communication
understanding as the sender.
Two-way process of reaching
mutual understanding, in which
participants not only exchange
(encode-decode) information,
news, ideas and feelings but also
create and share meaning. In
general, communication is a
means of connecting people or
places. In business, it is a key
function of management--an
organization cannot operate
without communication between
levels, departments and
employees.
Communication is simply the act
of transferring information from
one place, person or group to
another.
Every communication involves (at
least) one sender, a message and
a recipient. This may sound
simple, but communication is
actually a very complex subject.
The transmission of the message
from sender to recipient can be
affected by a huge range of
things. These include our
emotions, the cultural situation,
the medium used to
communicate, and even our
location. The complexity is why
good communication skills are
considered so desirable by
employers around the world:
accurate, effective and
unambiguous communication is
actually extremely hard.
A communication therefore has
three parts: the sender, the
message, and the recipient.
The sender ‘encodes’ the
message, usually in a mixture of 
words and non-verbal 
communication. It is transmitted
in some way (for example, in
speech or writing), and the
recipient ‘decodes’ it.
Of course, there may be more
than one recipient, and the
complexity of communication
means that each one may receive
a slightly different message. Two
people may read very different
things into the choice of words
and/or body language. It is also
possible that neither of them will
have quite the same
of words to share information
In face-to-face communication,
the roles of the sender and
recipient are not distinct. The
two roles will pass back and
forwards between two people
talking. Both parties
communicate with each other,
even if in very subtle ways such
as through eye-contact (or lack of)
and general body language. In
written communication, however,
the sender and recipient are
more distinct.
Categories of Communication
There are a wide range of ways in
which we communicate and
more than one may be occurring
at any given time.
The different categories of
communication include:
 to the more subtle (such as
Spoken or Verbal Communication,
which includes face-to-face,
telephone, radio or television and
other media.
 It is important to remember that
Non-Verbal Communication,
covering body language, gestures,
how we dress or act, where we
stand, and even our scent. There
are many subtle ways that we
communicate (perhaps even
unintentionally) with others. For
example, the tone of voice can
give clues to mood or emotional
state, whilst hand signals or
gestures can add to a spoken
message.
Written Communication: which
includes letters, e-mails, social
media, books, magazines, the
Internet and other media. Until
recent times, a relatively small
number of writers and publishers
were very powerful when it came
to communicating the written
word. Today, we can all write and
publish our ideas online, which
has led to an explosion of
information and communication
possibilities

Verbal communication is the use
with other people. It can
therefore include both spoken
and written communication.
However, many people use the
term to describe only spoken
communication. The verbal
element of communication is all
about the words that you choose,
and how they are heard and
interpreted.
What is Verbal Communication?
Verbal communication is any
communication that uses words
to share information with others.
These words may be both spoken
and written.
There are a large number of
different verbal communication
skills. They range from the
obvious (being able to speak
clearly, or listening, for example),
reflecting and clarifying). This
page provides a summary of
these skills, and shows where you
can find out more.
effective verbal communication
cannot be fully isolated
from non-verbal
communication: your body
language, tone of voice, and
facial expressions, for example.
Clarity of speech, remaining calm
and focused, being polite and
following some basic rules of
etiquette will all aid the process
of verbal communication.
Opening Communication
In many interpersonal encounters, the
first few minutes are extremely
important. First impressions have a
significant impact on the success of
further and future communication.
When you first meet someone, you
form an instant impression of them,
based on how they look, sound and
behave, as well as anything you may
have heard about them from other
people.
