2 Example-Topic1-4 PDF

Topic 1 X Introduction
to Moral
Studies in
Malaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the rationale behind the existence of moral studies in the
education system;
2. Identify the importance of Moral Studies in producing a noble
individual;
3. Discuss the appreciation and practice of the principles of the Rukun
Negara to form a society with high moral standards;
4. Identify individual freedoms and rights based on the laws and
Constitution of the country; and
5. Practise a lifestyle that centres on the slogan 'Budi Bahasa Amalan
Kita'.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses the background of moral studies in MalaysiaÊs education
system. Moral Studies was introduced with the aim of producing Malaysians
with good behaviour according to the values of our country. These noble values
encompass values that are accepted by all communities in our country. This is to
accommodate the various races, ethnicities, customs, cultures, religions and
beliefs in Malaysia.
2 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA
The importance of Moral Studies is linked to the government's aim of producing

a society with high morals that is respected by other nations. It should be a
society that practises noble values from an early age. Moral Studies at the higher
education level functions to form a knowledgeable and pious society, endowed
with noble values, which practises the principles of the Rukun Negara to achieve
Vision 2020.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES

In this new century, science and technology is growing so rapidly that the world
has become a smaller place ă a borderless world. Unfortunately, along with this
progress, comes problems that, unless managed carefully, will certainly
jeopardise the good values within the family institution, community, society and
the country. Hence, it is vital for rapid growth in science and technology to
correspond with human development because knowledge without the practice of
good values is akin to „a shady but fruitless tree‰. Thus, it is not surprising that
there are knowledgeable people who use knowledge for violence and
destruction. For example, a person who is knowledgeable and skilful in making
explosives uses his or her knowledge and skill to create bombs that destroy life.
In Malaysia, the development and progress of knowledge and skills are nurtured
well through an education system that balances development and progress of
knowledge with development and progress of noble values. This can be seen
through the National Education Philosophy that states „education in Malaysia is
a continued effort to develop the potential of an individual in a holistic and
integrated manner, so as to produce a human being who is balanced and
harmonious in terms of intellect, spirituality, emotion and physically based on
the beliefs and obedience to God‰. In order to achieve this noble aim, the
education system was shaped to produce individuals who were knowledgeable
and practiced its own formulated set of good values.
As mentioned previously, the development of a harmonious human being can be

realised through knowledge and appreciation, as well as the practice of noble
values. Therefore, Moral Studies and Islamic Studies were introduced. Islamic
Studies is compulsory for all Muslim students, while non-Muslim students are
required to take up Moral Studies. The Institutions of Higher Learning Act 1996
states that the Moral Studies subject is to be offered as an addition to other
subjects or courses in the institutions of higher learning; all non-Muslim students
in the institutions are required to take this subject as a pre-requisite to attain
certificates, diplomas and degrees in the institutions.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA W 3
SELF CHECK 1.1

Did the society of the past practise moral values more than the current
society?
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF MORAL STUDIES

Moral Studies was introduced in the education system to groom good and
responsible individuals through the cultivation, appreciation and practice of the
noble values of the Malaysian society. The development of the people in
Malaysia is paralled to that of those living in a pluralistic society. Today, the
people in Malaysia want to progress physically, mentally and spiritually by
maintaining Eastern values while at the same time, not lagging behind in science
and technology.
1.2.1 Practising Noble Values

The basis of Moral Studies is the practise of noble values. Through the
appreciation and practice of noble values taught in Moral Studies, a high moral
society can be created. The practise of noble values in a society begins with an
individual. The noble values of an individual exist through knowledge and
religious beliefs. As a Malaysian, belief in God is a tenet that should be practised
and appreciated, as enshrined in the first principle of the Rukunegara, ÂBelief in
GodÊ. Malaysia comprises various races, ethnicities and religions. Islam is the
official religion as enshrined in Part I Article III (1) of the Federal Constitution of
Malaysia. However, other religions can be practised peacefully in any territory
within the federation. As all religions in the world preach noble values,
individuals who practise the teachings of a religion would also be individuals
who practise noble values.
1.2.2 Love and Loyalty to the Nation

Malaysia practises parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. Moral
Studies stresses on love and loyalty towards the country. Through the practice of
loyalty to King and country, every citizen will be loyal and willing to make
sacrifices to defend the country from its enemies. Undivided loyalty to the King
and country is one of the factors that can unite Malaysians who comprise various
races and religions.
1.2.3 Upholding the Constitution and the Sovereignty

of Law
The countryÊs Constitution was drafted based on agreement between all races
and parties in the country. Through Moral Studies, every individual is taught to
be a citizen who respects, appreciates and understands the national constitution
as a social contract that cannot be questioned or threatened by any individual or
party. Every individual in our nation is protected by the law. The law is drafted
to ensure justice and freedom of individuals and society. The rights and
freedoms of all citizens are guaranteed and can be freely practised as long as they
do not contravene any law in Malaysia.
1.2.4 Good Behaviour and Morality

Malaysians are well-known for possessing Eastern values such as politeness and
decency. Through Moral Studies, the good qualities of Eastern values are stressed
upon. The governmentÊs efforts to make courtesy a way of life can be realised
through the practice of the noble values taught in Moral Studies. The population,
which comprises various races, religions and beliefs, should live together in
mutual respect. We should respect other cultures. The same goes for religions
and beliefs. Moral Studies stresses on mutual respect for all religions and beliefs.
1.2.5 Meeting the Challenges of Vision 2020

The fourth challenge in Vision 2020 is „to create a moral and ethical society‰.
Thus, Moral Studies in the national education system aims to create individuals
who not are only highly knowledgeable but have good morals and ethics as well.
We do not want knowledgeable individuals who are arrogant, proud and use
their knowledge for immoral activities like violence and destruction. Through
Moral Studies, the people in our country from various races and beliefs can live
in unity, peace and harmony. This is ideal to meet the fifth challenge of Vision
2020, which is „to create a society with morals and compromise‰.
The Developed Nation Vision, using our own formula, is a major agenda for the
current generation and is to be carried on by future generations. We desire
development that occurs physically and spiritually. The nine challenges of being
a developed nation in Vision 2020 is to produce citizens who are balanced
intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically, that is, an integrated
development of both physical and spiritual aspects for the well-being of the
people. The society does not want to create intelligent individuals who end up as
white-collar criminals. Even though we want development based on high
technology, we are not willing to use it to destroy other humans and the
environment.
1.2.6 Awareness of the Constitution and Exercising

Rights Accordingly
Individual rights in our country are enshrined in the Federal Constitution. Part II
of the Constitution states the basic rights of Malaysian citizens clearly. These
include the right to personal freedoms, the right to receive protection and rights
on property. We should be aware of our rights as Malaysian citizens so that we
can look after ourselves, our family, our society and our property. We also have
the right to live freely in peace and prosperity. Our rights and freedoms are
enshrined in the Constitution, thus assuring a peaceful and harmonious life for
all Malaysians. Therefore, if we exercise our rights and freedoms according to the
Constitution, our family, society and country can exist in peace and harmony
where we do not trouble others and vice-versa.
1.2.7 Awareness and Carrying Out Responsibilities as

Malaysians
Every Malaysian has a duty towards the country. We are responsible for
developing ourselves and the nation. Our main responsibilities are maintaining
peace and harmony as well as developing the country. To achieve this, all
Malaysians should cultivate and practise the spirit of tolerance and compromise
among one another. Mutual respect and neighbourliness can promote the spirit
of unity, which is the basis for racial harmony. Noble values and practices have
to be instilled at a very young age, and one way is by teaching Moral Studies in
primary schools right up to the tertiary level.
1.2.8 Practising Good Manners

Good manners refer to noble values such as sincerity, patience and tolerance. The
implementation of the slogan ÂBudi Bahasa Amalan KitaÊ shows how serious the
government is in ensuring Malaysians practise good manners in everyday life.
Moral Studies can help us to practise not only good manners but also create a
harmonious and united society.
1.2.9 Becoming Moral Agents

Moral Studies can produce moral agents who function as practitioners of noble
values. Individuals with excellent morals and ethics can set good examples for
others. Excellent individuals are not only moral agents, but also good moral
recipients. Thus, Moral Studies stresses on moral values that are acceptable to
everyone, so that Malaysians become respected and highly regarded by people
from other nations. Who are moral agents and moral recipients? In our education
system, formal moral agents are teachers while informal moral agents are the
authorities and elders. They can be parents, siblings and other members of
society. On the other hand, formal moral recipients are schoolchildren and
university students like you. Informally, however, moral recipients are every
individual in the country. In a nutshell, all human beings are moral agents and
recipients. This ultimately differentiates humans from animals, as humans are
able to deduce rationally and free of feelings and emotions that can influence
their own actions; while logic and morals are two dimensions that are not
prevalent among animals.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Based on this diagram, explain in your own word what you have learned
in this topic. Discuss with your classmate and tutor.
• Moral Studies was introduced to shape a Malaysian society that practises

noble values in a country of various races, religions and beliefs.
• Everybody in the society lives in an environment of peace and harmony
that consistently gives priority to the spirit of unity, mutual respect and
tolerance among one another.
• Moral Studies creates a society which knows its rights and roles, as stated
in the Federal Constitution. The members of this society will serve as agents
of change in character development and subsequently, the nation.
Topic 2  Concept of
Ethics and
Types of
Moral Values
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define ethics, values, morals and laws accurately;
2. Discuss the three types of morals;
3. Differentiate among morals, religions, customs and laws;
4. Differentiate normative and descriptive moral statements; and
5. Discuss the importance of moral values.
 INTRODUCTION
In this module, we will discuss the concept of ethics, values, morals and
behaviours. These subjects are very important in our daily lives. The practice and
understanding of ethics, morals, values and behaviours form a bridge to unity
and harmony, not just in a family but also in society and the country.
Our discussions in this topic will also relate to rules and laws, religions and
customs; and the implications of failing to follow them. Read the following topics
and make sure you are able to meet the set objectives.
TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES  9
2.1 BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES

