Boundary Layer

Outline
Introduction to Boundary Layer

Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equation
Flow Separation
Boundary Layer Theory
Santosh Ansumali1
1 Engineering Mechanics Unit
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Studies

Bangalore, India
October 25, 2010
ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Outline
Flow Separation
Outline of Topics
1 Introduction to Boundary Layer
2 Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equation
3 Flow Separation

Outline
Flow Separation
Motivation: An Example from ODE I
Let us consider an ODE

dy
= a, y (x = 1) = 1. (1)
dx
The solution is
y = ax + 1 − a (2)
Now, if we consider another ODE
d 2y dy
+ = a, y (x = 0) = 0, y (x = 1) = 1. (3)
dx 2 dx
The solution to it is
exp − x − exp − 1
` ´ ` ´
y = ax + 1 − a + (a − 1) (4)
1 − exp − 1
` ´

Outline
Flow Separation
Motivation: An Example from ODE II
Effect of boundary Layer is visible only in layer of length of O().

Boundary layer becomes smaller and smaller as becomes smaller.
Even for very small , the maximum distance between the two solution remains constant.

Outline
Flow Separation
Similarity Solution
We consider a semi-infinite region such that
u(y = ∞, 0) = U,
(5)
u(0, t > 0) = 0,
So, Navier-Stokes solution: „r «

y
u(y , t) = U erf (6)
4ν t
Euler’s equation solution
u(y , t) = U (7)
So, we can estimate the boundary layer thickness in time t = L/U as
r r r r
√ νUt Ut 1 1
δ= νt =L =L =L (8)
L2 U L Re Re
√
Boundary Layer thickness scales as Re−1

Outline
Flow Separation
Vorticity Generation I
Let us compute the total circulation over a rectangle ABCD (such that DC is parallel to the
plate) for flow near flat plate case.

Outline
Flow Separation
Vorticity Generation II
Z Z Z Z Z
u · dl = uy dy + ux dx − uy dy − ux dx (9)
ABCD DA AB CB DC
For the present set up Z Z Z

u · dl = ux dx − ux dx (10)
ABCD AB DC
So, it is easy to see that Navier-stokes solution lead to finite circulation.

Outline
Flow Separation
Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem I
In an inviscid barotropic flow with conservative body forces , the circulation around a closed
curve moving with the fluid remains constant with time.
DΓ
=0 (11)
Dt
To prove Kelvin’s theorem, we start with Euler equation
Dui 1 ∂p
=− + gi (12)
Dt ρ ∂x
Now, for barotroic (pressure is function of density alone) flow with conservative forces, we can
always write
1 ∂p dP ∂p ∂p 0
+ gi = + ∂i φ = (13)
ρ ∂xi dp ∂xi ∂xi

Outline
Flow Separation
Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem II
Now, Z Z Z
DΓ D Dui D
= ui dxi = dxi + ui (dxi ) (14)
Dt Dt C C Dt C Dt
or,
∂p 0
Z Z Z
DΓ D D
=− dxi + ui (dxi ) = ui (dxi ) (15)
Dt C ∂xi C Dt C Dt
Using the definition of veolcity
Z Z
DΓ 1
= ui dui = ui2 = 0 (16)
Dt C 2 C

Outline
Flow Separation
Skin Friction
An important engineering quantity is skin friction or shear stress at the wall. We can estimate it
from the knowledge of boundary layer thickness δ. We have
U UL
σxy ≈ µ ∼µ (17)
δ L δ
we have r
1
δ=L (18)
Re
so,
U√
σxy ∼ µ Re (19)
L
So, the skin friction coefficient is
σxy µ √ 2
C = 1
=2 Re ∼ √ (20)
2
ρU 2 ρU L Re