This first impression guides your
future communications, at least to
some extent.
communication more generally, these improve the effectiveness of your
send important messages to your verbal communication. These include
audience, for example, about your reinforcement, reflection, clarification,
level of interest and commitment, or and questioning.
whether you are nervous about their
reaction. Reinforcement

There is more about Reinforcement is the use of

this in our page encouraging words alongside
For example, when you meet non-verbal gestures such as head
on Non-Verbal
someone and hear them speak, you nods, a warm facial expression and
Communication: Face
form a judgement about their maintaining eye contact.
and Voice.
background, and likely level of ability
and understanding. This might well All these help to build rapport and are
Active listening is an important skill.
change what you say. If you hear a more likely to reinforce openness in
However, when we communicate, we
foreign accent, for example, you others. The use of encouragement
tend to spend far more energy
might decide that you need to use and positive reinforcement can:
considering what we are going to say
simpler language. You might also
than listening to the other person.
realise that you will need to listen
more carefully to ensure that you
Encourage others to participate in
understand what they are saying to
discussion (particularly in group work);
you. Effective listening is vital for good
Show interest in what other people
verbal communication. There are a
have to say; Pave the way for
number of ways that you can ensure
development and/or maintenance of
that you listen more effectively. These
Of course your first impression may a relationship; Allay fears and give
include:
be revised later. You should ensure reassurance; Show warmth and
that you consciously ‘update’ your openness; and Reduce shyness or
thinking when you receive new nervousness in ourselves and others.
information about your contact and  Be prepared to listen.
as you get to know them better. Concentrate on the speaker, and not
on how you are going to reply.
Questioning
 Keep an open mind and
Basic Verbal Communication Skills: avoid making judgements about the
Effective Speaking and Listening speaker.
 Concentrate on the main Questioning is broadly how we obtain
direction of the speaker’s message. information from others on specific
Try to understand broadly what they topics.
Effective speaking involves three main
are trying to say overall, as well as the
areas: the words you choose, how you
detail of the words that they are
say them, and how you reinforce
using. Questioning is an essential way of
them with other non-verbal
communication.  Avoid distractions if at all clarifying areas that are unclear or
possible. For example, if there is a lot test your understanding. It can also
All these affect the transmission of of background noise, you might enable you to explicitly seek support
your message, and how it is received suggest that you go somewhere else from others.
and understood by your audience. to talk.
 Be objective.
 Do not be trying to think of On a more social level, questioning is
It is worth considering your choice of your next question while the other also a useful technique to start
words carefully. You will probably person is giving information. conversations, draw someone into a
need to use different words in  Do not dwell on one or two conversation, or simply show interest.
different situations, even when points at the expense of others. Try toEffective questioning is therefore an
discussing the same subject. For use the overall picture and all the essential element of verbal
example, what you say to a close information that you have communication.
colleague will be very different from
how you present a subject at a major Improving Verbal Communication:
conference. More Advanced Techniques
We use two main types of question:

How you speak includes your tone of There are a number of tools and
techniques that you can use to Closed Questions
voice and pace. Like non-verbal
Closed questions tend to seek only a Reflecting is the process of feeding Verbal signals may include phrases
one or two word answer (often simplyback to another person your such as:
‘yes’ or ‘no’). They therefore limit the understanding of what has been said. “Well, I must be going,” and
scope of the response. Two examples “Thank you so much, that’s really
of closed questions are: Reflecting is a specialized skill often helpful.”
used within counselling, but it can
also be applied to a wide range of
communication contexts and is a
“Did you travel by car useful skill to learn. Non-verbal conclusions may include
today?” and starting to avoid eye contact, standing
“Did you see the football game up, turning away, or behaviours such
yesterday?” as looking at a watch or closing
Reflecting often involves paraphrasingnotepads or books. These non-verbal
the message communicated to you by actions indicate to the other person
the speaker in your own words. You that the initiator wishes to end the
These types of question allow need to try to capture the essence of
communication.
the questioner to remain in the facts and feelings expressed, and
control of the communication. communicate your understanding
This is often not the desired back to the speaker. It is a useful skill
outcome when trying to because: People often use a mixture of these,
encourage verbal but tend to start with the non-verbal
communication, so many signals, especially face-to-face. On the
people try to focus on using telephone, of course, verbal cues are
open questions more often. You can check that you have essential.
Nevertheless, closed questionsunderstood the message clearly.
can be useful for focusing  The speaker gets feedback
discussion and obtaining clear, about how the message has been
Closing an interaction too abruptly
concise answers when received and can then clarify or
may not allow the other person to
needed. expand if they wish.
