example 3. Solve this equation:
x² = 10.
Solution. x= or − .
x= or − .
c) x² = 5 implies x = ± d) x² = 3 implies x = ±
e) x² = a − b implies x = ±
2nd Level
SIMPLIFYING RADICALS
Simplest form
Similar radicals
2nd level
Simplifying powers
Factors of the radicand
Fractional radicand
WE SAY THAT A SQUARE ROOT RADICAL is simplified, or in its simplest form, when
the radicand has no square factors.
A radical is also in simplest form when the radicand is not a fraction.
Example 1. 33, for example, has no square factors. Its factors are 3· 11, neither of which
is a square number. Therefore, is in its simplest form.
Example 2. Extracting the square root. 18 has the square factor 9.
18 = 9· 2.
Therefore, is not in its simplest form. We have,
=
We may now extract, or take out, the square root of 9:
= =3 .
is now simplified. The radicand no longer has any square factors.
The justification for taking out the square root of 9, is this theorem:
Example 3 Simplify .
Solution. = =5 .
75 has the square factor 25. And the square root of 25 times 3
is equal to the square root of 25 times the square root of 3.
is now simplified.
Example 4. Simplify .
Solution. We have to factor 42 and see if it has any square factors. We can begin the
factoring in any way. For example,
42 = 6· 7
We can continue to factor 6 as 2· 3, but we cannot continue to factor 7, because 7 is
a prime number (Lesson 32 of Arithmetic). Therefore,
42 = 2· 3· 7
We now see that 42 has no square factors -- because no factor is repeated. Compare
Example 1 and Problem 2 of the previous Lesson.
therefore is in its simplest form.
Example 5. Simplify .
Solution. We must look for square factors, which will be factors that are repeated.
180 = 2· 90 = 2· 2· 45 = 2· 2· 9· 5 = 2· 2· 3· 3· 5
Therefore,
= 2· 3 = 6 .
Problem 1. To simplify a radical, why do we look for square factors?
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
In order to take its square root out of the radical.
Problem 3. Simplify the following. Do that by inspecting each radicand for a square
factor: 4, 9, 16, 25, and so on.
a) =
b) = = =5
c) = = =3
d) = =7
e) = =4
f) = = 10
g) = =5
h) = =4
Problem 4. Reduce to lowest terms.
a) = = =
2 2 2
b) = = =2
3 3 3
=7 + 8 +4 .
2 and 6 are similar, as are 5 and − . We combine them by adding their
coefficients.
In practice, it is not necessary to change the order of the terms. The student should
simply see which radicals have the same radicand.
As for 7, it does not "belong" to any radical.
Problem 5. Simplify each radical, then add the similar radicals.
a) + =3 +2 =5
b) 4 −2 + =4 −2 +
= 4· 5 − 2· 7 +
= 20 − 14 +
=7
c) 3 + −2 =3 + −2
= 3· 2 +2 − 2· 4
=6 +2 −8
=2 −2
d) 3 + + =3 + +
=3 + 2 +3
=3 + 5
e) 1 − + =1 − +
=1 − 8 +3
=1 − 5
Problem 6. Simplify the following.
a) = =2 − ,
2 2 on dividing every term in the numerator by 2.
Compare Example 4 here.
To see that 2 was a factor of the radical, you first have to simplify the
radical. Compare Problem 4.
b) = = 2+
5 5
2nd Level
It is the symmetrical version of the rule for simplifying radicals. It is valid for a and b greater
than or equal to 0.
Problem 1. Multiply.
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
a) · = b) 2 ·3 =6
c) · = =6 d) (2 )2 = 4· 5 = 20
e) =
The difference of two squares
Problem 2. Multiply, then simplify:
Example 1. Multiply ( + )( − ).
Solution. The student should recognize the form those factors will produce:
The difference of two squares
( + )( − )=( )2 − ( )2
=6 − 2
= 4.
Problem 3. Multiply.
a) ( + )( − ) = 5−3=2
b) (2 + )(2 − ) = 4· 3 − 6 = 12 − 6 = 6
c) (1 + )(1 − ) = 1 − (x + 1) = 1 − x − 1 = −x
d) ( + )( − ) = a−b
Problem 4. (x − 1 − )(x − 1 + )
a) What form does that produce?
The difference of two squares. x − 1 is "a." is "b.">
b) Multiply out.
(x − 1 − )(x − 1 + ) = (x − 1)2 − 2
= x 2 − 2x − 1
Problem 5. Multiply out.
(x + 3 + )(x + 3 − ) = (x + 3)2 − 3
= x 2 + 6x + 9 − 3
= x 2 + 6x + 6
Dividing radicals
For example,
= =
Conjugate pairs
The conjugate of a + is a − . They are a conjugate pair.
Example 2. Multiply 6 − with its conjugate.
Solution. The product of a conjugate pair --
(6 − )(6 + )
-- is the difference of two squares. Therefore,
(6 − )(6 + ) = 36 − 2 = 34.
When we multiply a conjugate pair, the radical vanishes and we obtain
a rational number.
Problem 7. Multiply each number with its conjugate.
a) x + = x2 − y
b) 2 − (2 − )(2 + )=4−3=1
Solution. Multiply both the denominator and the numerator by the conjugate of the
denominator; that is, multiply them by 3 − .
1
= =
9−2 7
The numerator becomes 3 − . The denominator becomes the difference of the two
squares.
Example 4. = =
3−4 −1
= −(3 − 2 )
=2 − 3.
Problem 8. Write out the steps that show the following.
1
a) = ½( )
= = = ½( − )
5−3 2
2
= = = ½(3 − )
3+ 9−5 4
_7_
c) =
3 + 6
_7_
= = =
3 + 9· 5 − 3 42 6
d) = 3+2
−1
= 3+2
e) =
1+ x
=
1+ 1 − (x + 1)
=
−x
Example 5. Simplify
=6 −5 on multiplying out.
Problem 9. Simplify
= on adding those fractions,
=3 +2 on multiplying out.
Problem 10. Here is a problem that comes up in Calculus. Write out the steps that show:
____1____
= −
1
= ·
h
1 _____x − (x + h)_____
= ·
h
1 ____x − x − h_____
= ·
h
1 _______−h_______
= ·
h
_______ 1_______
= −
COMPLEX
OR IMAGINARY
NUMBERS
The defining property of i
The square root of a negative number
Powers of i
Algebra with complex numbers
The real and imaginary components
Complex conjugates
IN ALGEBRA, we want to be able to say that every polynomial equation has a solution;
specifically, this one:
x2 + 1 = 0.
That implies,
x2 = −1.
But there is no real number whose square is negative. (Lesson 13.) Therefore, we invent
a number -- a complex or imaginary number -- and we call it i.
i2 = −1.
That is the defining property of the complex unit i. Its square is negative.
In other words,
i = .