Value can refer to the estimation of price, rank, quality, status or other
outstanding characteristics. Let us look at these meanings from different angles.
Firstly, letÊs look at the definition of quantitative value. Quantitative value is the
value of an object in terms of price. This value is stated in numbers. The higher
the number, the better or more valuable the object is. A RM10 item is more
expensive than a RM5 item. Similarly, a student who obtains 90% marks will be
valued more than another student who only obtains 50% marks.
Next are qualitative values. These are values that determine an item based on its
characteristics that are accepted by society. For example, how does one
differentiate between the values of glass and diamonds? Everyone would state
that the value of diamonds is more than glass. How about the value of a
painting? All these are based on qualitative value.
Let us look at the meaning of values from the perspectives of several researchers
related to this word. Suffean Hussin (1993) defined values as the quality, benefit
and importance of a behaviour, principle, activity or object. Alhabshi (1995)
stated that values are respected by individuals or societies. In addition, he said
that values are related to a system of belief based on what is assumed good or
bad by an individual or a society.
In 1994 the National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN) explained

ÂvaluesÊ in terms of three categories:
1. Values as characteristics, that is, to grant certain characteristics and
positions to something.
2. Values as the statement of price rate or marks of an object.
3. Values as a general measure of something that is desired or appreciated.
This type of values is axiological and related to the philosophy of values.
Based on the earlier discussion, we can state that values function as a benchmark
of standards. Values serve as a guide for us in making selections and taking
action.
10  TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
ACTIVITY 2.1
Fill in the blanks.
In my opinion, the meaning of values is⁄.......................................................

.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
2.1.1 Ethics
Ethics originated from the Greek word ÂethosÊ meaning customs and usages.
According to Frankena (1973) and Grassian (1981), ethics is moral philosophy of
morals or philosophical thinking on morality, moral ills and moral
considerations. Ethics encompasses both theoretical and philosophical study of
morals or proper conduct. We can say ethics is a philosophical study of morality
which covers proper conduct, obligations, positive attitudes, responsibilities,
social justice and good characteristics for a good life.
2.1.2 Morals
Morals originated from the Latin word ÂmoresÊ which is similar in meaning to
ethics (Ashmore 1987). The Oxford Advanced LearnerÊs Dictionary (6th ed.)
states morals as awareness of proper and improper conduct as well as what
should be followed and discarded. Morals and ethics more or less carry the same
meaning. However, morals relate more to conduct while ethics refer to rules that
are set to improve circumstances. Moral considerations are based on educations
the surrounding social system and religion.
2.1.3 Good Behaviour (Akhlak)

Linguistically, good behaviour or akhlak originated from the Arabic word
ÂkhuluqÊ which meant well-mannered. Akhlak refers to conduct, speech and self-
image based on Islamic teachings. In other words, akhlak is a form of conduct
related to noble values that must be practised by Muslims. This means that the
noble values in akhlak are based on the Al-Quran and Hadith.
2.1.4 Laws
Laws are rules that are drafted by the authorities to ensure that our conduct leads
to well-being. Any contravention of the law will lead to punishment, provided
the offence can be proven. A part of ethics is not stated in the legal system as
going against ethics does not lead to tangible suffering. If there is a breach of
ethics, punishment cannot be determined clearly through the judiciary.
2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ETHICS
(a) Humans: Human beings are gifted with intelligence. Therefore, we have the
ability to choose between good and bad.
(b) Instincts: The main instincts in humans are the instincts to eat, wed, love
children, defend oneÊs life and worship divinity. We can use these instincts
at any time for good purposes (good ethics) and bad purposes (bad ethics).
Therefore, we should control our instinctive urges with our minds, not just
with emotions.
(c) Customs and norms: These are values accepted by the majority of society.
Therefore, they have a strong influence in shaping ethics, whether good or
bad. For example, gotong-royong activities can help us form good ethics,
while gambling is unacceptable in society and is treated with contempt.
(d) Descendants: This is an important factor in forming noble ethics, or the lack
of it. For example, children are likely to follow their parentsÊ behaviour.
(e) Environment: The environment that influences ethics is divided into two ă
physical (climate and geographical factors) and spiritual (the essence of the
individual connected to religion or belief). These two factors shape the
conduct of a person.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Explain the similarities and differences of the ethics practised by a

doctor and a judge.
2.3 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAWS AND

ETHICS
Helping the less fortunate and needy are good ethics. Not helping them is a
breach of ethics, but does not contravene the laws. A person who kills someone
else breaches ethics and also the law, since murder is against the law and not
cherishing life is considered unethical.
Generally, there are four parts of the law - Statutes, Common Law, Constitutional
Law and Regulations (directives from the authorities). Laws and ethics
encourage people to not act or behave badly laws state clearly the punishment
for breaching them, while most ethics do not set clear punishments for non-
conformity.
There are many differences between laws and ethics, among which are stated in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Differences between laws and ethics

No. Ethics Laws
1. Do not require enforcement officers Require enforcement officers
2. Enforced by conscience Enforced by the courts
3. The punishment for breaching ethics is The punishment for breaching laws
self-punishment against inner feelings that is fixed and recorded by the judge/
is not recorded by any party court
4. Determines the limits of customs, idealism, Sets definite limits (doÊs and donÊtÊs
confidence and moral values in a society of an individual)
5. Obeying values and code of ethics will Obeying the laws does not mean
surely prevent the breaching of laws obeying ethics
6. More general and involves the conduct Controls misbehaviour/ negative
and behaviour of a person in society behaviour or crime
7. Expands the change in attitude towards Only sufficient to determine the
good and bad conduct in society limits for bad/ negative behaviour
in society
8. Comprehensive enforcement of rules Only sufficient to determine the
limits of rules set by the law
9. Takes into account spiritual aspects like Many things not taken into account
staying free of envy and away from crime like envy. It only metes out
punishment for the consequences of
actions of envy.
EXERCISE 2.1
Explain from the point of ethics and laws, when a person is asked to
help a victim of a road accident and refuses to do so.
2.4 VALUES IN LIFE

(a) Values in Life from the Aspect of Materialism
On the RM10 note, there is a statement that says, ÂThis currency is legal tender
for the value of Ten Ringgit (RM10)Ê and ÂBank Negara MalaysiaÊ. Through this
statement, we can purchase goods worth RM10 at the maximum. Therefore,
goods worth more than RM10 cannot be purchased with the money in hand.
Currency notes contain value that is legally recognised to purchase goods or
services that are equal in value to the sum stated on the notes.
(b) Values in Life from the Moral Aspect

Values in the life of an individual with morals are not differentiated
quantitatively. For example, stealing five Ringgit or ten Ringgit makes no
difference morally as stealing is a value of moral, not the amount stolen.
Hence, regardless of five or ten Ringgit, stealing is still wrong and is against
the law.
(c) Value in Life Intrinsically

The value of an item is dependent on the individual, for example the value
of being rich. It is the norm in our society today to consider a person with a
lot of money as being rich, and poor if the opposite. However, if we view
wealth from the point of human personality, moral values and quality of
life, then the person who is rich does not necessarily mean he or she has
great amounts of money.
People have different opinions on values. Some see it from the aspect of
materialism while others see it from a moral point of view. Some place
importance on moral values and some choose immoral values. The implication is
that there are individuals who are willing to forgo moral values for wealth while
some continuously relinquish chances for wealth by preserving moral values.
In Islam, humans are taught to be moderate, seeking and owning material values
by taking into consideration moral values and rejecting unscrupulous material
values. As a conclusion, values arising from ethics and moral are the basis in
forming the attitudes, opinions, motivation, personality, progress and
development of a nation and organisation.
2.5 FUNCTIONS OF VALUES

(a) Values as a Consistent Standard in PeopleÊs Actions
Here, a value acts as an agent or moral critic. For example, a person who
appreciates ÂtrustÊ and ÂpurityÊ would not indulge in corruption.
(b) Values as a Guide in Solving Moral Conflicts

When solving conflicts, we will analyse and assess the causes and
suggestions for a solution. Example: You are offered a lucrative salary to
undertake a dangerous job. It is beneficial to society but not to your family.
In this case, values play an important role in making the decision to accept
or reject the offer.
(c ) Values as a Limit against Actions and Conduct by Individuals or Society

Our conduct is judged by our parents, teachers, elders and friends. This
restricts our conduct in order to receive acceptance and affection from
others.
2.6 TYPES OF MORAL VALUES

The types of moral values that we should know are:
(i) Instrumental (Extrinsic) Values

Extrinsic values are qualities that are accepted or rejected as tools to achieve
aims. In our country, caning is meted out on rapists to eradicate rape and
incest. Another example is the penalty of death for drug traffickers in order
to stop drug dealing in the country.
(ii) Intrinsic Values

Intrinsic values are qualities which do not depend on other values. These
are the inner values of a person. For example, we feel sad when witnessing
the suffering of an individual. This feeling is a value which is not
dependent on other values; instead the value itself is the final aim.
(iii) Subjective Values

Subjective values are qualities which depend on the views of an individual.
This means that a value may seem good to one person but bad to another.
(iv) Objective Values

Objective values are values which are free from personal choice.
(v) Relative Values

Relative values are based on the rules of a society. They differ from society
to society. The values are accepted generally, proven good or bad and
maintained at all times.
(vi) Absolute Values

Absolute values are values that cannot be disputed at any time. These relate
to the beliefs and religion of a person.
EXERCISE 2.2
Based on the statements below, elaborate on the type of morals related

to each situation.
1. Indulging in illicit sex must lead to heavy punishment.