Outline
Flow Separation
Continuity Equation
The continuity equation at steady state in two dimension is
∂ux ∂uy
+ =0 (21)
∂x ∂y
Let x be the direction along the surface of the wall. Let U∞ be the upstream velocity far away
from the body and L be the linear dimension of the body. If δ be the dimension of the boundary
layer, then
∂ūx L ∂uy
+ =0 (22)
∂x̄ δ U∞ ∂ȳ
where ux x y
ūx = , x̄ = , ȳ = (23)
U∞ L δ
We would like every quantity in the continuity equation to be O(1), so we choose
uy L
ūy = (24)
δ U∞
which means
∂ūx ∂ūy
+ =0 (25)
∂x̄ ∂ȳ

Outline
Flow Separation
Momentum Equation I
The y -momentum equation at steady state is
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uy
„ «
∂uy ∂uy 1 ∂p
ux + uy + =ν 2
+ (26)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂y ∂x 2
which means
1 ∂ 2 ūy 1 ∂ 2 ūy
„ «
U∞ ∂ūy U∞ ∂ūy L 1 ∂p
ūx + ūy + 2 =ν 2 2
+ 2 (27)
L ∂x̄ L ∂ȳ δ U∞ ρ ∂ȳ L ∂x̄ δ ∂ȳ 2
the dimensionless pressure is defined as
p
p̄ = 2
(28)
ρ U∞
then,
L2 ∂p̄ ∂ 2 ūy L2 ∂ 2 ūy
„ «
∂ūy ∂ūy 1
ūx + ūy + 2 =ν 2
+ 2 (29)
∂x̄ ∂ȳ δ ∂ȳ L U∞ ∂x̄ δ ∂ȳ 2

Outline
Flow Separation
Momentum Equation II
as L δ, in high Reynolds limit we have
∂p̄
=0 (30)
∂ȳ
which implies p(x, y ) = p(x). Finally using x-momentum equation, we have
∂ 2 ux ∂ 2 ux
„ «
∂ux ∂ux 1 dp
ux + uy + =ν 2
+ (31)
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y ∂x 2
which is
∂ 2 ūx L2 ∂ 2 ūx
„ «
∂ūx ∂ūx d p̄ ν
ūx + ūy + = 2
+ 2 (32)
∂x̄ ∂ȳ d x̄ U∞ L ∂x̄ δ ∂ȳ 2
Thus, finally we can write equation governing boundary layer as

Outline
Flow Separation
Momentum Equation III
∂ūx ∂ūy
+ =0 (33)
∂x̄ ∂ȳ
L2 ∂ 2 ūx
„ «
∂ūx ∂ūx d p̄ 1
ūx + ūy + = (34)
∂x̄ ∂ȳ d x̄ Re δ 2 ∂ȳ 2
The pressure gradient at the edge of the boundary layer can be found from
1 1 1
P+ ρU 2 + ρUy2 ≈ P + ρUx2 = const (35)
2 x 2 2
which means
1 dP dUx
= −Ux (36)
ρ dx dx
As a first approximation, we can assume that this is a valid relation even in the boundary layer.

Outline
Flow Separation
Boundary condition
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (37)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u dUx ∂2u
u +v = Ux +ν (38)
∂x ∂y dx ∂y 2
with the boundary condition
u(x, y = 0) = 0 (39)
v (x, y = 0) = 0 (40)
u(x, y = ∞) = Ux (41)
u(x0 , y ) = uin (y ) (42)
(43)

Outline
Flow Separation
Flat Plate: Blasius Solution I
In this case, the Euler equation gives Ux = const. So, we have
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (44)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂2u
u +v =ν (45)
∂x ∂y ∂y 2
u(x, y = 0) = 0 (46)
v (x, y = 0) = 0 (47)
u(x, y = ∞) = Ux (48)
We have
ux = ∂y ψ, uy = −∂x ψ (49)