The complex number i is purely algebraic. That is, we call it a "number"
because it will obey all the rules we normally associate with a number. We
may add it, subtract it, multiply it, and so on. The complex number iturns
out to be extremely useful in mathematics and physics.
a) i2 = −1 b) i· 2i = 2i2 = 2(−1) = −2
Examples 3. =i
=i = 2i
=i = 2i
Problem 2. Express each of the following in terms of i.
a) = i b) = 3i c) = 7i
d) = i e) = i f) = 2i
g) = 3i h) = 5i i) = 7i
Powers of i
Let us begin with i0, which is 1. (Any number with exponent 0 is 1.) Each power of i can be
obtained from the previous power by multiplying it by i. We have:
i0 = 1
i1 = i
i2 = −1
i3 = −1· i = −i
i4 = −i· i = −i2 = −(−1) = 1
And we are back at 1 -- the cycle of powers will repeat. Any power of i will be either
1, i, −1, or −i
-- according to the remainder upon dividing the exponent n by 4.
Examples 4.
i9 = i1 .
i18 = i2.
i35 = i3.
i40 = i0.
Note: Even powers of i will be either 1 or −1, according as the exponent is a multiple
of 4, or 2 more than a multiple of 4. While odd powers will be either i or −i.
Problem 3. Evaluate each power of i.
a) i3 = −i b) i4 = 1 c) i6 = i2 = −1
d) i9 = i1 = i e) i12 = i0 = 1 f) i17 = i1 = i
= 4 − 9(−1)
=4 + 9
= 13.
Again, the factor i2 changes the sign of the term.
Problem 5. Multiply.
a) (1 + i )(1 − i ) = 1 − 2i2 = 1 + 2 = 3
b) (3 − i )2 = 9 − 6i + 2i2, upon squaring the binomial,
= 9 − 6i −2
= 7 − 6i
c) (2 + 3i)(4 − 5i) = 8 − 10i + 12i − 15i2
= 8 + 2i + 15
= 23 + 2i
Problem 6. (x + 1 + 3i)(x + 1 − 3i)
a) What form will that produce? The difference of two squares.
Lesson 19.
b) Multiply out.
(x + 1 + 3i)(x + 1 − 3i) = (x + 1)2 − 9i2
= x 2 + 2x + 1 + 9
= x2 + 2x + 10
= x 2 − 4x + 4 + 2
= x 2 − 4x + 6
The real and imaginary components
Here is the standard form of a complex number:
a + bi.
Both a and b are real. For example,
3 + 2i.
a -- that is, 3 in the example -- is called the real component (or the real part). b (2 in the
example) is called the imaginary component (or the imaginary part). Again, the components
are real.
Problem 7. Name the real component a and the imaginary component b.
a) 3 − 5i a = 3, b = −5. b) 1 + i a = 1, b = .
c) i a = 0, b = 1. d) −6 a = −6, b = 0.
Complex conjugates
The complex conjugate of a + bi is a − bi. The main point about a conjugate pair is that
when they are multiplied --
(a + bi)(a − bi)
-- the product is a positive real number. For, that form is the difference of two squares:
(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − b2i2 = a2 + b2
The product of a complex conjugate pair
is equal to the sum of the squares of the components.
Problem 8. Calculate the positive real number that results from multiplying each number
with its complex conjugate.
a) 2 + 3i
(2 + 3i)(2 − 3i) = 22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13.
b) 3 − i .
(3 − i )(3 + i ) = = 32 + ( )2= 9 + 2 = 11.
c) u + iv. (u + iv)(u − iv) = u2 + v2.
d) 1 + i. (1 + i)(1 − i) = 12 + 12 = 2.
e) −i. (−i)(i) = −i2 = 1.
RECTANGULAR COÖRDINATES
Straight lines
The coördinate 0 is called the origin of coördinates. Distances to the right of 0 are
labeled with positive coördinates: 1, 2, 3, etc. Distances to the left are labeled with negative
numbers: −1, −2, −3, etc. Each coördinate is the "address" of a distance and direction from
0.
A coördinate axis is a line with coördinates.
Now, to label a point in a plane (a flat surface), we will need more than one coördinate
axis, and so we place a second at right angles to the first.
Distances above the origin will have positive coördinates; distances below, negative
coördinates.
Those axes are called rectangular coördinate axes, because they are at right angles to
one another. The coördinates on them are called rectangular coördinates. They are also
called Cartesian coördinates, after the 17th century philosopher and mathematician René
Descartes; for he was one of the first to realize the possibility of solving problems of
geometry by means of algebra with the coördinates. Hence we have the name coördinate
geometry or, as it is often called, analytic geometry.
Rectangular coördinates are an ordered pair, (x, y).
The pair (2, 3)—over 2 and up 3—labels a different point than (3, 2): over 3 and up
2. The horizontal coördinate—Right or left—is always entered first. The vertical
coördinate—Up or down—is always entered second. For that reason, (3, 2) is called
an ordered pair.
The coördinates of the origin are (0, 0). We don't move right or left and we don't move
up or down. We will see that 0 is an extremely important coördinate. It means that the
point is on one of the axes.
Now the horizontal axis is always called the x-axis, and the vertical axis is always called
the y-axis. The first coördinate, then, is called the x-coördinate; the second is called the y-
coördinate. We always write (x, y).
Finally, the coördinate axes divide the plane into four quadrants:
The first, the second, the third, and the fourth. We label the quadrants counter-clockwise.
Problem 1. Name the coördinates of each point.
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Do the problem yourself first!
a) b) c)
d) e) f)
That line is called the graph of y = −3. And y = −3 is called the equation of that line.
Problem 4. In which quadrant does each point lie? Or is it on an axis; if so, which axis?
a) (2, −3) Fourth b) (−4, 2) Second
The extremities of a straight line AB have coördinates (4, 3) and (15, 8), and that line is
the hypotenuse of a right triangle ACB, whose sides are parallel to the axes.
Name the coördinates of the right angle at C.
C has the same x-coördinate as B. Therefore its x-coördinate is 15. And C
has the same y-coördinate as A. Therefore its y-coördinate is 3. The coördinates
at C are (15, 3).
Straight lines
An actually infinite straight line is a line that has no extremities—no endpoints.
It is potentially infinite in the sense that we may extend it in either direction for as far as
we please. Which in practice is all we ever require.
A line—length with no width—is an idea in the first place. As an idea, it clearly exists.
But should that be sufficient for mathematics? Should we not be able to make an image of it
in the physical world?
Euclid, in his first Postulate, has answered that. He has asked us to grant that we can do
the following:
To draw a straight line from any point to any point.
In other words, he asks us to regard what we have drawn to be a straight line. By means
of that Postulate, a line will then exist logicallly. We will have brought a representative of that
idea into this world.
See First Principles of Euclidean Geometry, Commentary on the Definitions.
A ray is also a mental object. It is the idea of a straight line with one extremity.
BASIC TO TRIGONOMETRY and calculus is the theorem that relates the squares
drawn on the sides of a right-angled triangle. Credit for the proving the
theorem goes to the Greek philosopher Pythagoras, who lived in the 6th
century B. C.
Here is the statement of the theorem:
In a right triangle the square drawn on the side opposite the right angle
is equal to the squares drawn on the sides that make the right angle.
That means that if ABC is a right triangle with the right angle at A, then the square
drawn on BC opposite the right angle, is equal to the two squares together on CA, AB.
In other words, if it takes one can of paint to paint the square on BC, then it will also
take exactly one can to paint the other two squares.
The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse ("hy-POT'n-yoos"; which
literally means stretching under).