2. Hariyah cried upon hearing the story about the unfortunate family
which was hit by flood, just before Hari Raya Puasa.
2.7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORALS AND

RELIGIONS, CUSTOMS AND LAWS
2.7.1 Morals and Religions

Human conduct is linked to religions and customs. Religion encompasses the
way of life, while customs only encompass a portion of society. There are
elements of morals in both. The following are the differences between morals and
religions.
Table 2.2: Differences between morals and religions
No. Moral Religion

1. Moral rules are not recorded in Rules of the religions are recorded in holy
holy books that can be followed by books which form the guide to all
all religions. worshippers.
2. Moral rules, followed or not, are Rules of the religion and its consequences
only subject to the personÊs level of form the guide and teachings to its followers
awareness in a situation, without unquestioningly. Whether followed or not,
fear. it is held to be true.
3. Interpretations of rules change Rules of the religion are as stated in the holy
according to the customs of a books. They do not change according to race
society. or territory.
4. Rules governing relationships Rules govern the relationship between
between human and human; humans and God.
humans and the environment.
5. Moral rules are not in-depth. Rules of the religions are deeper.
6. An action is deemed correct or In Islam, for example, the rules are set in the
wrong according to the rules of the Al-Quran.
society.
7. Moral rules tend to make a person Rules of the religions are fixed rules set
judge of his or her own conduct, down by God. It is logic according to
resulting in the person acting on thought and has high and deep values.
only logical thinking.
2.7.2 Morals and Customs

Customs are practised by a portion of society. The ÂdesignÊ of the customs can be
identified by looking at the related portion of society. For example, in Malaysia,
the baju kurung is the customary attire for Malay women, the cheong sam for
Chinese women and the saree for Indian women.
However, moral values, that is politeness, is found in all three portions i.e. the
style of dressing. Hence, morals are more universal but customs are practised
only by a certain number of people. Customs are only adhered to at certain
places and time. For example, the proposal customs of the Malays only occurs
during the engagement function with the venue being the home of the bride-to-
be.
Moral rules are obeyed at any place and time as they are universal in nature.
Overall, we can say that in everyday life, customs and morals are closely
interlinked in forming a system of society. However, we also find that there are
customs that go against the moral values in life.
2.7.3 Morals and Laws

The assurances of well-being are rules accepted and obeyed by humans. In this
context, the rules are made of moral rules and laws. Laws arise from the
adherence of individuals to a legitimate authority, while morals are determined
by intellect or views and not written, recorded and enforced by any party. It is
bound by time and place.
Laws cover rules and punishments for breaching rules, which involve actions
through conduct, speech and writing. These rules are determined by the
authorities. The society under the jurisdiction of the authorities must follow these
laws. They differ from moral rules that involve conduct towards other humans
and the environment.
Laws are enforced by the police and other enforcement officers appointed by the
authorities.
While moral enforcement is based on the feelings of the individual, laws do not
take into account affection and mercy. Each rule and punishment for the
breaching of that rule have already been determined and must be obeyed.
Therefore, it is important that moral aspects are considered when passing a law.
2.8 NORMATIVE STATEMENTS AND

DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENTS ON MORALS
Statements on morals are related to values. It was previously stated that values
are not morals. But morals are closely linked to moral values, so moral
statements are often linked to good and bad values or right and wrong values.
Grassian (1981) stated that normative ethics is an attempt to provide logical,

systematic and proper answers to moral questions. This means that moral ethics
focuses on normative statements that have implications on human conduct.
Normative statements are considerations of good or bad values, right or wrong
values, and accepted or rejected values. For example, abortion is an immoral act.
Frankena (1973) states that morals are divided into two ă general and specific.
Normative statements on human acts ă whether good or bad, right or wrong,
obligation or not, and necessary or unnecessary ă are termed moral obligations or
deontic consideration. For example, Âthe public should not buy and sell shares
with the intention to gambleÊ is a deontic consideration because the intention to
gamble is something that is unacceptable in the eyes of religion and law.
Normative statements on individuals, motives, purposes and personalities ă

whether good, bad, noble, evil, responsible, guilty, pious and despicable ă are
termed consideration of moral values or aretaic. For example, Âsmart investors
have never gambled in buying sharesÊ discusses the personality of the smart
investor i.e. having never gambled in buying shares. The aretaic consideration
statement does not touch on the obligations of a person, but only assesses the
moral characteristic ÂsmartÊ.
Normative statements are not usually linked to the consideration of moral

values, and that is what is called consideration of non-moral values. This is
normally related to cars, paintings, novels, experiences and others. We can say ÂitÊ
is good or bad. For example, the statements Âthe car is bright blue in colourÊ or Âit
is an interesting novelÊ are free from moral values because they explain the
features of the car and novel. Normative statements that instruct or command are
statements that require someone or everyone to obey the rules or laws, for
example, Âparents must be respectedÊ.
Descriptive statements on morals are statements that mention or explain the

characteristics of a person, item, matter and such. Descriptive statement on the
good nature of a person gives an impression of the characteristic or values
possessed by the person. For example, ÂAli is a forgiving personÊ explain AliÊs
characteristic of easily forgiving someone who has offended him. This statement
is different from normative statements that we had discussed earlier. However,
this statement can be changed to a normative statement, ÂAli should forgive Abu
for his actions towards him.Ê
Observe that the statement ÂIn Malaysia, Cabinet reshuffle is under the
jurisdiction of the Prime MinisterÊ is a descriptive statement. It explains a logical
fact according to the situation in Malaysia. It is not related to the consideration of
moral values. We can safely say that fact-based descriptive statements do not
consider values or obligations. Descriptive statements can be changed to
normative statements, for example, Âvoter registration is on the declineÊ can be
changed to the normative statement Âgood citizens should register as votersÊ.
EXERCISE 2.3
1. Explain the customs that contravene morality and suggest how to

overcome the problem.
2. How can moral values restrict the conduct of a person, ensuring he
or she is always honourable?
2.9 IMPORTANCE OF MORAL VALUES

A society with morals will foster peace in the country. The second challenge in
Vision 2020 is to create a country that is free-willed, calm and progressive with
self-confidence; proud of what it has and what it has achieved; and possesses
strength in adversity. The Malaysian society is easily recognisable by its
enthusiasm to succeed, its awareness of its capabilities, its refusal to yield to
anyone and the respect it receives from other countries.
Why and how can this society with morals be created? Morals are important in
focusing on happiness in this world. A country will be peaceful and prosperous
if its society has high moral standards. The shaping of a society with high moral
standards starts with individuals and families.
2.9.1 Fulfilling Human Nature

Before we discuss morals in society, it is better if we look from the individual
aspect. In oneÊs self, there are inner values that have existed since birth. An
individual will be at peace when admiring beauty. Inner peace also exists when
we do good, help others, always smiling to others and being cheerful.
Anxiety, nervousness and confusion will occur when an individual faces

something uncomfortable like the stench from a sewage treatment plant, seeing
someone with a fierce face and so on. Sympathy and pity exist when we see
something that is touching, while we feel anguish, hate and misery when seeing
cruelty and oppression.
Sympathy, hate, sadness, hurt, joy and so on are feelings that cannot be taught
but are part of human nature. Good ethics are important in fulfilling human
nature.
2.9.2 Encouraging Good Deeds to Oneself and Others

Ethics refer to the good conduct that is the principle of all human beings. Ethics
makes it important for human nature to be followed. When someone is
sympathetic, the next step is naturally to provide help or assistance to the person
who needs it. A person with ethics has a life filled with good deeds and
behaviour, not just for himself but the good deeds are felt around him. Hence, it
is clear that ethics can encourage good things and conduct the well-being of the
society and country.
2.9.3 Preventing Immorality

People with ethics will feel awkward if they had to do something that went
against their ethics. Hence, people with ethics would not do something that is
against their ethical beliefs. These ethics are a deterrent to any unacceptable
deed done by a person, society and country.
2.9.4 Creating and Maintaining Peace

Wars, murders and destruction of nature are unethical acts. Do you want to live
in fear in a barren, war-torn land? Definitely, no one would want to live in such
conditions. A free spirit, a happy family, a peaceful country and a clean
environment are the desires of every person in this world.
A peaceful life in this world is not possible if the people inhabiting the world do
not play their part in heading towards the direction mentioned. Without ethics,
the inhabitants will live in chaos and their souls will always be miserable. The
calmness of the soul and harmony of life will only exist if every being in this
world possesses high ethics. In other words, ethics can bring about peace,
happiness and well-being in the world.
2.9.5 Continuation of Human Civilisation

The world today is not only plagued by civil crimes, but also sophisticated
crimes, as sophisticated as the development of technology. The development of
technology is to ease and quicken our work. Actually, creating good is easy but
creating evil is a lot easier. It has become the norm that when good exists, there
will also be disobedience. This can be seen clearly in the progress of computing;
when new software is created, almost immediately a virus is created to fail the
operation of the software.
Good ethics practised by all beings can continue progress in any field. This can
be related to the theory of utilitarianism that stresses upon us to act towards
maximum good for all parties. Thus, the human civilisation will continue to grow
for the well-being of all.
2.9.6 A Complete Human Personality

The term Âperfect beingÊ refers to a being who is complete physically, spiritually
and intellectually. Perfect beings would not do things which are condemned by
family, society and self. Generally, there are no perfect beings. In our country,
ethical persons are awarded with the title mithali (exemplary).
2.9.7 Maintaining the Status of Humanity

Humans are the best of creations. They have been gifted with intelligence by
God to differentiate between good and bad actions. Hence, calling a person an
animal is unacceptable.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Based on the explanations on the importance of morals, build a mind

map to help you remember the given facts. Then, conduct your own
observation on the society. Give your comments and opinion on how
good or bad the society is today.
 Value can be refer to the estimation of price, rank, quality, status or other
outstanding characteristics.
 Ethics means customs and wages.
 Morals refer to the awareness of proper and improper conduct as well as
what should be followed and discarded.
 Laws are rules that are drafted by the authorities to ensure that our conduct
leads to well-being.
 The five factors that influence ethics are: Humans, instincts, customs and
norms, descendants and environment.
 Functions of values are: Consistent standards in peopleÊs actions, guide in
solving moral conflicts and limit against actions and conduct by individuals
or society.
 Normative statements on human acts ă whether good or bad, right or
wrong, obligation or not, and necessary or unnecessary ă are termed moral
obligations or deontic consideration.
 Descriptive statements on morals are statements that mention or explain
the characteristics of a perosn, item, matter and such.
Topic 3  Theory of
Ethics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the theories of Moral Development, Social and Humanistic;
2. Differentiate each level of children moral development;
3. Identify the elements used to measure moral behaviour; and
4. Demonstrate different theories of moral development in your
everyday life.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces several theories related to moral studies, starting with the
theory of moral development followed by the theory of moral ethics. These
theories are the foundation of the formation of individual with good personality
traits. These moral theories are based on cognitive and social behaviours. You
should understand these theories and able to identify the similarities and
differences. Read further and try to relate the moral development in yourself and
individuals around you.
3.1 THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
3.1.1 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