Outline
Flow Separation
Flat Plate: Blasius Solution II

We have seen that the thickness of the boundary layer depends on the square root of the
Reynolds number. We expect that
ux uy
ūx = , ūy = q (50)
U νU
L
depends on
x y
x̄ = , ȳ = q (51)
L νL
U
which means 0 1 0 1
r
Bx y C ν U Bx y C
ux = U F @ , q A , uy = G@ ,q A (52)
L νL L L νL
U U
However, in this problem there is no characteristic length, so we can expect (Try to guess
scaling for uy ) !
r
U
ux = U F y , (53)
νx
Outline
Flow Separation
Flat Plate: Blasius Solution III
which means
√
r
U
ψ= ν U x f (ζ) , ζ=y (54)
νx
which implies
1√
ux = U f 0 (ζ) , νUx ζf 0 − f
` ´
uy = (55)
2
substituting in original equation we find
f f 00 + 2 f 000 = 0 (56)
with boundary condition

f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0, f 0 (∞) = 1 (57)
This equation can be solved numerically and solution for small ζ is
1
f = 0.332 ζ 2 + O(ζ 5 ) (58)
2

Outline
Flow Separation
Flat Plate: Blasius Solution IV

and for large ζ
f = ζ − 1.72 (59)
Shear stress can be computed as

˛ s s
∂vx ˛˛ U 3 00 U3
σxy = µ ˛ =µ f (0) = 0.332µ (60)
∂y ˛ νx νx
y =0
This means total frictional force

Z L p
F =2 σxy dx = 1.328 µ ρ L U3 (61)
0
which gives drag coefficient as
F 1.328
C = 1
= √ (62)
2
ρU 2 (2l) Re

Outline
Flow Separation
Falkner-Skan Solution I
The similarity solution exist also for external flow of the form
Ue (x) = ax n (63)
See Batchelor, pg. 316-318

We have the similarity solution of the form
r
p Ue
ψ= ν Ue x f (ζ) , ζ=y (64)
νx
substituting in original equation we find
n + 1 00
f f + f 000 − n(f 0 )2 + n = 0 (65)
2
with boundary condition

f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0, f 0 (∞) = 1 (66)

Outline
Flow Separation
Falkner-Skan Solution II
In this case, we find that the boundary layer thickness is

Z ∞ „
u
«
δ1 = 1− dy ∝ x (1−n)/2 (67)
0 Ue
Similarly, the shear stress is ˛

∂u ˛˛
σxy = µ ∝ x (3n−1)/2 (68)
∂y ˛y =0
For n > 0, the tendency for the wall velocity gradient to increase due to accelaration of
the external stream is there.
Because of the diffusion the wall velocity gradient tends to decrease
When n = 1/3, the stream is uniform because of balance of the two effects.

Outline
Flow Separation
Falkner-Skan Solution III
The equation of motion
L2 ∂ 2 ūx
„ «
∂ūx ∂ūx d p̄ 1
ūx + ūy + = (69)
∂x̄ ∂ȳ d x̄ Re δ 2 ∂ȳ 2
can be simplified at the wall as
∂ 2 ux 1 dp 1 dU 2
ν 2
= ≈− (70)
∂y ρ dx 2 dx 2
So, second derivative is positive for deaccelarating stream near the wall.
Near the outer layer the velocity gradient ∂y ux must tend to zero. This means second derivative
must be negative near the outer layer. Thus we must have point of inflection for
deaccelarating stream.

Outline
Flow Separation
Flow Past a Cylinder and flow separation I
a2 a2 a2
„ « „ « „ «
w (z) = U +z =U +r cos θ +i U r− sin θ (71)
z r r
| {z } | {z }
φ ψ
ψ = 0 on the circle.
Velocity is
a2 a2
„ « „ «
ur = U 1− cos θ, uθ = −U 1+ sin θ. (72)
r2 r2

Outline
Flow Separation
Flow Past a Cylinder and flow separation II

B
A C
Figure: A and C are stagnation points
Heuristically, at the stagnation points A and C maximum pressure exists.

As fluid particle moves from A to B its pressure drop and velocity increases.
As it moves from B to C it recoups its pressure and loses velocity.
Fluid in its path from B to C is moving against the pressure gradient and viscosity is also
slowing it down.
Thus for fluid moving from A to C near boundary it might not have enough energy to
reach point C .