Algebraically, if the hypotenuse is c, and the sides are a, b:
a2 + b2 = c2.
For a proof, see below.
Problem 1. State the Pythagorean theorem in words.
In a right triangle the square on the side opposite the right angle will equal
the squares on the sides that make the right angle.
Problem 2. Calculate the length of the hypotenuse c when the sides are as follows.
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To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
a) a = 5 cm, b = 12 cm.
c2 = 52 + 122
= 25 + 144
= 169.
Therefore, c =
= 13 cm,
on simplifying the radical.
b) a = 3 cm, b = 6 cm.
c 2 = 2 + 62
= 9 + 36
= 9(1 + 4)
= 9· 5.
Therefore, c =
= cm.
Since 9 is a square number, and a common factor of 9 and 36, then we may anticipate
simplifying the radical by writing 9 + 36 = 9(1 + 4) = 9· 5.
We could, of course, have written 9 + 36 = 45 = 9· 5. But that first wipes out the
square number 9. We then have to bring it back.
The distance d of a point (x, y) from the origin
Problem 3. How far from the origin is the point (−5, −12)?
The distance between any two points
Consider the distance d as the hypotenuse of a right triangle. Then according to Lesson
31, Problem 5, the coördinates at the right angle are (15, 3).
Therefore, the horizontal leg of that triangle is simply the distance from 4 to 15: 15 −
4 = 11.
The subscript 1 labels the coördinates of the first point; the subscript 2 labels the
coördinates of the second. We write the absolute value because distance is never negative.
Here then is the Pythagorean distance formula between any two points:
Example 2. Calculate the distance between the points (1, 3) and (4, 8).
Solution. Δx = 4 − 1 = 3.
Δy = 8 − 3 = 5.
Therefore,
Note: It does not matter which point we call the first and which the
second. Alternatively,
Δx = 1 − 4 = −3.
Δy = 3 − 8 = −5.
But (−3)2 = 9, and (−5)2 = 25. The distance between the two points is the same.
Example 3. Calculate the distance between the points (−8, −4) and (1, 2).
Solution. Δx = 1 − (−8) = 1 + 8 = 9.
Δy = 2 − (−4) = 2 + 4 = 6.
Therefore,
Problem 5. Calculate the distance between (−11, −6) and (−16, −1)
A proof of the Pythagorean theorem
Let a right triangle have sides a, b, and hypotenuse c. And let us arrange four of those triangles to form a
square whose side is a + b. (Fig. 1)
Now, the area of that square is equal to the sum of the four triangles, plus the interior square whose
side is c.
Two of those triangles taken together, however, are equal to a rectangle whose sides are a, b. The
area of such a rectangle is atimes b: ab. Therefore the four triangles together are equal to two such
rectangles. Their area is 2ab.
As for the square whose side is c, its area is simply c2. Therefore, the area of the entire square is
c2 + 2ab. . . . . . . (1)
At the same time, an equal square with side a + b (Fig. 2)
is made up of a square whose side is a, a square whose side is b, and two rectangles whose sides
are a, b. Therefore the area of that square is
a2 + b2 + 2ab.
But this is equal to the square formed by the triangles, line (1):
a2 + b2 + 2ab = c2 + 2ab.
Therefore, on subtracting the two rectangles 2ab from each square, we are left with
a2 + b2 = c2.
That is the Pythagorean theorem.
d) 3x + 1 = 0 e) y = 6x + x3 f) y = 2
a), b), d), f).
Problem 6.
a) Name the coördinates of any three points on the line whose equation
a) is
y = 2x − 1.
(Choose any number for x; the equation will then determine the
a) value of y.)
For example, (0 −1), (1, 1), (−1, −3).
Problem 7.
a) Which of these ordered pairs solves the equation y = 5x − 6 ?
(You have to test each pair!)
(1, −2) (1, −1) (2, 3) (2, 4)
(1, −1) and (2, 4)
b) Which of those are points on the graph of y = 5x − 6 ?
(1, −1) and (2, 4)
Problem 8. True or false?
a) (−2, −3) is on the line whose equation is x + y = 5.
False.
b) (2, 3) is on the line whose equation is x + y = 5.
True.
Constants versus variables
A constant is a symbol whose value does not change. The symbols 2, 5, , are constants.
The beginning letters of the alphabet a, b, c, are typically used as arbitrary constants, to
which numerical values may be assigned; while the letters x, y, z, are typically used to denote
variables. For example, if we write
y = ax² + bx + c,
we mean that a, b, c are numbers, and that x and y are variables.
Problem 9. The arbitrary constants a and b. Each of the following has
the form y = ax + b. What number is a and what number is b?
a) y = 2x + 3. a = 2, b = 3. b) y = x − 4. a = 1, b = −4.
c) y = −x + 1. a = −1, b = 1. d) y = 5x. a = 5, b = 0.
The x-intercept of a graph is that value of x where the graph crosses the x-axis. The y-
intercept is the value of y where it crosses the y-axis.
To find the x-intercept, we have to find the value of x where y = 0 -- because
at every point on the x-axis, y = 0.
Example 1. Calculate the value of x when y = 0, that is, find the x-intercept of y = 2x +
10.
Solution. On putting y = 0, we have to solve the equation,
2x + 10 = 0.
We have:
2x = −10
x = −5.
The x-intercept is −5.
Problem 10. Calculate the value of x when y = 0.
a) y = 2x + 4 b) y = 3x − 12
2x + 4 = 0 3x − 12 = 0
2x = −4 3x = 12
x = −2 x=4
c) y = 4x + 1
4x + 1 = 0
4x = −1
x = −¼
To find the y-intercept of a graph, we must find the value of y when x = 0 -- because at
every point on the y-axis, x = 0. But when the equation has the form
y = ax + b,
the y-intercept is simply b. When x = 0,
y = 0 + b = b.
Drawing the graph
Two points determine a straight line. And the two most important points are the x- and y-
intercepts. Therefore whenever we draw a graph, we always mark those points.
Problem 11.
a) When we have the equation of a straight line, how do we find the
a) x−intercept?
Put y =0 and solve for x.
b) How do we find the y−intercept?
Put x =0 and solve for y.
Problem 12. Mark the x- and y-intercepts, and draw the graph of
y = 2x + 6.
The x-intercept −3 is the solution to 2x + 6 = 0. The y-intercept is the
constant term, 6. The graph is the straight line that passes through those two
intercepts.
Example 2. Mark the x- and y-intercepts, and draw the graph of
5x − 2y = 10.
Solution. Although this does not have the form y = ax + b, the strategy is the same. Find
the intercepts by putting x -- then y -- equal to 0.
xy
y-intercept 0 −5
20 x-intercept
Problem 13.
a) In an equation y = ax + b , where on the graph do we find b ?
As the y-intercept.
b) Where do we find the solution to ax + b = 0 ?
As the x-intercept.
Problem 14. Mark the x− and y−intercepts, and draw the graph.
a) y = 2x − 6 b) y = −3x + 3
c) y = 4x + 2 d) x − y = 3
See Example 2.
e) x − 2y + 2 = 0 f) 2x − 3y − 6 = 0
g) y = −x + 1 h) y = 6x − 3
Problem 15. The form y = ax.
a) When an equation has the form y = ax (for example, y = 2x), what
a) number is b ? 0
b) Therefore, what number is the y-intercept? 0
c) Through which point does the line pass?