Humans go through physical and mental development from birth, along with
moral development. Physical, mental, cognitive and intellect enable children to
follow instructions, obey norms, traditions, customs and rules set by the
authorities.
TOPIC 3 THEORY OF ETHICS  23
It is important to understand the individual moral development as it is crucial in

the formation of individual with good moral values within the society. Many
theorists came out with different kinds of theories on children development.
Lawrence Kohlberg, one of the theorists spent 20 years studying the cognitive
and moral aspects of childrenÊs development.
From his studies, he found out that there is a sequence in the childrenÊs
development. It is divided into three levels and six stages. Every level has two
stages as shown below.
(a) Level One: Pre-conventional

Stage one is also known as the Âobedience and punishmentÊ phase or
obedience and punishment orientation phase. This means physical effects
determine good or bad behaviour. In this phase, children behave or do
good things to avoid punishment. They also want to get reward from
people with superior physical power.
Stage Two: Individualism and Counter-balance

Stage two is also known as individualism and the counter-balance stage.
Here, behaviour and action that can fulfil needs and necessities are
considered good. In this stage, children are aware that good behaviour is a
channel to satisfy the needs of their loved ones and themselves. They also
start to notice that other people also have needs like they do. Therefore,
children will refer to their loved ones to get what they want.
(b) Level Two: The Conventional Level

The third stage in this theory is the agreement between individual or
interpersonal observance orientations. Good behaviour is an act fulfilling
the expectations of loved ones. At this stage, children do good things or
morally correct things to obey their loved ones.
The fourth stage is social norms/orientation instructions and law. Good or

bad behaviours are determined by loyalty and social order by performing
social duties and responsibilities. At this stage, children see other people as
part of a social system which determines the roles and responsibilities of
each individual. In this case, they are able to determine behaviours and
actions based on the law they should obey.
(c) Level Three: Post-conventional Morality

The fifth stage is related to social contract. Contract-legalistic social
orientation is certain values agreed by a community which includes social
rights and rules to achieve agreement and determine what is right. In this
stage, children will be aware that each human being has different opinions.
24  TOPIC 3 THEORY OF ETHICS
Nevertheless, there should be an agreement or consensus to determine

what is fair in order to close the gap.
The sixth stage is the highest stage in KohlbergÊs Theory of Moral

Development. It is related to the principle of global ethics. In this stage,
good behaviours are determined based on the principle of global ethics and
its consistency. Humans do things based on the principle of justice,
community welfare, equality, honour and not using others to get what you
want.
KohlbergÊs theory is a sequence of moral development that can help us to

understand the pattern of childrenÊs moral development. This theory can be
used as a guide to produce individuals with high morality through moral
standards in a certain community. By understanding KohlbergÊs theory, we
will be able to cultivate the ability to decipher good moral value and not
just accept all moral standards set by our family, friends, culture, custom
and community. We can also discuss, analyse and criticise these standards
for collective benefit.
KohlbergÊs Theory Criticism

KohlbergÊs theory has several weaknesses as he focuses on moral development
using hypothesis which means other types of moral development are left out.
KohlbergÊs theory stressed on the development of moral reasoning related to
individual intelligence. But intelligence does not guarantee that a person will
know what to do when faced with a moral dilemma. Experience does not
increase oneÊs insight on certain things such as moral dilemma. This element
could not be found in KohlbergÊs theory as he used moral dilemma only in
theory, neither does he really explain the emotional aspects of moral
development. Theoretically, moral consistency in moral dilemma might not be
very obvious compared to experience. Making decisions in real situations might
trigger the emotion and behaviour to react. This situation could not be seen in
moral consistency based on a hypothetical situation. KohlbergÊs studies will be
more meaningful if he uses real situations rather than moral dilemmas based on
theory.
ACTIVITY 3.1
In your opinion, what is the suitable age for every level of KohlbergÊs
Moral Development Theory? Verify your opinion with your tutor.
3.1.2 Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Jean Piaget did a lot of research on ethics although he is well-known for
childrenÊs cognitive development studies. He divided childrenÊs development
into two moral-related levels based on the principle of controlled source which
control the childrenÊs behaviour and thinking. This principle is known as
internalisation which studies the source of childrenÊs thinking and behaviour and
how the sources control their behaviour. For instance, children imitate the act of
greetings from their parents. Meanwhile, parents control their children by
instructing them to greet certain people (such as the elderly). Then, the children
should be able to greet other people without being asked anymore.
The first stage of PiagetÊs ethics development is based on the principle of

internalisation which involves rules set out by superiors around them such as
parents, older family members and teachers. This stage is also known as External
Morality. Children see rules as something which is set out and controlled by their
superiors. They will experience this stage until the age of 10 by observing and
obeying rules. For example, the rules set out in school and home help children to
behave, based on guidance from parents, family members and teachers.
The second stage of is called „Autonomous Morality.‰ During this stage, children
will create rational ideas about equality as a reversible process in their life. They
try to control the behaviour of other people just as what they have been going
through. For example, they create rules in their games and want other people to
follow them. They also see justice as reversible in their life. They will expect
others especially those under their supervision (such as younger sisters or
brothers and peers) to do things just like they were instructed to do. Children
begin to develop self-concern rather than having other people to stress on certain
behaviour.
Generally, Piaget divided cognitive development related to childrenÊs moral

development into four stages ă motor-sensory, pre-operation, concrete operation
and formal operation. For Piaget, childrenÊs moral development involved the
development of their intellect through several consecutive stages. Children build
their own world actively. They interact actively with their surroundings in order
to develop their mental structure, intellect and morality. From this active
interaction process, children will experience changes in their morality by
observing changes in moral justice. For example, a child will be upset if he does
not receive a birthday present from his parents like other children do.
Let us now study the four stages of intellect development and their connection
with moral development.
(a) Motor-sensory Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

At this stage, children manipulate physical elements in their surroundings
to gain knowledge and adapt themselves. Nevertheless, their moral
awareness is minimal, which is in the pre-moral stage. They perform
repeatable habits based on frequency. For example, whenever they want to
eat and drink, they will cry and raise their hands. Every time they feel
hungry, they will repeat the act until they get to eat and drink. The
behaviour does not contain moral elements and sometimes causes strain
among themselves. Whenever they play, they follow the rules of the game
reluctantly because the game is just a form of entertainment for them.
(b) Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

In this stage, children have a very high sense of curiosity. They experiment
to get answers to the questions arising from their inner self. Apart from
being egocentric, they have a very high imagination. They see things
objectively, which means what happened is not the reason why it
happened. Nevertheless, the rule of the authority, especially that of parents,
still binds them. They see rules as sacred and unchangeable. These children
are still experiencing pre-moral stages in transition to the heteronomy
moral stage. External authority rules still control them in making a moral
decision. In this stage, they will play games by following inherited rules.
Egocentrism makes it difficult for them to accept other peopleÊs opinions
and they are uncooperative. Nevertheless, they will start showing
cooperative behaviour at the end of this stage.
(c) Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

Children will show a sign of maturity at this stage. They show the ability to
think logically, formally and in a stable matter. As their social scope
widens, they will understand the necessity of being cooperative, especially
with their peers. They still follow the rules without questioning but are able
to discuss the procedures and the principles of a game they are playing
when arguments arise. This indicates that their moral rules are rational
rules that require them to respect, understand and have good
communication with one another.
(d) Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and Above)

This is the highest stage in cognitive development where children reach the
perfect balance in their moral consideration. Egocentrism will fade and
eventually disappear. They are experiencing the autonomous moral
development stage. They unleash themselves from the bind of the authority
in making moral decisions. Interaction and sense of cooperation with their
peers will develop. They are able to master the rule of game and fair play.
The rules could be changed based on agreement and interaction as these are
no longer sacred.
3.1.3 Criticism of Piaget’s Moral Development Theory

Piaget only focuses on moral rules in childrenÊs games. Other rules of social
morality are not given the same priority. Maybe this is because he focused on
newborn babies up to children who are 12 years of age in his studies. At this
stage, children start to show signs of natural social morals. It could be seen in the
way they communicate, greet people, carry themselves, etc. Further studies
should be carried out to give a clearer picture and more effective explanation.
Another aspect that could be observed is motivation and sampling or external
imitation. The aspect of imitating the images of artistes is a current reality trend
that he could not explain. This indicates that popular artistes are effective moral
agents. In this stage, PiagetÊs theory could not explain the phenomenon. Another
criticism towards the theory is individual differences. Piaget did not focus on this
although individual differences such as gender and social ranks will affect
individual moral practice and decision-making.
3.2 SOCIAL MORALITY DEVELOPMENT

THEORY
Among the theorists who came out with a Social Morality Theory are Albert
Bandura and Emile Durkheim. A popular theory by Bandura states that moral
development is based on the observation of other peopleÊs behaviour. Bandura
says there are three methods of imitation ă direct imitation, inhibition and non-
inhibition; and elicitation.
Direct imitation: Direct imitation happens when a person imitates a behaviour

that he or she sees in the media, pictures or by listening to explanations. For
example, children imitate the behaviour of their loved ones or people they like ă
the way they talk, their clothes and many other things.
Inhibition and non-inhibition: This method might be suitable for one situation
but not for another. It comes together with penalty and punishment. For
example, the act of cheering in the field is clearly inappropriate for a formal event
in a hall. If cheering is done during a formal speech in the hall, punishment will
be imposed and individuals witnessing this will not imitate the act of cheering
during formal events. But if there is no punishment for the act of cheering during
formal events, it will be imitated and repeated the next time by individuals who
witness it.
Elicitation: It means imitating others because they know how to do something.