'round off' what he or she is saying so
 It shows interest in, and you should ensure there is time for
respect for, what the other person winding-up. The closure of an
Open Questions has to say. interaction is a good time to make any
 You are demonstrating that future arrangements. Last, but not
you are considering the other least, this time will no doubt be
person’s viewpoint. accompanied by a number of socially
Open questions demand
acceptable parting gestures
further discussion and Summarising
elaboration. They therefore
broaden the scope for
response. They include, for Non-verbal communication
example, A summary is an overview of the main includes facial expressions, the
points or issues raised. Summarising tone and pitch of the voice,
can also serve the same purpose as gestures displayed through body
‘reflecting’. However, summarising language (kinesics) and the
“What was the traffic like this allows both parties to review and
physical distance between the
morning?” agree the message, and ensure that communicators (proxemics).
“What do you feel you would communication has been effective.
like to gain from this When used effectively, summaries
These non-verbal signals can give
discussion?” may also serve as a guide to the next
clues and additional information
steps forward.
and meaning over and above
spoken (verbal) communication.
Open questions will Indeed, some estimates suggest
take longer to answer, Closing Communication that around 70 to 80% of
but they give the other communication is non-verbal!
person far more scope
for self-expression and The way a communication is closed or Using Non-Verbal
encourage involvement ended will, at least in part, determine Communication
in the conversation. the way a conversation is Non-verbal communication helps
remembered. people to:
Reflecting and Clarifying
People use both verbal and

non-verbal signals to end a
conversation. Reinforce or modify what is said
in words.
 Regulate the flow of
For example, people may nod
their heads vigorously when
saying “Yes” to emphasise that
they agree with the other person.
A shrug of the shoulders and a
sad expression when saying “I’m
fine, thanks” may actually imply
that things are not really fine at
all!
Convey information about their
emotional state.
 behaviour.
Your facial expression, your tone
of voice, and your body language
can often tell people exactly how
you feel, even if you have hardly
said a word. Consider how often
you have said to someone
“Are you OK? You look a bit
down.
We know how people feel from
their non-verbal communication
Define or reinforce the
relationship between people.
 of a message. However, the
If you have ever watched a
couple sitting talking, you may
have noticed that they tend to
‘mirror’ each other’s body
language. They hold their hands
in similar positions, they smile at
the same time, and they turn to
face each other more fully. These
movements reinforce their
relationship: they build on their
rapport, and help them to feel
more connected.
Provide feedback to the other
person.
Smiles and nods tell someone
that you are listening and that
you agree with what they are
saying. Movement and hand
gestures may indicate that you
wish to speak. These subtle
signals give information gently
but clearly.
communication
There are a number of signals
that we use to tell people that we
have finished speaking, or that
we wish to speak. An emphatic
nod, and firm closing of the lips
indicates that we have nothing
more to say, for example. Making
eye contact with the chair of a
meeting and nodding slightly will
indicate that you wish to speak.
Learning the Language
Many popular books on
non-verbal communication
present the topic as if it were a
language that can be learned, the
implication being that if the
meaning of every nod, eye
movement, and gesture were
known, the real feelings and
intentions of a person would be
understood.
This, of course, is absolutely true.
Unfortunately interpreting
non-verbal communication is not
that simple.
As our Interpersonal
Communication page, non-verbal
communication is not a language
with a fixed meaning. It is
influenced and driven by the
context in which it occurs. This
includes both the place and the
people concerned, as well as the
culture.
What is Interpersonal
Communication?
Interpersonal communication is
the process by which people
exchange information, feelings,
and meaning through verbal and
non-verbal messages: it is
face-to-face communication.
Interpersonal communication is
not just about what is actually
said - the language used -
but how it is said and the
non-verbal messages sent
through tone of voice, facial
expressions, gestures and body
language.
When two or more people are in
the same place and are aware of
each other's presence, then
communication is taking place,
no matter how subtle or
unintentional.
Without speech, an observer may
be using cues of posture, facial
expression, and dress to form an
impression of the other's role,
emotional state, personality
and/or intentions. Although no
communication may be intended,
people receive messages through
such forms of non-verbal
Elements of Interpersonal
Communication
Much research has been done to
try to break down interpersonal
communication into a number of
elements in order that it can be
more easily understood.