The origin. In other words the x- and y- intercepts coincide.
d) How do we find another point on the line?
Choose any value for x. The equation will then determine the value of y.
(In the next Lesson, we will see that a is the slope of the line.
Example 3. draw the graph of y = 2x.
Solution. Since b = 0, the graph passes through the origin. To find another point, let x =
1, for example. Then y = 2· 1 = 2. The point (1, 2) is on the graph:
2
Example 4. draw the graph of y = 3 x.
Solution. Again, since b = 0, the graph passes through the origin. To find another point,
choose an integer value for x in such a way that y also will be an integer. Choose x equal to
the denominator, 3. The point (3, 2) then is on the graph.
3 2
c) y = 5x d) y = −5x
c) y=3 d) y = −1
Problem 18.
a) What is the equation of the x-axis? y = 0
b) What is the equation of the y-axis? x = 0
THE SLOPE OF A
STRAIGHT LINE
Definition of the slope
"Up" or "down"?
Horizontal and vertical lines
The slope-intercept form
The general form
Parallel and perpendicular lines
2nd level:
The point-slope formula
The two-point-formula
Consider this straight line. The (x, y) coördinates at B have changed from the
coördinates at A. By the symbol Δx ("delta x") we mean the change in the x-
coördinate. That is,
Δx = x2 − x1.
(As for using the subscripts 1 and 2, see Lesson 32, the section, The distance bewteen
any two points.)
Similarly, Δy ("delta y") signifies the resulting change in the y-coördinates.
Δy = y2 − y1.
Δx is the horizontal leg of that right triangle; Δy is the vertical leg.
By the slope of a straight line, then, we mean this number:
_Vertical leg_ Δy
Slope = = =
Horizontal leg Δx
For example,
If the value of y changes by 2 units when the value of x changes by 3,
2
then the slope of that line is 3 .
2
What does slope 3 mean? It indicates the rate at which a change
in the value of x produces a change in the value of y. 2 units of y per -- for every -- 3 units
of x.
For every 3 units that line moves to the right, it will move up 2. That will be true
between any two points on that line. Over 6 and up 4, over 15 and up 10. Because a straight
line has one and only one slope. (Theorem 8.1 of Precalculus.)
In each line above, the x-coördinate has increased by 1 unit. In the line on the left,
however, the value of y has increased much more than in the line on the right. The line on
the left has a greater slope than the line on the right. The value of y has changed at a much
greater rate.
If the x-axis represents time and the y-axis distance, as is the case in many
applications, then the rate of change of y with respect to x -- of distance
with respect to time -- is called speed or velocity. So many miles per hour,
or meters per second.
Up or down?
Which line do we say is sloping "up"? And which is sloping "down"?
Since we imagine moving along the x-axis from left to right, we say that the line on the
left is sloping up, and the line on the right, down.
What is more, a line that slopes up has a positive slope. While a line that slopes down
has a negative slope.
For, both the x- and y-coördinates of B are greater than the coördinates of
A, so that both Δx and Δy are positive. Therefore their quotient, which is
the slope, is positive.
But while the x-coördinate of D is greater than the x-coördinate of C, so
that Δx is positive, the y-coördinate of D is less than the y-coördinate of C,
so that Δy, 5 − 8, is negative. Therefore that quotient is negative.
a) b)
3 4
4 3
c) d)
4 3
−3 −4
A horizontal line has slope 0, because even though the value of xchanges, the value
of y does not. Δy = 0.
Δy 0
= = 0. (Lesson 5)
Δx Δx
For a vertical line, however, the slope is not defined. The slope tells how the y-
coördinate changes when the x-coördinate changes. But the x-coördinate does not change --
Δx = 0. A vertical line does not have a slope.
Δy Δy
= = No value. (Lesson 5)
Δx 0
Problem 2.
Δy 6−2 4 2
= = = = 2.
Δx 3−1 2 1
Note: It does not matter which point we call the first and which the second. But if we
calculate Δy starting with (3, 6), then we must calculate Δx also starting with (3, 6).
As for the meaning of slope 2: On the straight line that joins those two points, for
every 1 unit the value of x changes, the value of y will change by 2 units. That is the rate of
change of y with respect to x. 2 for every 1.
Problem 3. Calculate the slope of the line that joins these points.
a) (1, 5) and (4, 17) b) (−3, 10) and (−2, 7)
17 − 5 12 _ 10 − 7 _ 3
4−1 3
= =4 = = −3
−3 − (−2) −1
c) (1, −1) and (−7, −5) d) (2, −9) and (−2, −5)
−5 − (−1) −4 −9 − (−5) −4
−7 − 1
= −8 = ½ 2 − (−2)
= 4 = −1
2
b) y = − 3 x + 4
2
The slope is − 3 . This means that y decreses 2 units for every
3 units of x..
Problem 5.
a) Write the equation of the straight line whose slope is 3 and whose
a) y-intercept is 1.
y = 3x + 1
b) Write the equation of the straight line whose slope is −1 and whose
a) y-intercept is −2.
y = −x − 2
2
c) Write the equation of the straight line whose slope is 3 and which
y = 23 x. The y-intercept b is 0.
This is a straight line of slope −2 -- over 1 and down 2 -- that passes through the
origin: b = 0.
(Compare Lesson 33, Problem 15.)
The general form
This linear form
Ax + By + C = 0
where A, B, C are integers (Lesson 2), is called the general form of the equation of a straight
line.
Problem 7. What number is the slope of each line, and what is the meaning of each slope?
a) x + y − 5 = 0
This line is in the general form. It is only when the line is in the slope-
intercept form, y = ax + b, that the slope is a. Therefore, on solving for y: y =
−x + 5. The slope therefore is −1. This means that the value of y decreases 1
unit for every unit that the value of x increases.
5, incidentally, is b, the y-intercept.
b) 2x − 3y + 6 = 0
−3y = −2x − 6
2
The slope therefore is 3 . This means that for every 3 units
the line goes over, it goes up 2.
c) Ax + By + C = 0
By = −Ax − C
y = −A
B
x −
C
B
, on dividing every term by B.
A
The slope is − B .
We can view that as a formula for the slope when the equation is in the general
form. For example, if the equation is
4x − 5y + 2 = 0,
then the slope is
4 4
− = .
−5 5
Parallel and perpendicular lines
Straight lines will be parallel if they have the same slope. The following are equations
of parallel lines:
y = 3x + 1 and y = 3x − 8.
They have the same slope 3.
Straight lines will be perpendicular if
their slopes have opposite signs -- one positive and one negative,
1)
and
2
Problem 10. If a line has slope − 3 , then what is the slope of a
3
perpendicular line? 2
(Same figure.)
Angle CAD is a right angle. Therefore angle is the complement of angle ß.
But triangle ABD is right-angled, and therefore the angle at D is also the complement of
angle ß;
therefore the angle at D is equal to angle .
The right triangles ABC, ABD therefore are similar (Topic 5 of Trigonometry),
and the sides opposite the equal angles are proportional:
This implies
m1m2| = 1.