For example when a person sees other people sing, he/she also wants to sing
because he/she knows the lyrics. He or she sings the song because other people
sing the song.
3.2.1 Criticism of Bandura’s Theory

Not all behaviours can be imitated. Some behaviours are cultivated by moral
considerations. Children desire to do things they think about doing. They also
want to do things according to their emotions. However, not all of their
behaviours are a total imitation. Do penalty and punishment really prevent a
person from imitating certain behaviours? If yes, what will happen if there are no
penalty and punishment? Penalty and punishment-based behaviour are
inconsistent unlike instinct-based behaviour which is more resistant and
consistent where ethical aspect are clearly defined by the enforcement of the
heart. All factors related to behavourial development should be considered in
order to produce individuals with high morality.
3.3 BEHAVOURIAL MORAL THEORY

The Behavourial Moral Theory explains the importance of the involvement of
parents and caregivers in childrenÊs moral development. ChildrenÊs behaviour is
formed through three methods ă reward, abuse and observation. The formation
of childrenÊs morality depends on the lessons given. They will show good
behaviour if they receive suitable training, guidance and discipline. To make
promote good behaviour, reward and punishment should be given to children.
Wright (1978) suggested that caregivers created the foundation of their childrenÊs
behaviour by using three methods ă reward, abuse and good examples in their
routine. Caregivers or adults are the strengthening source of good or bad
behaviour. They are best role models for children to adopt honourable
behaviours. Children will show good behaviour if their in caregiver trains and
disciplines them and is a good role model. Negative reinforcement will cause
wariness and prevent them from wrongdoing. Positive strengthening will create
a high possibility for children to repeat good behaviours.
Come! Let us all smoke

together with our teacher.
Figure 3.1: In this case, should the students imitate their teacherÊs behaviour?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Refer to Figure 3.1. In your opinion, what kind of preventive measure
can the teacher adopt to avoid this situation? In a group of 2 or 3, discuss
how the school administration can address this issue.
EXERCISE 3.1
It is difficult for a father to fulfil all his childrenÊs desires. Explain how
he could make an exemplary decision that could be imitated by his
children. Give an example.
3.4 THEORY OF SOCIAL MORALITY

The theory of social morality relates moral standards, social norms, law and the
global environment to the concept of ethics. It stresses on individual
responsibility to obey rules set by the authority. This theory prioritises on public
interest instead of individual interest. The system of social morality could be seen
through the religious aspect.
Buddhists are advised not to adopt an extreme lifestyle, self-indulge or be

overwhelmed by desire. Instead, they should adopt noble behaviours (especially
kindness and love) to reach nirvana. The daily life of a Christian centres around
the Ten Commandments. For example, a Christian is prohibited from committing
murder, adultery, theft, etc. Hindus are required to follow the moral rules stated
in the epic of Ramayana, Upanishad, etc. These rules guide them on what to do
and not. Muslims are required to follow the moral guidance stated in the Quran
and Hadith.
The theory of social morality has it weaknesses. Different communities have

different sets of rules, laws, cultures and moral values. This will lead to moral
relativism and cause misunderstanding, conflict and tension within the
community. Many incidents of riots between races, community crisis and wars
between countries are caused by misunderstanding.
The theory of social morality relates social rules and culture with the concept of
ethics. A dogmatic set of rules sometimes causes difficulties to members of a
community in adapting to a new situation. The same can be said about unjust
rules and regulation which could be contested. The members of the community
have to obey them against their own wishes. This will result in disastrous side
effects because they end up not feeling guilty although what they do is against
their personal principles (Durkheim, 1968).
3.5 THEORY OF HONOURABLE PERSONALITY

The Theory of Honourable Personality emphasises personal characteristics to
achieve a good life. For example, effort and diligence will lead to success. So, we
should know the quality and standard of living that we want to achieve. The
formation of human personality happens gradually from childhood to
adulthood. There are four characteristics of honourable personality. Some can be
obtained through education and training.
Differences between skills and honourable personality are:

(a) Honourable personality is a noble heritage whereas skills are an individual
ability such as doing mathematical calculation;
(b) Honourable personality is a human life quality that could be applied
widely whereas skills are specific for certain activity;
(c) It is difficult to practise an honourable personality whereas skills could be
easily acquired through practice;
(d) We could accept that sometimes humans may lose their skills but it is hard
to accept when humans they lose their honourable personality; and
(e) There is no time-off in practising an honourable personality while there is
time-off in practising skills.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Discuss a situation where a charitable person is said to have honourable

personality and yet the money he donates was actually obtained
illegally.
3.6 THEORY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

The Theory of Psychoanalysis discusses moral development by focusing on the
concept of super-ego. This concept needs to be explained together with the
concept of id and ego.
Table 3.1: Concept of Id and Ego
Id Instinctive reaction to quickly attain satisfaction.

Ego Related to the world outside the individual self.
Super-ego Explains and interprets intuitions or individual social behaviour
norms. Determines behaviour when id and ego exist together.
The development of childrenÊs instinct starts when they lack motivation to

control their behaviour. This situation usually triggers the children to be hostile
towards the authorities and adults that abuse them or let them down. Super-ego
controls anti-social impulses. If the super-ego could not fight the forbidden ideas,
the children will carry out an anti-social act and regret it when they realise it is a
mistake. But if the super-ego fights the forbidden ideas strongly, the individual
will act according to the correct behaviour allowed by the instinct.
Super-ego is developed in early childhood. Behavioural consistency develops

until a certain age and it is difficult to change after that. However, behavioural
development is not concerned with intellectual or thinking aspects in moral
development. It is obvious that the Theory of Psychoanalysis focuses on an
individualÊs inner self which includes feelings and emotions whereas the
intellectual aspects are given less emphasis.
EXERCISE 3.2
Explain the meaning of id, ego and super-ego and connect them to
childrenÊs moral development.
3.7 THEORY OF TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS

Teleological is derived from the word ÂtelosÊ which means goal. The Theory of
Teleological Ethics suggests that right or wrong values depend on the
consequences of certain behaviours. It means if the behaviour provides a lot of
benefits, then it needs to be done. This theory emphasises on the importance of
the consequences of certain behaviours (consequentialism). For theorists, moral
value is a person's behaviour depending on the non-moral value produced.
Therefore, this theory decides what is good or compulsory from a non-moral
point of view. To know whether what we do is good, correct or compulsory from
a non-moral point of view, we must know if it produces something good, correct
or compulsory from the non-moral point of view (Franken, 1973).
Teleologists have different opinions about what is good from a non-moral point
of view. Some think like a hedonist (identify the good with pleasure and the bad
with pain) and some have the opinions of a non-hedonist (identify the good with
power, knowledge, self-awareness, accuracy, etc.). Teleologists also have
different opinions about who receive the good or the bad. Therefore, a lot of
teleological theories have come into view such as Utilitarianism and Egoism.
3.7.1 Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is derived from the word ÂutilityÊ meaning useful. The term
„utilitarianism‰ means moral behaviour that produces maximum good for the
majority. According to Warnock (in Mills 1964), the pioneer of this theory was
Jeremy Bentaham (1784-1832). He introduced a scientific method to analyse the
quantity of pleasure. He allocates an analysable value to each value.
Based on the analyses, moral behaviour could be determined. Behaviour which

brings maximum happiness and pleasure is morally good. To determine whether
a behaviour is morally good, every moral element will be analysed according to a
certain quantity of pleasure and pain. It is quite difficult to determine the level of
pleasure (right value) and pain (wrong value) of a behaviour as it accepted by a
community but might be considered wrong and unacceptable in other
communities.
To determine whether a behaviour is right or wrong, the moral rule aspect

should be considered. To determine the pleasure and pain of behaviour,
appropriate steps must be taken with the rules or laws of the universal moral.
The universal rules include three essential elements:

Ć A principle or rule must be accepted and obey at all times.
Ć To respect humans, not use them.
Ć A person at fault will be punished if he is present at the place where the
incident happened.
Even though it is quite difficult to measure the level of pleasure and pain,
Bentham initiated a method called hedonistic calculus. Several elements can be
used to identify the level of pleasure and pain.
There are seven elements to be considered in order to measure the level of

pleasure and pain. Every element determines the level of pleasure and pain with
a measurement scale ranges from -1 to -10 and +1 to +10. The (-) symbol
represent the level of pain whereas the (+) symbol represent the level of pleasure.
The seven elements to be considered are intensity, duration, certainty,
propinquity, fecundity, purity and extent.
To Explain Utilitarianism, Study the Following Case.