Outline
Flow Separation
Separation Creteria
Using continuity equation, Z y ∂ux

uy (y ) = − dy (73)
0 ∂x
So, in a deaccelarating stream uy increases rapidly. Thus at some point flow might reverse
direction, resulting in a region of backward flow.
Roughly, the criteria for seperation is
˛
∂ux ˛˛
˛ =0 (74)
∂y ˛
wall

Outline
Flow Separation
Separation and Singularity I
According to scaling analysis in boundary layer
uy 1
∝ √ (75)
ux Re
But the consequence of this is that the fluid move along the surface of the body and
move away from the surface only slightly.
Thus separation can happen only on line whose points are singularities of the solution of
the Prandtl equation.
The nature of the singularity can be deduced from the fact that normal velocity must
become comparable to the tangential velocity.
√
This means vy must get an accelaration of the order Re. So, in high Reynolds number
limit the y velocity get an infinitely large increase.

Outline
Flow Separation
Separation and Singularity II

In order to understand it better let us consider the case of flow past flat plate again. If x0 is the
point of separation then
uy (x0 , y > 0) = ∞ (76)
which implies ˛
∂uy ˛˛
˛ =∞ (77)
∂y ˛
x=x0
so using continuity equation ˛

∂x ˛˛
˛ =0 (78)
∂vx ˛
x=x0
we shall write u0 (y ) ≡ ux (x0 , y ). We can treat (x0 − x) as a function of y and (ux − u0 ). Then,
we must have near point of separation
x0 − x ≈ (ux − u0 )2 f (y ) (79)
so, √
ux = u0 (y ) + α(y ) x0 − x (80)

Outline
Flow Separation
Separation and Singularity III

so,
∂uy ∂ux α(y )
=− = √ (81)
∂y ∂x 2 x0 − x
which gives
β(y )
uy = √ (82)
x0 − x
where
α(y ) = 2 β 0 (y ) (83)
As a first approximation using boundary layer equation we can write

„ «
∂uy ∂ux ∂ uy
ux − uy = ux2 =0 (84)
∂y ∂y ∂y ux
but
ux β(y )
≈ √ (85)
uy u0 (y ) x0 − x

Outline
Flow Separation
Separation and Singularity IV
If, this should be independent of x, we have
A u0 (y )
uy = √ (86)
2 x0 − x
Show that this implies ˛

du0 ˛˛
u0 (y = 0) = 0, ˛ =0 (87)
dy ˛
y =0

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Outline

Introduction to Boundary Layer

Boundary Layer Theory

Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Studies

October 25, 2010

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

1 Introduction to Boundary Layer

2 Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equation

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Motivation: An Example from ODE I

Let us consider an ODE

Now, if we consider another ODE

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Motivation: An Example from ODE II

Effect of boundary Layer is visible only in layer of length of O().

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

So, Navier-Stokes solution: „r «

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

For the present set up Z Z Z

So, it is easy to see that Navier-stokes solution lead to finite circulation.

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem I

To prove Kelvin’s theorem, we start with Euler equation

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem II

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

the dimensionless pressure is defined as

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

as L  δ, in high Reynolds limit we have

which implies p(x, y ) = p(x). Finally using x-momentum equation, we have

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Momentum Equation III

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

with the boundary condition

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Flat Plate: Blasius Solution I

In this case, the Euler equation gives Ux = const. So, we have

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Flat Plate: Blasius Solution II

Flat Plate: Blasius Solution III

with boundary condition

This equation can be solved numerically and solution for small ζ is

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Flat Plate: Blasius Solution IV

Shear stress can be computed as

This means total frictional force

which gives drag coefficient as

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

See Batchelor, pg. 316-318

substituting in original equation we find

with boundary condition

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

In this case, we find that the boundary layer thickness is

Similarly, the shear stress is ˛

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Falkner-Skan Solution III

The equation of motion

can be simplified at the wall as

ansumali@gmail.com Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Flow Past a Cylinder and flow separation I

Effect of boundary Layer is visible only in layer of length of O().

as L δ, in high Reynolds limit we have