But m2 is negative. Therefore,
m1m2 = −1.
Which is what we wanted to prove.
Example 1
a) Find the domain and b) the range of the relation given by its graph shown below and c)
state whether the relation is a function or not.
Solution:
a) Domain: We first find the 2 points on the graph of the given relation with the smallest and
the largest x-coordinate. In this example the 2 points are A(-2,-4) and B(4,-6) (see graph
above). The domain is the set of all x values from the smallest x-coordinate (that of A) to the
largest x-coordinate (that of B) and is written as:
-2 ≤ x ≤ 4
The double inequality above has the inequality symbol ≤ at both sides because the closed
circles at points A and B indicate that the relation is defined at these values of x.
b) Range: We need to find the coordinates of the 2 points on the graph with the lowest and
the largest values of the y coordinate. In this example, these points are B(4,-6) and C(2,2).
The range is the set of all y values between the smallest and the largest y coordinates and
given by the double inequality:
-6 ≤ y ≤ 2
The inequality symbol ≤ is used at both sides because the closed circles at points B and C
indicates the relation is defined at these values.
c) The relation graphed above is a function because no vertical line can intersect the given
graph at more than one point.
Example 2
Find the a) domain and a) range of the relation given by its graph shown below and c) state
whether the relation is a function or not.
Solution:
a) Domain: In this example points A(-3,-5) and B(8,4) have the smallest and the largest x-
coordinates respectively, hence the domain is given by:
-3 ≤ x ≤ 8
The use of the symbol ≤ at both sides is due to the fact that the relation is defined at points A
and B (closed circles at both points).
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b) Range: Points A and B have the smallest and the largest values of the y-coordinate
respectively. The range is given by the inequality:
- 5≤ y ≤ 4
The use of the symbol ≤ at both sides is due to the fact that the relation is defined at points A
and B.
c) No vertical line can cut the given graph at more than one point and therefore the relation
graphed above is a function.
Example 3
Find the domain and range of the relation given by its graph shown below and state whether
the relation is a function or not.
Solution:
a) Domain: Points A(-3,-2) and B(1,-2) have the smallest and the largest x-coordinates
respectively, hence the domain:
-3 ≤ x ≤ 1
The use of the symbol ≤ at both sides is due to the fact that the relation is defined at points A
and B (closed circles at both points).
b) Range: Points C(-1,-5) and D(-1,1) have the smallest and the largest y-coordinate
respectively. The range is given by the double inequality:
- 5≤ y ≤ 1
The relation is defined at points C and D (closed circles), hence the use of the inequality
symbol ≤.
c) There is at least one vertical line that cuts the given graph at two points (see graph below)
and therefore the relation graphed above is NOT a function.
Example 4
Find the domain and range of the relation given by its graph shown below and state whether
the relation is a function or not.
Solution:
a) Domain: Points A(-3,0) has the smallest x-coordinate. The arrow at the top right of the
graph indicates that the graph continues to the left as x increases. Hence there is no limit to
the largest x-coordinate of points on the graph. The domain is given by all values greater
than or equal to the smallest values x = -3 and is written as:
x ≥ -3
The use of the symbol ≥ at because the relation is defined at points A (closed circle at point
A).
b) Range: Points B and C have equal and smallest y-coordinates equal to -2. The arrow at
the top right of the graph indicates that the y coordinate increases as x increases. Hence
there is no limit to the y-coordinate and therefore the range is given by all values greater
than or equal to the smallest value y = -2 and is written as:
y ≥ -2
The use of the inequality symbol ≥ is due to the fact that the relation is defined at y = -2
(closed circle at B and C).
c) There is no vertical line that cuts the given graph at more than one point (see graph
below) and therefore the relation graphed above is a function.
Example 5
Find the domain and range of the relation given by its graph shown below and state whether
the relation is a function or not.
Solution:
a) Domain: Points A(-2,-3) has the smallest x-coordinate. The arrow at the top right of the
graph indicates that the graph continues to the left as x increases. Hence there is no limit to
the largest x-coordinate of points on the graph. The domain is given by all values greater
than the smallest values x = - 2 and is written as:
x > -2
We use of the inequality symbol > (with no equal) because the relation is not defined at
points A (open circle at point A).
b) Range: Points A(-2,-3) has the smallest y-coordinate equal to - 3. The arrow at the top
right of the graph indicates that the y coordinate increases as x increases. Therefore there is
no limit to the y-coordinate. Hence the range is given by all values greater than the smallest
value y = - 3 and is written as:
y>-3
The inequality symbol > is used because the relation is not defined at y = - 3 (open circle at
point A).
c) The graph represents a function because there is no vertical line that cuts the given graph
at more than one point.
If the first term of an arithmetic sequence is a1 and the common difference is d, then the nth term of the sequence is given by:
an=a1+(n−1)dan=a1+(n−1)d
An arithmetic series is the sum of an arithmetic sequence. We find the sum by adding the first, a1 and last term, an, divide by 2 in order to get the mean of the two
values and then multiply by the number of values, n:
Sn=n2(a1+an)Sn=n2(a1+an)
Example
We have a total of 100 values, hence n=100. Our first value is 1 and our last is 100. We plug these values into our formula and get:
S100=1002(1+100)=5050
This page will teach you about arithmetic sequences and series. Here are the sections
within this page:
Sequences of numbers that follow a pattern of adding a fixed number from one term to
the next are called arithmetic sequences. The following sequences are arithmetic
sequences:
Sequence A: 5 , 8 , 11 , 14 , 17 , ...
Sequence B: 26 , 31 , 36 , 41 , 46 , ...
Sequence C: 20 , 18 , 16 , 14 , 12 , ...
For sequence A, if we add 3 to the first number we will get the second number. This
works for any pair of consecutive numbers. The second number plus 3 is the third number:
8 + 3 = 11, and so on.
For sequence B, if we add 5 to the first number we will get the second number. This also
works for any pair of consecutive numbers. The third number plus 5 is the fourth number:
36 + 5 = 41, which will work throughout the entire sequence.
Sequence C is a little different because we need to add -2 to the first number to get the
second number. This too works for any pair of consecutive numbers. The fourth number
plus -2 is the fifth number: 14 + (-2) = 12.
Because these sequences behave according to this simple rule of addiing a constant
number to one term to get to another, they are called arithmetic sequences. So that we can
examine these sequences to greater depth, we must know that the fixed numbers that bind
each sequence together are called the common differences. Sometimes mathematicians
use the letter d when referring to these types of sequences.
Mathematicians also refer to generic sequences using the letter a along with subscripts
that correspond to the term numbers as follows:
This means that if we refer to the fifth term of a certain sequence, we will label it a5. a17is
the 17th term. This notation is necessary for calculating nth terms, or an, of sequences.
The d-value can be calculated by subtracting any two consecutive terms in an arithmetic
sequence.
d = an - an - 1
In order for us to know how to obtain terms that are far down these lists of numbers, we
need to develop a formula that can be used to calculate these terms. If we were to try and
find the 20th term, or worse to 2000th term, it would take a long time if we were to simply
add a number -- one at a time -- to find our terms.