Kevin is a get-rich-quick scheme agent. He is happy that he received a profit of
the percentage by getting new investors, even though they were conned. The
investors sold their land and cars to invest in his company and hoped to get fast
and easy profit. Initially, his company paid the profit as scheduled but later, no
payment was given and even their deposits were not refunded.
(i) Intensity: The investors experience pain because they sold their assets to
invest. Let us say -10 represents pain. When the people get profit from their
investment within a short time, they feel pleasure. The pleasure level is +7.
However, calculation shows that the investors still suffer pain because the
profit is not equal to the investment made. The level of pain for is -3
because the initial pain is -10 and the pleasure of getting profit is +7. On
KevinÊs part, pleasure is +10 by because he gets profits from a new investor.
(ii) Duration: This element determines how long the pleasure or pain lasts.
Getting a dividend/profit from an investment is a pleasurable experience
(+10) especially if the entire dividend was spent. The pleasure makes the
investors greedy and invest more (investing 50% more).
This is a (-5) pain because half of the dividend that could be spent is
reinvested. After being balanced the investors only gets +5. Kevin will feel
extreme pleasure because the investors reinvested, meaning more profit for
him.
(iii) Certainty: The initial pleasure changes to pain when the investors lose their
assets and investments (-10). Kevin suffers a loss when the investors
constantly ask about the investment and dividend promised (-7).
(iv) Propinquity: The investors will suffer pain when investing their his money
(-10) whereas Kevin will get pleasure (+10) when he gains profit just by
coaxing the investors to invest.
(v) Fecundity: The investors feel pleasure when they receive the dividend. But
that will soon change to pain when they lose all their investments (-10).
Kevin will also feel less pleasure (-8) because the investors will constantly
chase him.
(vi) Purity: The investors will suffer pain not only because they did not get the
profit but also because they lost all of their investments so the pain level is -
10. Kevin will feel guilty because he would not be able to give profits to the
investors and the activity will come to a halt because the company goes
bankrupt. However, the feeling might not be as bad as that of the investors
because Kevin gains profit at the initial stage.
(vii) Extent: Both investors and Kevin will feel pain in case he gets arrested by
the police (-10) because the investors lose their investments while Kevin
will be prosecuted. Both the investors and KevinÊs family will suffer
indirect pain because of the loss and prosecution. The level of pain for them
is -3.
The level of pleasure and pain could be measured as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Level of Pleasure and Pain

Case Consideration Elements Investor You
1 Intensity -7 +10
2 Duration +5 +10
3 Certainty -10 -7
4 Propinquity -10 +10
5 Fecundity -10 -8
6 Purity -10 -5
7 Extent 10 3
Total -52 +7
The level of pain is higher (-52) compared to the level of pleasure (+7). It is
obvious that the act of coaxing the investors is immoral because the level of pain
is much higher than that of pleasure.
The weaknesses of BenthamÊs Hedonistic Calculus are as said below:

(a) The intensity of pleasure is subjective because individual feeling is unique.
(b) Individual quality of pleasure is different.
(c) Measuring the quantity of pleasure and pain is very difficult at different
times with different experiences.
3.7.2 Egoism
There are two types of egoism:
(i) Physiological egoism ă a descriptive theory connecting how people behave.
(ii) Ethical egoism ă tells people how they should behave.
It is interpreted as a theory that regards good value as self-interest and bad
value as wasteful.
3.8 THEORY OF DEONTOLOGY

Deontology is derived from the Greek word Âdeon,Ê which means duty or
responsibility (Davis in Singer, 1991). There are two aspects in this theory ă
behaviour and rule. This theory suggests that there are other considerations that
could determine whether certain behaviours or rules are good, correct or morally
compulsory even though these do not produce much goodness compared to
badness to an individual, community or the world.
Act nonconsequentialist theories emphasise that all specific moral decisions

happen in a certain situation. Example: „During this critical situation, I have to
pull the trigger and aim at the burglar.‰ This action was done to suit the situation
without referring to any rules.
Rule nonconsequentialist theories assume that the standard of measurement for

right or wrong behaviour consist of more than one rule. The rule is fundamental,
and not based on a certain situation.
In short, the theory of deontology studies how we are responsible in catering to

others and our duties towards them. It is an action-oriented approach.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Academicians have been debating about theories that we have discussed
in this topic. Refer to: Eow Boon Hin (2000), Moral Education, Pearson
Education Sdn. Bhd.: Petaling Jaya. Compare and discusss your findings
from this book with your classmates and tutor.
EXERCISE 3.3
1. One day, Mrs. Pruma was walking home from work when a man
tries to snatch her handbag. While Mrs. Pruma is trying to defend
herself she accidentally stabs the man. Explain Mrs. PrumaÊs
action based on the Theory of Deontology
2. Explain this statement: humans should be respected, not used.
 There are more than five theories discussed in this topic so you could
compare and build your understanding about Moral Education.
 The discussions are based on several aspects such as cognitive, social and
behaviour.
 The exposures to these theories enable you to understand and practise them
in your daily life.
 Most of the theories are universal, accepted by the public as a guide
towards cultivating ethics and good morals.
 Complete the following table:
Honourable
Theory Cognitive Behaviour Social Psychoanalysis Teleology Deontology
Personality
Important
characteristics
Topic 4 Moral Principles
and Values in
Religion and
Beliefs
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain 10 moral principles;
2. Explain the importance of two moral principles;
3. Explain briefly the five main religions in Malaysia;
4. Compare the three major beliefs in Malaysia; and
5. Compare religion and beliefs in developing a person with morals.
 INTRODUCTION
One principle of life that we will always encounter is: "I will not do something I
am not able to do or like." A person's action or behaviour is based on his beliefs
of his abilities.
In this topic, you will learn 10 moral principles that could guide you to be a
person with high morality. We will also discuss the importance of moral
principles in daily life.
Having discussed moral principles and moral standards, we will focus on

religious values. Religion and morality are inseparable and closely linked to each
other. Both aim to shape a noble being who lives in harmony. However, religion
TOPIC 4 MORAL PRINCIPLES AND VALUES IN RELIGION AND BELIEFS  39
has rules recorded in holy books while moral is a sense of awareness of oneÊs self
which is not found in any holy book or record of rules to be followed.
People with morals hold fast to religious teachings as religion is the basis of
moral values. On the surface, everything contained in moral values and rules are
found in all religions, but not all moral rules and values are found in religious
teachings. It also discuss the values in religion and beliefs that form the basis of
people with morals.
4.1 THE BASIS OF MORAL PRINCIPLES

Moral principles are related to right or wrong, good or bad behaviour that one
should practise. Moral principles or beliefs involve certain aspects accepted by
the community. The 10 moral principles are as shown below.
1. Principle of Duty
2. Principle of Existentialism
3. Principle of Goodness
4. Principle of Badness
5. Principle of Human Evolution
6. Principle of Ambition
7. Principle of Trust
8. Principle of Ikram Muslim in (Solidarity)
9. Principle of Leadership
10. Principle of Patience
We will discuss each principle briefly.
4.1.1 Principle of Duty

This principle, suggested by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), emphasises that duties
are carried out because they are responsibilities. To take a morally right action,
we have to use the following formula.
Freedom + Justice + Wisdom + Choice (maxim reference) = Morally Right Action

40  TOPIC 4 MORAL PRINCIPLES AND VALUES IN RELIGION AND BELIEFS
The concept of goodwill is something good without conditions while carrying

out an action. According to Kant, we should consider a personÊs intention in
determining whether a certain behaviour is good or correct.
The Principle of Total Command means a command that exists with exemptions
or conditions. It consists of three primary principles ă it must be generally
accepted; it must respect humans; and the responsible party must be willing to be
treated in the same way as the victim if he/she happens to be in the victimÊs
shoes.
4.1.2 Principle of Existentialism

Western philosophers accept the concept of existentialism or individual
existence. This principle stresses that good or bad values must be based on
individual choice and free will. The principle is divided into Christian
existentialism and atheistic existentialism (a belief that God does not exist).
Human beings are assumed to have been born without direction or equipment.
Whatever happens is the individualÊs own responsibility. He will shape his own
self. The principle maintains that the environment does not influence a personÊs
needs and desires. Human needs and behaviour will form individual morals,
totally and absolutely. Education and its objectives will mould an individual and
raise awareness of honourable behaviour.
4.1.3 Principle of Goodness

According to this principle, human nature is good. A newborn baby is
considered innocent. In the process of growing up, an individual will be
influenced by the community and may end up becoming a bad person.
Education could mould individuals to lead a good life. One weakness of this
principle is that humans good quality cannot be proved with reality. Social
aspects and culture are not considered.
4.1.4 Principle of Badness

This principle is the oldest assumption about the personality of humans. It arises
from the belief that a human being should be returned to the good path
alongside his God because Adam (human representative) was guilty and cast
away from heaven as a punishment. From the moral point of view, human beings
are evil and sinful.
According to this principle, children are lazy, stupid, immoral and indisciplined.
Teachers have to discipline their students so they can be good and useful. Among
the weaknesses of this principle is the assertion that humans are inferior and
placed at the lowest level, that of animals. Human beings have to obey the
authorities, against their feelings and thoughts. Some human beings, when
bestowed with power, social status and wealth, might use others for evil
intentions.
EXERCISE 4.1
Your business is experiencing a decline. To turn it around, you need a
large amount of capital which you do not have. If your siblings are
willing to invest in your company by selling the family land, your
business will recover and prosper.
How would the formula of Freedom + Justice + Wisdom + Choice

(maxim reference) = Morally Good Action help you to overcome your
business problems?
4.1.5 Principle of Human Evolution

This principle says that human life development occurs according to human
evolution aspects, such as age and environment factors. With guidance since
childhood, we could cultivate good moral values. This principle is seen as a
social process in which human development is an adaptation to constant cultural
changes. Human beings also experience moral changes and development in
stages.
Among the weaknesses of this principle is that it compares humans to grass

growing by the roadside. Human beings are placed on the same level as animals,
with no spiritual values. Until today, moral principle theories are related to right
or wrong, good or bad behaviour that should be practised by individuals.
Individual moral principles involve certain aspects that have been accepted by
the community, i.e. human evolution cannot be proved through experiments.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Charles Darwin is an important figure in Human Evolution Theory
studies. Surf the net for the details and discuss this theory in your tutorial.
4.1.6 Principle of Ambition

Human beings are ambitious. A person uses his intelligence to achieve his
ambitions. If a person uses his intelligence the right way and with wisdom, he
will form good moral values. But if he uses it unwisely, he will form less
satisfying moral values. One weakness of this principle is that it is unrealistic. It
encourages human beings to be materialistic and places a low priority on human
moral status.
4.1.7 Principle of Trust

Islam teaches its followers to be cautious and to assess every action accurately
based on the CreatorÊs standards. This is because his deeds will determine how
far he is fulfilling or deviating from the obligations entrusted to him. The
principle of pious deeds obligation is an important aspect in a human beingÊs
actions.
For example, in organisational management, Islam emphasises obligation to