Commonly these elements
include:
The Communicators
For any communication to occur
there must be at least two
people involved. It is easy to
think about communication
involving a sender and a receiver
problem with this way of seeing a
relationship is that it presents
communication as a one-way
process where one person sends
the message and the other
receives it. While one person is
talking and another is listening,
for example.
In fact communications are
almost always complex, two-way
processes, with people sending
and receiving messages to and
from each other simultaneously.
In other words, communication is
an interactive process. While one
person is talking the other is
listening - but while listening they
are also sending feedback in the
form of smiles, head nods etc.
The Message
Message not only means the
speech used or information
conveyed, but also the
non-verbal messages exchanged
such as facial expressions, tone of
voice, gestures and body
language. Non-verbal behaviour
can convey additional
information about the spoken
message. In particular, it can
reveal more about emotional
attitudes which may underlie the
content of speech.
Communication Channels
Communication channels is the
term given to the way in which
we communicate. It is therefore
the method used to transmit our
message to a recipient, or to
receive a message from someone
else.
There are multiple
communication channels
available to us today. These
include face-to-face
conversations, telephone calls,
text messages, email, the
Internet (including social media
such as Facebook and Twitter),
radio and TV, written letters,
brochures and reports.
Choosing an appropriate
communication channel is vital
for effective communication.
Each communication channel has
different strengths and
weaknesses.
For example, broadcasting news
of an upcoming event via a
written letter might convey the
message clearly to one or two
individuals. It will not, however,
be a time- or cost-effective way
to broadcast the message to a
large number of people. On the
other hand, conveying complex,
technical information is easier via
a printed document than a
spoken message. The recipients
are able to assimilate the
information at their own pace
and revisit anything that they do
not fully understand.
Written communication is also
useful as a way of recording what
has been said, for example by
taking minutes in a meeting.
Encoding Messages
All messages must be encoded
into a form that can be conveyed
by the communication channel
chosen for the message.
We all do this every day when
transferring abstract thoughts
into spoken words or a written
form. However, other
communication channels require
different forms of encoding, e.g.
text written for a report will not
work well if broadcast via a radio
programme, and the short,
abbreviated text used in text
messages would be inappropriate
in a letter or in speech.
Complex data may be best
communicated using a graph,
chart or other visualisation.
Effective communicators encode
their messages so that they fit
both the channel and the
intended audience. They use
appropriate language, conveying
the information simply and
clearly. They also anticipate and
eliminate likely causes of
confusion and misunderstanding.
They are generally aware of the
recipients’ experience in
decoding similar
communications.
Decoding Messages
Once received, the recipient
needs to decode the message.
Successful decoding is also a vital
communication skill.
People will decode and
understand messages in different
ways.
This will depend on their
experience and understanding of
the context of the message, how
well they know the sender, their
psychological state and how they
feel, and the time and place of
receipt. They may also be
affected by any Barriers to
Communication which might be
present.
There are therefore a wide range
of factors that will affect
decoding and understanding.
Successful communicators
understand how the message will
be decoded, and anticipate and
remove as many as possible of
the potential sources of
misunderstanding.
Feedback
The final part of a
communication is feedback: the
recipient lets the sender know
that they have received and
understood the message.
Recipients of messages are likely
to provide feedback on how they
have understood the messages
through both verbal and
non-verbal reactions. Effective
communicators pay close
attention to this feedback as it is
the only way to assess whether
the message has been
understood as intended, and it
allows any confusion to be
corrected.
Bear in mind that the extent and
form of feedback will vary with
the communication channel.
Feedback during a face-to-face or
telephone conversation will be
immediate and direct, whilst
feedback to messages conveyed
via TV or radio will be indirect
and may be delayed, or even
conveyed through other media
such as the Internet.
Effective communicators pay
close attention to this feedback
as it is the only way to assess
whether the message has been
understood as intended, and it
allows any confusion to be
corrected.