If a 5-year-old was asked what the 301st number is in the set of counting numbers, we
would have to wait for the answer while the 5-year-old counted it out using unnecessary
detail. We already know the number is 301 because the set is extremely simple; so,
predicting terms is easy. Upon examining arithmetic sequences in greater detail, we will find
a formula for each sequence to find terms.
1. Let's examine sequence A so that we can find a formula to express its nth term.
Term 5 8 11 14 17 . . .
The fixed number, called the common difference (d), is 3; so, the formula will be an =
dn + c or an = 3n + c, where c is some number that must be found.
If we compare these values with the ones in the actual sequence, it should be clear
that the value of c is 2. Therefore the formula for the nth term is...
an = 3n + 2.
Now if we were asked to find the 37th term in this sequence, we would calculate for
a37 or 3(37) + 2 which is equal to 111 + 2 = 113. So, a37 = 113, or the 37th term is
113. Likewise, the 435th term would be a435 = 3(435) + 2 = 1307.
n 1 2 3 4 5 ...
Term 26 31 36 41 46 . . .
n 1 2 3 4 5 ...
Term 20 18 16 14 12 . . .
11. The common difference is -2. So the formula will be -2n + c, where c is a number
that must be found.
12. For sequence C, the rule -2n + c would give the values...
13. -2×1 + c = -2 + c
-2×2 + c = -4 + c
-2×3 + c = -6 + c
-2×4 + c = -8 + c
-2×5 + c = -10 + c
14. If we compare these values with the numbers in the actual sequence, it should be
clear that the value of c is 22. Therefore, the formula for the nth term is...
15. an = -2n + 22.
16. If for some reason we needed the 42nd term, we would calculate for a42 = -2(42) +
22 = -84 + 22 = -62. Similarly, a90 = -2(90) + 22 = -180 + 22 = -158.
We would need to know a few terms so that we could calculate the common difference
and ultimately the formula for the general term. We would also need to know the last
number in the sequence.
Once we know the formula for the general term in a sequence and the last term, the
procedure is relatively uncomplicated. Set them equal to each other. Since the formula uses
the variable n to calculate terms, we can also use it to determine the term number for any
given term.
i. If we again look at sequence A above, let's use the formula that was found to
calculate term values, an = 3n + 2. If we knew that 47 was a number in the sequence
-- 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ..., 47 -- we would set the number 47 equal to the formula an = 3n
+ 2, we would get 47 = 3n + 2. Solving this equation yields n = 15. This means that
there are 15 terms in the sequence and that the 15th term, a15, is equal to 47.
ii. Let's look at a portion of sequence C. If the sequence went from 20 to -26, we would
have: 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, ...,-26. We would use the formula for the general term, an =
-2n + 22, and set it equal to the last term, -26. We would get -26 = -2n + 22 and
algebra would allow us to arrive at n = 24. This means that there are 24 terms in the
sequence and that a24 = -26.
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ... + an.
Given the formula for the general term an = dn + c, there exists a formula that can add
such a finite list of these numbers. It requires three pieces of information. The formula is...
Sn = ½n(a1 + an)
...where Sn is the sum of the first n numbers, a1 is the first number in the sequence and anis
the nth number in the sequence.
If you would like to see a derivation of this arithmetic series sum formula, watch this
video.
Usually problems present themselves in either of two ways. Either the first number and
the last number of the sequence are known or the first number in the sequence and the
number of terms are known.
i. Starting with the easier of the two cases, let's take a portion of sequence A. If we
were dealing with 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ... , 128, then we would know that a1 = 5 and an =
128. If we knew the number of terms in this sequence, we would be able to use the
formula. Finding n becomes our next task. Since we know the formula for the
general term, an = 3n + 2, we can use it to find the number of terms in this
sequence. We set the last term equal to the formula and solve for n. We get 128 =
3n + 2, which means that n = 42 and a42 = 128. Now we can plug the information
into the sum formula and get S42 = ½(42)(5 + 128) = (21)(133) = 2793, which must
be the sum of the first 42 terms in the sequence.
ii. For the more difficult situation, let's take a finite portion of sequence B. If we had 26,
31, 36, 41, 46, ... and knew that there were 50 terms in the sequence, then we have
a1 = 26 and n = 50. We would have to develop a formula for the nth term so we
could calculate a50, the last term in the sequence. Since we already calculated the
formula above, we can use it to calculate a50. It is an = 5n + 21 is the formula so
a50 = 5(50) + 21 = 250 + 21 = 271. Now we can plug the numbers into the formula
and gain a solution. S50 = ½(50)(26 + 271) = 25(297) = 7425. This means that the
sum of the first 50 terms is 7425.
NOTE: In what follows, mixed numbers are written in the form a b/c. For example 2 1/3
means the mixed number 2 + 1/3.
x and y.
A) x2 - y2 , for x = 4 and y = 5
B) |4x - 2y| , for x = -2 and y = 3
C) 3x3 - 4y4 , for x = -1 and y = -2
B) (-2)3
C) (-2)4
D) 10000
E) 5661
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1.
A) -2x + 5 + 10x - 9 : given
= (10x - 2x) + (5 - 9) : put like terms together
= 8x - 4 : group
B) (-x - 2) / (x + 2) : given
= -1(x + 2) / (x + 2) : factor -1 in numerator
= -1 : divide numerator and denominator by x + 2 to simplify
B) 2x - 8 = -x + 4 : given
2x - 8 + 8 = -x + 4 + 8 : add +8 to both sides of the equation
2x = -x + 12 : group like terms
2x + x = -x + 12 + x : add +x to both sides
3x = 12 : group like terms
x = 4 : mutliply both sides by 1/3
D) x/3 + 2 = 5 : given
x/3 + 2 - 2 = 5 - 2 : subtract 2 from both sides
x/3 = 3 : group like terms
x = 9 : multiply both sides by 1/2
E) -5/x = 2 : given
-5 = 2x : multiply both sides by x and simplify
-5/2 = x : : multiply both sides by 1/2
4.
A) x2 - y2 , x = 4 , y = 5 : given
42 - 52 : substitute x and y by the given values
=16 - 25 = -9
B) x + 1 > 5 : given
x + 1 - 1 > 5 - 1 : subtract 1 from both sides
x > 4 : group like terms
D) 5661 = 566
9.
A) 0.02 = 1/50
B) 12% = 3/25
C) 0.5% = 1/200
D) 1.12 = 28/25
10.
A) 1/5 = 0.2
B) 120% = 1.2
C) 0.2% = 0.002
D) 4 8/5 = 5.6
11.
A) 3/10 = 30%
B) 1.4 = 140%
C) 123.45 = 12345%
D) 2 4/5 = 280%
12.
A) 156312 , is divisible by 3
B) 176314 , is not divisible by 3
13.
A) 3432 , is divisible by 4
B) 1257 , is not divisible by 4
14.
A) 1233 , is not divisible by 6
B) 3432 , is divisible by 6
15.
A) 2538 , is divisible by 9
B) 1451 , is not divisible by 9
16.
Evaluate 8x + 7 given that x - 3 = 10.
x - 3 = 10: given equation
x = 10 + 3 = 13: solve the given equation.
8(13) + 7 = 111 substitute x by 3 in the given expression and evaluate.