Allah and the employer in executing a job. Furthermore, if an employeeÊs
obligation is to fulfil his responsibility towards his employer, the employer
should do the same for the employee. An employer should show kindness and
compassion, and be considerate, humane and willing to compromise with the
employee.
Therefore, burdening the employee with more work than what he/she gets in
return, is opposed by Islamic principles. Prophet Muhammad said: „An
employer should pay wages due to his employee before the sweat on his
forehead gets dry‰.
4.1.8 Principle of Ikram Muslimin (Solidarity)

This principle creates an environment of true brotherhood and is essential for
creating a spirit of solidarity especially in working organisations to increase
performance and professionalism. It is a religious bond cultivated from the unity
of beliefs and awareness of human equality before Allah. This principle will not
become a reality if egoists exist among human beings because egoism will create
arrogant and selfish people.
4.1.9 Principle of Leadership

The best example of this principle is the incident involving Prophet Yusuf. When
Egypt was suffering from drought and an economic crisis, a skilfull and
charismatic economist was badly needed. Yusuf knew he could carry out the
responsibility because he had the experience of manoeuvring a country through
an economic crisis, and was willing to justly manage the division of food supply.
He offered his service and the Egyptian government accepted.
4.1.10 Principle of Patience

Another essential principle for the cultivation of an environment of social
civilisation within the community is the ability to control anger. In Islam,
forgiving does not mean support or consent to wrongdoing; rather, it is an inner
strength shown through devotion by not succumbing to revenge or retaliation
when a person is wronged.
Avoiding or restraining anger, being forgiving and offering advice to others

could create a spirit of cooperation, order and harmony. A person who is
incapable of controlling his anger will easily create conflict, resulting in
disruption. Being gentle, friendly and calm is cultured and noble behaviour.
4.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF MORAL PRINCIPLES
4.2.1 Humans with Strong Principles

God bestowed humans with wisdom. Moral principles could be adopted as
individual principles because moral principles give us the chance to do the things
we choose to do based on the formula of Freedom + Justice + Wisdom + Choice
(maxim reference) = Morally Right Action. With strong moral principles, a
person will not stray from the course of his life.
If you have a life principle and practise it consistently, you will have a strong
belief. It means you will be consistent even if you face external obstacles. For
example, even though you befriend a gang of thieves, you will never steal ·
your moral principle will make you aware that stealing is despicable and would
not allow you to commit such an act.
4.2.2 Survival in Life

A person with principles and who holds them firmly will lead his life on the right
path. These moral values will then be passed from one generation to the next.
Human beings will live in harmony as long as they practise these values.
Therefore, good moral principles would guarantee the continuation of
honourable generations in the future.
EXERCISE 4.2
How will the understanding of moral principles help you to become a

leader in the community? Discuss.
4.3 RELIGION
Religion is a principle or guide related to beliefs about the existence of God and
activities that glorify God. All religions teach and require worshippers to spread
goodwill among mankind, whether to worshippers of the same faith or other
faiths.
The relationship among humans, and between humans and God, is a noble
relationship and always creates good.
No religion in the world preaches violence. Actually, evil acts are the work of
individuals. These cannot be linked to any religion. If a person practises a
religion, it will make him a noble and better person. Such, a person possesses a
noble personality and morals. On the other hand, a person who does not practise
his religion is likely to behave in a manner that is considered inappropriate by his
religion, society and nation. Therefore, in discussing moral aspects, it is beneficial
to know something about the five main religions in the country.
4.3.1 Islam
Islam started in Mecca more than 1400 years ago. IslamÊs teachings are most
influential in explaining human development. According to Islam, humans
originated from the lineage of Adam. Human beings were formed from the
merger between spirit and being. Human were created to worship Allah. They
were also given intelligence to understand the real truth. However, human
personality has the potential to be a battlefield between two opposing tendencies
ă the angel element (good) and the devil element (evil) ă to fulfil lifeÊs goals.
According to Islam, humans were appointed by Allah as the caliph on Earth. The
caliph is tasked with preserving the religion and practising it in administering
the world. Therefore, human beings are obligated to uphold truth and peace, and
eradicate ignorance and deviation to achieve success in the world and hereafter.
The QurÊan and Hadith are guides in organising the lives of individuals, family,
society and country. Islamic teachings encompass three main components ă
belief, deeds and behaviour.
Belief · This is the basis of IslamÊs teachings related to faith and
confidence in Allah. Piety requires belief and confidence in
oneÊs heart. A pious person will hold strong to the six articles
of faith: Belief in Allah, belief in the Angels of Allah, belief in
the messengers of Allah, belief in the QurÊan, belief in the Day
of Judgement and belief in qadaÊ and qadar. A faithful person
is one who has strong beliefs.
Deeds · These function as proof of faith and belief in Allah. A truly
faithful person will hold to the principle of the unity of Allah,
and practise the principles of knowledge and devotion to
Allah. This means obeying all of AllahÊs wishes and staying
away from anything forbidden by Allah.
Behaviour · A human being who is noble applies his faith and beliefs in his
daily life. A person with noble behaviour is one who practises
moral values and does not go against AllahÊs wishes. The
behaviour of Prophet Muhammad is an example of noble
behaviour that should be followed and practised by mankind.
The development and growth of humanity in the physical, intellectual, social,

affective and morals aspects are also emphasised in Islam. The main focus is on
the development of actions, personality and behaviour as well as relationship
with Allah. The objectives and direction of mankindÊs development according to
Islamic teachings are found in education and the nurturing of human behaviour.
All these determine a personÊs noble behaviour.
The final purpose of being noble in behaviour is to enable Muslims to enter

Paradise. A person is entitled to realise balanced physical and spiritual needs.
There are three factors that influence the development of humans ă natural
factors arranged by behaviour, environmental factors and self capabilities. The
third factor allows humans to make their own decisions.
The ethics of the Messengers of Allah were pioneered by Prophet Adam a.s.
These are the oldest ethics on Earth and were followed by other messengers. All
messengers carried the same scriptures on unity of Allah, and the scripture on
ethics, which preached worship of Allah and doing good and staying away from
evil on Earth. This matter is explained in verse 25 of Surah al-Hadid: „We have
tasked Our Messengers with bringing real proof and miracles and We have sent
down with them the holy book and explanation that are the scales of justice, so
Man may carry out justice‰.
ACTIVITY 4.2
After the events of 11 September 2001 in the United States of America,
prejudice against Muslims increased as they were accused of being
terrorists. Can you prove that Islamic teachings contain elements of
violence? Discuss with your classmates and tutor.
EXERCISE 4.3
Why should the ethics of the Messengers of Allah be the reference point
for pure values at all times?
4.3.2 Christianity
This religion is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Chirst. The holy book of
the Christians is called the Bible. There are various denominations in
Christianity:
1. Orthodox ă Most Orthodox churches are found in Eastern Europe and
Russia.
2. Roman Catholicism ă Most widely followed denomination of Christianity.
3. Lutheranism ă Followers and supporters of Martin Luther. Member of the
Protestant Church in Germany.
4. Calvinism ă Followers of John Calvin from the Protestant denomination.
Followers originated from the English-speaking sphere, such as
Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Baptist.
5. Anglicanism ă Church of England or allied churches like the Methodist.
The Bible contains two parts: the Old Testament which was written before the
birth of Jesus Christ, and the New Testament which was written by the followers
of Christ. Among the good values and ethics in the Bible are justice and equality.
Christians are urged to uphold justice and equality in all circumstances. Honesty
is also emphasised and is deemed capable of upholding justice, especially in
matters that can save lives. Christians are also taught to do good by helping those
in need. In the Old Testament, there are 10 Commandments which were revealed
to Prophet Moses:
1. You shall have no other gods before me.

2. You shall not make for yourself an idol.
3. You shall not misuse the name of the Lord, your God.
4. Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy.
5. Honour your father and mother.
6. You shall not murder.
7. You shall not commit adultery.
8. You shall not steal.
9. You shall not give false testimony.
10. You shall not covet.
Several ethical values in Christianity are also written in the Book of Proverbs, in
line with the Ten Commandments to provide guidance on human morality.
These values are obedience towards parents, avoiding sin, loyalty and honesty,
being rational, avoiding adultery, refraining from being lazy and generosity.
4.3.3 Buddhism
Buddhism stresses upon its followers to achieve nirvana as their goal in life.
Nirvana is the concept of liberation from rebirth. Buddhist teachings that have
been compiled are called „Dharma‰. The fundamentals of these teachings are
related to morality, that is, the middle path (moderation) or Eightfold Path and
Four Noble Truths. Each individual needs to live in moderation and not exceed
self-limits as this would lead to hardship. Moderation in life will lead a person to
the following eight paths:
1. Right view or Samma-sitthi: Related to views or focus in life for happiness
by avoiding wrongdoing.
2. Right speech or Samma-vaca: Related to truthful and honest speech,
refraining from telling lies and empty chatter that can lead to pride and
arrogance.
3. Right action or Samma-kammanta: Related to good actions and behaviour
and avoiding doing negative things.
4. Right livelihood or Samma-ajiva: Related to having a good livelihood in a
proper occupation to live happily.
5. Right effort or Samma-vayama: Efforts to forge a noble life through hard
work and diligence without negative values.
6. Right thought or Samma-sankappa: Good actions are based on good
intentions, thus rightful thoughts can prevent actions stemming from
negative deeds.
7. Right mindfulness or Samma-sati: True awareness that comes from a calm

mind and keeps away negative attitudes like ego, anger, envy and jealousy.
8. Right concentration or Samma-samadhi: Able to increase calmness by
meditation and freeing oneself from negative attitudes.
The truths that exist absolutely in life are suffering, origin of suffering, relief of
suffering and the path to relieve suffering. All these are achievable when humans
are able to control their desires. Through the teachings of the four noble truths,
suffering can be overcome through good and noble means for the well-being of
humanity.
4.3.4 Hinduism
Ethics in Hinduism is aimed at uniting „Athman‰ and „Brahman‰. This is
possible by following the teachings of the religion to cleanse the soul
(Athrnansiddhi). When a person acts ethically, he will possess happiness of soul
and spirit. Ethics in Hinduism depends on the principles of „Brahma‰ (organised
and purposeful norms) ă justice, good, purity, truth (satyam), moderation
(shivam) and beauty (sundram). These must be followed according to the class
and status of a person. Hindu ethics are influenced by the oldest known source of
Hindu laws, the dharmasutras. There are three categories of Dharma ă respect for
elders; common rituals and rites; and rules that must be followed by a person.
Karma is important in Hindu ethics. It explains that a personÊs actions will