Communication Process
The communication is a dynamic
process that begins with the
conceptualizing of ideas by the
sender who then transmits the
message through a channel to
the receiver, who in turn gives
the feedback in the form of some
message or signal within the
given time frame. Thus, there are
Seven major elements of
communication process:

1. Sender: The sender or the
communicator is the person who
initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he
intends to convey it to others.
2. Encoding: The sender
begins with the encoding process
wherein he uses certain words or
non-verbal methods such as
symbols, signs, body gestures, etc.
to translate the information into
a message. The sender’s
knowledge, skills, perception,
background, competencies, etc.
has a great impact on the success
of the message.
3. Message: Once the
encoding is finished, the sender
gets the message that he intends
to convey. The message can be
written, oral, symbolic or
non-verbal such as body gestures,
silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any
other signal that triggers the
response of a receiver.
4. Communication
Channel: The Sender chooses the
medium through which he wants
to convey his message to the
recipient. It must be selected
carefully in order to make the
message effective and correctly
interpreted by the recipient. The
choice of medium depends on
the interpersonal relationships
between the sender and the
receiver and also on the urgency
of the message being sent. Oral,
virtual, written, sound, gesture,
etc. are some of the commonly
used communication mediums.
5. Receiver: The receiver is
the person for whom the
message is intended or targeted.
He tries to comprehend it in the
best possible manner such that
the communication objective is
attained. The degree to which
the receiver decodes the
message depends on his
knowledge of the subject matter,
experience, trust and relationship
with the sender.
6. Decoding: Here, the
receiver interprets the sender’s
message and tries to understand
it in the best possible manner. An
effective communication occurs
only if the receiver understands
the message in exactly the same
way as it was intended by the
sender.
7. Feedback: The Feedback
is the final step of the process
that ensures the receiver has
received the message and
interpreted it correctly as it was
intended by the sender. It
increases the effectiveness of the
communication as it permits the
sender to know the efficacy of his
message. The response of the
receiver can be verbal or
non-verbal.
8.
PRINCIPLES OF
COMMUNICATION
Communication is a two-way
process of giving and receiving
information through any number
of channels. Whether one is
speaking informally to a
colleague, addressing a
conference or meeting, writing a
newsletter article or formal
report, the following basic
principles apply:
 Know your audience.
 Know your purpose.
 Know your topic.
 Anticipate objections.
 Present a rounded
picture.
 Achieve credibility with
your audience.
 Follow through on what
you say.
 Communicate a little at a
time.
 Present information in
several ways.
 Develop a practical, useful
way to get feedback.
 Use multiple
communication
techniques.
Communication is
complex. When listening to or
reading someone else's message,
we often filter what's being said
through a screen of our own
opinions. One of the major
barriers to communication is our
own ideas and opinions.
There's an old communications
game, telegraph, that's played in
a circle. A message is whispered
around from person to
person. What the exercise
usually proves is how profoundly
the message changes as it passes
through the distortion of each
person's inner "filter."
Environmental factors
Communication can be
influenced by environmental
factors that have nothing to do
with the content of the
message. Some of these factors
are:
 the nature of the room,
how warm it is, smoke,
comfort of the chair, etc
 outside distractions, what
is going on in the area.
 the reputation/credibility
of the speaker/writer.
 the appearance, style or
authority of the speaker.
 listener's education,
knowledge of the topic,
etc.
 the language, page layout,
design of the message.
People remember:
 10% of what they read
 20% of what they hear
 30% of what they see
 40% of what they hear
and see
Communication with Decision
Makers
Innovation and change often
depends upon persuading
potential users of the benefits of
an innovation.
To deal persuasively with
decision makers, it is necessary
to know and understand their
interests and opinions. The
following questions are helpful in
organizing technology transfer
efforts:
 Who are the key people
to persuade?
 Who will make the
decisions about
innovation and change?
 What are these decision
makers' past experiences
with innovation and
change?
 What are the decision
makers' current attitudes
toward innovation and
change? Are they neutral,
friendly, hostile or
apathetic?
 What is the most
appropriate way to
approach the decision
maker?
 What are the work styles
of the decision makers?
Are they highly formal
people who want
everything in writing and
all appointments
scheduled in advance? Or
are they more flexible,
responding favorably to
personal telephone calls
and informal meetings?