644 + 238
While these numbers are hard to contend with, rounding them up will make them more
manageable. So, 644 becomes 650 and 238 becomes 240.
Now, add 650 and 240 together. The total is 890. To find the answer to the original equation,
it must be determined how much we added to the numbers to round them up.
To find the answer to the original equation, 8 must be subtracted from the 890.
890 – 8 = 882
For example:
1,000 – 556
For example, 5 x 4 =
Step 1: Take the number being multiplied by 5 and cut it in half, this makes the number 4
become the number 2.
Step 2: Add a zero to the number to find the answer. In this case, the answer is 20.
5 x 4 = 20
When multiplying an odd number times 5, the formula is a bit different.
Step 1: Subtract one from the number being multiplied by 5, in this instance the number 3
becomes the number 2.
Step 2: Now halve the number 2, which makes it the number 1. Make 5 the last digit. The
number produced is 15, which is the answer.
5 x 3 = 15
4. Division tricks
Here’s a quick way to know when a number can be evenly divided by these certain numbers:
So, 9 x 3 = 27
There is also an easy trick for multiplying any two-digit number by 11. Here it is:
11 x 25
Take the original two-digit number and put a space between the digits. In this example, that
number is 25.
2_5
Now add those two numbers together and put the result in the center:
2_(2 + 5)_5
2_7_5
If the numbers in the center add up to a number with two digits, insert the second number
and add 1 to the first one. Here is an example for the equation 11 x 88
8_(8 +8)_8
(8 + 1)_6_8
9_6_8
7. Percentage
Finding a percentage of a number can be somewhat tricky, but thinking about it in the right
terms makes it much easier to understand. For instance, to find out what 5% of 235 is, follow
this method:
Step 1: Move the decimal point over by one place, 235 becomes 23.5.
Step 2: Divide 23.5 by the number 2, the answer is 11.75. That is also the answer to the
original equation.
8. Quickly square a two-digit number that ends in 5
Let’s use the number 35 as an example.
[3 x (3 + 1)] = 12
12 & 25 = 1225
35 squared = 1225
9. Tough multiplication
When multiplying large numbers, if one of the numbers is even, divide the first number in
half, and then double the second number. This method will solve the problem quickly. For
instance, consider
20 x 120
Step 1: Divide the 20 by 2, which equals 10. Double 120, which equals 240.
10 x 240 = 2400
200 x 400
2x4=8
80,000
Practicing these fast math tricks can help both students and teachers improve their math
skills and become secure in their knowledge of mathematics—and unafraid to work with
numbers in the future.
Many students struggle when learning to add integers of three digits or higher together, but changing the process’s
steps can make it easier.
The first step is to add what’s easy. The second step is to add the rest.
Let’s say students must find the sum of 393 and 89. They should quickly see that adding 7 onto 393 will equal 400
— an easier number to work with. To balance the equation, they can then subtract 7 from 89.
Broken down, the process is:
393 + 89
(393 + 7) + (89 – 7)
400 + 82
482
With this fast technique, big numbers won’t look as scary now.
2. Two-Step Subtraction
There’s a similar method for subtraction.
Remove what’s easy. Then remove what’s left.
Suppose students must find the difference of 567 and 153. Most will feel that 500 is a simpler number than 567.
So, they just have to take away 67 from the minuend — 567 — and the subtrahend — 153 — before solving the
equation.
Here’s the process:
567 – 153
(567 – 67) – (153 – 67)
500 – 86
414
Instead of two complex numbers, students will only have to tackle one.
By making
math engaging, students that use Prodigy consistently outperform those that don’t on standardized assessments
9–4=5
9–3=6
10 – 8 = 2
562
This also applies to 10,000, 100,000 and other integers that follow this pattern.
When students have to multiply two integers, they can speed up the process when one is an even number. They just
need to halve the even number and double the other number.
Students can stop the process when they can no longer halve the even integer, or when the equation becomes
manageable.
Using 33 x 48 as an example, here’s the process:
66 x 24
132 x 12
264 x 6
528 x 3
1,584
5. Multiplying by Powers of 2
This tactic is a speedy variation of doubling and halving.
It simplifies multiplication if a number in the equation is a power of 2, meaning it works for 2, 4, 8, 16 and so on.
Here’s what to do: For each power of 2 that makes up that number, double the other number.
For example, 9 x 16 is the same thing as 9 x (2 x 2 x 2 x 2) or 9 x 24. Students can therefore double 9 four times to
reach the answer:
9 x 24
18 x 23
36 x 22
72 x 2
144
Unlike doubling and halving, this technique demands an understanding of exponents along with a strong command
of the 2 times table.
6. Multiplying by 9
For most students, multiplying by 9 — or 99, 999 and any number that follows this pattern — is difficult compared
with multiplying by a power of 10.
But there’s an easy tactic to solve this issue, and it has two parts.
First, students round up the 9 to 10. Second, after solving the new equation, they subtract the number they just
multiplied by 10 from the answer.
For example, 67 x 9 will lead to the same answer as 67 x 10 – 67. Following the order of operations will give a
result of 603. Similarly, 67 x 99 is the same as 67 x 100 – 67.
Despite more steps, altering the equation this way is usually faster.
7. Multiplying by 11
There’s an easier way for multiplying two-digit integers by 11.
Let’s say students must find the product of 11 x 34.
The idea is to put a space between the digits, making it 3_4. Then, add the two digits together and put the sum in
the space.
The answer is 374.
What happens if the sum is two digits? Students would put the second digit in the space and add 1 to the digit to the
left of the space. For example:
11 x 77
7_(7+7)_7
7_(14)_7
(7+1)_4_7
847
Squaring a high two-digit number can be tedious, but there’s a shortcut if 1 is the second digit.
There are four steps to this shortcut, which 812 exemplifies:
To determine the average among a set of numbers, students can balance them instead of using a complex formula.
Suppose a student wants to volunteer for an average of 10 hours a week over a period of four weeks. In the first
three weeks, the student worked for 10, 12 and 14 hours.
To determine the number of hours required in the fourth week, the student must add how much he or she
surpassed or missed the target average in the other weeks:
To learn the number of hours for the final week, the student must subtract the sum from the target average:
With practice, this method may not even require pencil and paper. That’s how easy it is.
Word Problems
14. Identifying Buzzwords
Students who struggle to translate word problems into equations will benefit from learning how to spot buzzwords
— phrases that indicate specific actions.
This isn’t a trick. It’s a tactic.
Teach students to look for these buzzwords, and what skill they align with in most contexts:
Be sure to include buzzwords that typically appear in their textbooks (or other classroom math books), as well as
ones you use on tests and assignments.
As a result, they should have an easier time processing word problems.
For complex word problems, show students how to dissect the question by answering three specific sub-questions.
Each student should ask him or herself:
What am I looking for? — Students should read the question over and over, looking for buzzwords and
identifying important details.
What information do I need? — Students should determine which facts, figures and variables they need
to solve the question. For example, if they determine the question is rooted in subtraction, they need the
minuend and subtrahend.
What information do I have? — Students should be able to create the core equation using the information
in the word problem, after determining which details are important.