manifest themselves in the afterlife. Good is repaid with good while evil is repaid
with suffering. Karma also means practices that resemble religious rituals. It
teaches people to be responsible for all their actions. In Hindu ethics, there is the
principle of yamas (self-control) and niyamas (practice of self-control), which
serve as a reminder in all aspects of thought, attitude and behaviour.
Hindu ethics were taken from the Vedas (1500BC). The Vedas contain teachings
on ethics and the concept of God. Among the teachings of ethics extolled are
encouraging worshippers to be disciplined in carrying out Hindu religious duties
and performing rituals for their gods. Both these matters are considered noble
ethics. Disobeying either element is considered unethical and despicable. Among
the signs of an ethical person are liberation, health, wealth and happiness which
can be achieved if the person undertakes what is required in Hinduism. In other
words, Hinduism is considered the source of noble ethics and prioritises dharma,
ahimsa, dhruthi, kahamaa, damo, stheyam, showcha, mindriya, nigharam and
dheer.
4.3.5 Sikhism
Elements of morality are contained in the Sikh holy book, Guru Granth Sahib.
This book was written in prose form with three main components ă the need for
development of the being, relationship among people and standardising the
existence of the spirit that is deemed to be the final purpose.
Sikhism advises its followers to eliminate five aspects that are morally bad:
lustful desire (Kam), greed (Lobh), desire of material possessions (Moh), anger
(Krodh) and arrogance (Ahankar). These five things are said to disrupt the inner
calm of a person and result in immoral actions.
A Sikh is required to possess five symbols, which are uncut hair, wooden comb,
iron bangle, small sword (as shown in Figure 4.1) and clothes that protect oneÊs
dignity. All these items have a practical purpose in a SikhÊs life.
A noble personality can be achieved through numerous interactions with the

holy verses in the Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhism is a religion that places
importance on discipline in life, perfection, spirituality and inner calm, and social
obligations.
Figure 4.1: Iron bangle, wooden comb and small sword

Source: Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism#Baptism_and_theKhalsa
EXERCISE 4.4
Is a religion unethical if its followers do not practise ethical traits?
4.4 BELIEFS
In this section, we will discuss three main beliefs:
1. Confucianism
2. Taoism
3. Animism
4.4.1 Confucianism
Confucianism is not a religion but the teaching of moral values. It teaches about
proper conduct in relationships between people. It stresses on the importance of
living as a family and a society. The „way‰ (Tao) doctrine touches on good
conduct and manners, etiquette, politeness, moderation and nobleness. This
teaching does not reject belief in God but instead, places importance on the real
world rather than the afterlife. Cleanliness and a healthy body will show the
capability (Ti concept) of a person. The teachings of Confucius are contained in
the following four books:
1. The Analects;
2. The Great Learning;
3. The Doctrine of the Mean; and
4. The writings of the philosopher Mencius.
4.4.2 Taoism
According to Laozi, author of the „Tao-te ching (Dao-de jing)‰, dao is the first
source of all problems and matter in this environment. Dao is the path that
produces all things. It cannot be heard or seen and is not concrete. LaoziÊs
teachings encompass four concepts: Dao gives birth to one (Dao sheng yi), one
gives birth to two (Yi sheng er), two give birth to three (Er sheng san) and three
give birth to all beings (San sheng wan wu).
From this concept, it is clear that Taoism gives priority to the balance between
two extremes, materialism and spirituality. Taoism also places importance on
meditation and reflection in life. It believes that the physical shape can be altered
into an immortal being through knowledge of chemistry. It creates chemical pills
that can enable humans to live forever. Dao is also a code of ethics in Taoism.
4.4.3 Animism
Animism refers to belief in supernatural beings, and is prevalent among
aborigines. In Malaysia, the aborigines are called Orang Asli. This term was
given by the British during the colonial era. The three biggest groups of Orang
Asli are Negritos, Senoi and Melayu Asli (Original Malays). Generally, they
practise animism which is the belief that every object (stone, wood, cave, mound
and such) has a spirit (Kamus Dewan, 1989).
Most Negritos believe that all objects have energy and that the world is inhabited
by many gods and powerful beings (Jasman Ahmad and Rosnah Ramli, 1997).
There are gods who give rain, ripen crops, create typhoons and more. The Senoi
have four main gods ă Engku, Karei, Hilok and Hiwoh. Nowadays almost 85% of
Melayu Asli are Muslims. Despite being Muslims, taboos still have a strong
influence in their lives as they live in the jungle. To a certain extent, they still
maintain various tribal customs in certain occassions like weddings and funerals.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Compare the beliefs of Confucianism, Taoism and Animism.
4.5 PRIORITY OF VALUES

For the purpose of understanding priority of values, let us look into Islamic
values. Some of these values have also been accepted by non-Muslim
communities. In managing organisations in the country the values applied are
trust, honesty, responsibility, hard work, sincerity, orderliness, discipline,
putting interests of society above personal needs, willingness to make sacrifices,
looking ahead, and good behaviour and conduct.
Flexibility does exist in Islam. One example is in the performance of prayers.

Under certain circumstances, such as when travelling, prayers can be shortened
or accumulated, if conditions are met. Islam always gives leeway in setting
general principles in politics, administration, management and others. The
fundamental principles do not change; instead the general principles depend on

the location, environment and time. Why does Islam give leeway in general? It
does so because it wants to nurture excellence.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Politics is one of the branches in Islam and serves to formulate ethics for
citizens. For an explanation of Islamic politics in the administration of a
country, refer to Mustafa Hj Daud. (1994) Pengantar Politik Islam, DBP.
Explain your findings in your own words to enhance your

understanding.
Islam is the official religion of Malaysia. However, other religions are freely and
peacefully practised in the country, as enshrined in the Constitution. Therefore,
in discussing noble and moral values, references are taken from Islam and other
religions practised by Malaysians to form the standard for moral values in
Malaysia.
EXERCISE 4.5
Compare religion, beliefs and morals in shaping a noble individual.
 An understanding of the moral principles discussed in this topic will help

you to practise good moral values effectively.
 These are principles of duty, existentialism, goodness, badness, human
evolution, ambition, trust, Ikram Muslimin, leadership and patience.
 Knowledge of these principles would lead to the cultivation of humans
with strong principles and a sense of survival.
 We have discussed values in religion and beliefs that are practised by the
people of Malaysia. Overall, all religions and beliefs in the world require
their followers or worshippers to do good.
 Individuals who have a religion may not necessarily practise their religious
teachings well and may even go against the teachings. However, we cannot
state that a particular religion promotes violence just because of a few bad
hats who do not practise the religion fully. Religion is good and noble, only
the followers fall short.
 Anyone who practises religion wholeheartedly would surely be a noble
individual with high ethics, and thus receive good consequences. Those
who do not practise wholeheartedly would perform evil acts in the world.
They will receive their just reward.

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Topic 1 X Introduction

The importance of Moral Studies is linked to the government's aim of producing

1.1 BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES

As mentioned previously, the development of a harmonious human being can be

SELF CHECK 1.1

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF MORAL STUDIES

1.2.1 Practising Noble Values

1.2.2 Love and Loyalty to the Nation

1.2.3 Upholding the Constitution and the Sovereignty

1.2.4 Good Behaviour and Morality

1.2.5 Meeting the Challenges of Vision 2020

1.2.6 Awareness of the Constitution and Exercising

1.2.7 Awareness and Carrying Out Responsibilities as

1.2.8 Practising Good Manners

1.2.9 Becoming Moral Agents

• Moral Studies was introduced to shape a Malaysian society that practises

2.1 BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES

In 1994 the National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN) explained

In my opinion, the meaning of values is⁄.......................................................

2.1.3 Good Behaviour (Akhlak)

2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ETHICS

Explain the similarities and differences of the ethics practised by a

2.3 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAWS AND

Table 2.1: Differences between laws and ethics

2.4 VALUES IN LIFE

(b) Values in Life from the Moral Aspect

(c) Value in Life Intrinsically

2.5 FUNCTIONS OF VALUES

(b) Values as a Guide in Solving Moral Conflicts

(c ) Values as a Limit against Actions and Conduct by Individuals or Society

2.6 TYPES OF MORAL VALUES

(i) Instrumental (Extrinsic) Values

(ii) Intrinsic Values

(iii) Subjective Values

(iv) Objective Values

(v) Relative Values

(vi) Absolute Values

Based on the statements below, elaborate on the type of morals related

1. Indulging in illicit sex must lead to heavy punishment.

2.7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORALS AND

2.7.1 Morals and Religions

Table 2.2: Differences between morals and religions

No. Moral Religion

2.7.2 Morals and Customs

2.7.3 Morals and Laws

2.8 NORMATIVE STATEMENTS AND

Grassian (1981) stated that normative ethics is an attempt to provide logical,

Normative statements on individuals, motives, purposes and personalities ă

Normative statements are not usually linked to the consideration of moral

Descriptive statements on morals are statements that mention or explain the

1. Explain the customs that contravene morality and suggest how to

2.9 IMPORTANCE OF MORAL VALUES

2.9.1 Fulfilling Human Nature

Anxiety, nervousness and confusion will occur when an individual faces

2.9.2 Encouraging Good Deeds to Oneself and Others

2.9.3 Preventing Immorality

2.9.4 Creating and Maintaining Peace

2.9.5 Continuation of Human Civilisation

2.9.6 A Complete Human Personality

2.9.7 Maintaining the Status of Humanity

Based on the explanations on the importance of morals, build a mind

3.1 THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

3.1.1 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)