Calculators are awesome, but they’re not always handy. More to the point, no one wants to be seen
reaching for the calculator on their mobile phone when it’s time to figure out a 15 percent gratuity. Here
are ten tips to help you crunch numbers in your head.
Mental math isn’t as difficult as it might sound, and you may be surprised at how easy it is to make
seemingly impossible calculations using nothing but your beautiful brain. You just need to remember a
few simple rules.
Remember how you were taught in school to add and subtract numbers from right to left (don’t forget to
carry the one!)? That’s all fine and well when doing math with pencil and paper, but when performing
mental math it’s better to do it moving from left to right. Switching the order so that you start with the
largest values makes it a bit more intuitive and easier to figure out. So when adding 58 to 26, start with
the first column and calculate 50+20=70, then 8+6=14, which added together is 84. Easy, peasy.
When confronted with a difficult calculation, try to find a way of simplifying the problem by temporarily
shifting the values around. When calculating 593+680, for example, add 7 to 593 to get 600 (more
manageable). Calculate 600+680, which is 1280, and then take away that additional 7 to get the correct
answer, 1273.
You can do a similar thing with multiplication. For 89x6, calculate 90x6 instead, and then subtract that
additional 6, so 540-6=534.
Memorizing multiplication tables is an important aspect of mental math, and it shouldn’t be discounted.
Spencer Greenberg, a mathematician and founder of ClearerThinking.org, says that by memorizing these
basic “building blocks” of math, we can instantly get answers to simple problems that are embedded
within more difficult ones. So if you’ve forgotten these tables, it would do you well to quickly brush up.
While you’re at it, memorize your 1/n tables so you can quickly recall that 1/6 is 0.166, 1/3 is 0.333, and
3/4 is 0.75.
To help you do simple multiplication, it’s important to remember some nifty tricks. One of the most
obvious rules is that any number that’s multiplied by 10 just needs to have a zero placed at the end When
multiplying by 5, your answer will always end in either a 0 or 5.
Also, when multiplying a number by 12, it’s always 10 times plus two times that number. For example,
when calculating 12x4, do 4x10=40, and 4x2=8, and then 40+8=48. One of my favorites is multiplying
by 15: just multiply your number by 10, and then add half to the answer (e.g. 4x15 = 4x10=40, plus half
that answer, 20, giving you 60).
There’s also a neat trick for multiplying by 16. First, multiply the number in question by 10, and then
multiply half the number by 10. Then add those two results together with the number itself to get your
final answer. So to calculate 16 x 24, first calculate 10 x 24 = 240, then figure out half of 24, which is 12,
and multiply by 10, giving you 120. Simple math finishes it up: 240+120+24=384.
Similar tricks exist for other numbers, which you can read about here.
These simple tricks are all fine and well, but large numbers present a different challenge. For that, a
physicist from askamathematician.com says it’s a good idea is use the difference of squares (a square
being a number multiplied by itself).
“Take the two numbers you’re multiplying and think of them as their average, x, plus and minus the
difference between each and their average, ±y,” he says. “These two numbers are squared, so rather than
memorizing entire multiplication tables you only memorize squares.”
It may seem like a daunting task, but memorizing all the squares from 1 to 20 isn’t as bad as it sounds.
It’s just 20 numbers, after all. Armed with this prior knowledge, you can perform some pretty incredible
calculations.
Here’s how it works, starting with a simple example. Let’s assume for a moment that we don’t know the
answer to 10x4. The first step is to figure out the average number between these two numbers, which is 7
(i.e. 10-3=7, and 4+3=7). Next, determine the square of 7, which is 49. We now have a number that’s
close, but not close enough. To get the correct answer, we have to square the difference between the
average (in this case 3) providing us with 9. The last step is to do some simple subtraction, 49-9=40, and
wouldn’t you know it you have the correct answer.
That might seem like a roundabout way to calculate 10x4 (it is), but this same technique works for bigger
numbers. Take 15x11 for example. Once again, we have to find the average number between these two,
which is 13. The square of 13 is 169. The square of the difference in the average (2) is 4. Finally, 169-
4=165, the correct answer.
When doing mental math, particularly for large numbers, it’s often a good idea to make an informed
estimate, and not worry about getting a perfect answer. Back during the Manhattan Project, for example,
physicist Enrico Fermi wanted a rough estimate of the atomic blast’s power before the diagnostic data
came in. To that end, he dropped pieces of paper when the blast wave hit him (from a safe distance, of
course). By measuring the distance the paper traveled, he estimated the blast strength to be about 10
kilotons of TNT. This estimate was fairly accurate, as the true answer was 20 kilotons of TNT.
This technique, now known as a “Fermi Estimate,” works by estimating numbers in powers of ten (see
TED-Ed video above for more). So when trying to come up with a seemingly impossible solution, it helps
to chunk items in this way and then break them down. For example, when trying to estimate the number
of piano tuners in your city, first estimate the population of your city (e.g. 1,000,000), then estimate the
number pianos (10,000), and then the number of piano tuners (e.g. 100). You won’t get the actual
answer, but you’ll get an answer quickly, and one that’s often close enough.
It’s a good idea to use the rules of math to rearrange complex problems into a simpler form. For
instance, computing the problem 5x(14+43) is a daunting task on it’s own, but it can be broken down
into three fairly manageable calculations. Remembering your order of operations, this problem can be
rephrased as (5x14) + (5x40) + (5x3) = 285.
When in doubt, decompose. “For many problems, the way to do them fast is to break them into
subproblems and solve those,” says Greenberg. “When you get a problem that sounds hard, it’s often
fruitful to look for ways that it can be broken apart into easier problems that you already know how to
solve.”
For instance, you can multiply by 8 by doubling three times. So instead of trying to figure out 12x8, just
double 12 three times: 24, 48, 96. Or when multiplying by 5, I start by multiply by 10 since it’s easy, then
divide by 2 since that’s also usually pretty easy. For example, for 5x18, calculate 10x18 instead, and
divide by 2, where 180/2=90.
When calculating large numbers in your head, remember that you can convert them into scientific
notation first. What’s 44 billion divided by 400,000? A simple way to deal with this is to convert 4 billion
to 109, and 400,000 to 105. We can now express this as 44/4 and 109/105. As Greenberg points out, the
rule for dividing exponents requires us to subtract them (easy!), so we get 11 x 10(9-5)= 11 x 104 = 110,000.
Finally, some advice on how to calculate a tip in your head. If you can calculate a 10 percent tip in your
head (easy), then you can calculate both a 20 percent tip and a 15 percent tip.
When calculating a 10 percent tip for a meal that cost $112.23, just move the decimal point one space to
the left, giving you $11.22. When calculating a 20 percent tip, do the same thing, but simply double the
answer (a 20 percent tip is twice as much as a 10 percent tip), which in this case is $22.44.
For a 15 percent tip, once again calculate the 10 percent tip, and then add half (the additional 5 percent is
just half of the 10 percent amount). So $11.22+(11.22/2). Don’t worry if you can’t get the exact answer. If
we don’t fuss too much with the decimal points, we can quickly calculate that a 15 percent tip of $112.23
is $11 + 5.50, which is $16.50. Close enough. Add a quarter or two if you’re worried about lowballing the
server.