 What networks or groups
is the decision maker a
part of?
 What programs or
services will the new
innovation improve?
 What programs or
services will the new
innovation cause
problems with?
 How will the innovation
or change benefit the
decision maker?
Principles of Effective Persuasion
Whether making a formal
presentation at a meeting or
writing a report or fact sheet, the
following principles hold.
 Do not oversell or
overstate your
case. Make effective use
of understatement.
 Outline the topic you are
trying to cover into two
parts. The first part
should give broad
background information,
while the second part
provides a detailed
summary.
 Persuasion depends on
clarity and
simplicity. Avoid the use
of jargon and buzz words.
 Be prepared to back up
claims or facts
immediately.
 Incorporate major
anticipated objections
into your program or
presentation.
 Address all relevant
aspects of a topic,
especially those that may
affect the functioning of
an organization.
 Use graphics and
audiovisuals
appropriately.
 Consider ways to get
meaningful input from
people. Find out what
they think about the
innovation or change.
Selling New Ideas
Creating Isn't Selling
Often the creators of an
innovation feel that convincing
others of the idea's value is
somehow superfluous to their
activities. To them, conceiving
the idea is enough. This
combines with their inner
conviction that their idea will
"sell itself." Change agents
provide a link between creators
of new techniques and users.
Ideas Need Selling
Someone must recognize when
an idea is good. It is important
that when an idea is good it is
sold to those who can act on
it--those who have the power to
evaluate and adopt
it. Understanding users is an
important activity for any change
agent. People must be
convinced that a particular idea
or innovation has enough merit
to warrant adoption.
Selling Ideas Takes Effort
Selling innovations requires
preparation, initiative, patience,
and resourcefulness. It may take
more effort than originating the
idea. In an age of technical
complexity and information
overload, new ideas seldom
stand out. Information on new
ideas must be targeted to the
appropriate users and relate to
their needs and motivations.
Once is Not Enough
A new idea has to be suggested
many times before it will "catch
on." Initial failures at promoting
a new idea are to be expected, so
don't get discouraged if you don't
get the results you want the first
time. Some ideas take years to
catch on. However, first
exposures are crucial to future
prospects. Do it right the first
time
Feedback (Listening)
Getting and giving feedback is
one of the most crucial parts of
good communication. Like any
other activity, there are specific
skills that can enhance
feedback. Listening is a key part
of getting feedback:
Listen to the Complete
Message. Be patient. This is
especially important when
listening to a topic that provokes
strong opinions or radically
different points-of-view. In
these situations, it's important
not to prejudge the incoming
message. Learn not to get too
excited about a communication
until you are certain of the
message.
Work at Listening
Skills. Listening is hard
work. Good listeners
demonstrate interest and
alertness. They indicate through
their eye contact, posture and
facial expression that the
occasion and the speaker's
efforts are a matter of concern to
them. Most good listeners
provide speakers with clear and
unambiguous feedback.
Judge the Content, Not the Form
of the Message. Such things as
the speaker's mode of dress,
quality of voice, delivery
mannerisms and physical
characteristics are often used as
excuses for not listening. Direct
your attention to the
message--what is being said--and
away from the distracting
elements.
Weigh Emotionally Charged
Language. Emotionally charged
language often stands in the way
of effective listening. Filter out
"red flag" words (like "liberal"
and "conservative," for instance)
and the emotions they call
up. Specific suggestions for
dealing with emotionally charged
words include
 Take time to identify
those words that affect
you emotionally.
 Attempt to analyze why
the words affect you the
way they do.
 Work at trying to reduce
the impact of these words
on you.
Eliminate Distractions. Physical
distractions and complications
seriously impair listening. These
distractions may take many
forms: loud noises, stuffy rooms,
overcrowded conditions,
uncomfortable temperature, bad
lighting, etc. Good listeners
speak up if the room is too warm,
too noisy, or too dark. There are
also internal
distractions: worries about
deadlines or problems of any
type may make listening
difficult. If you're distracted,
make an effort to clear your
head. If you can't manage it,
arrange to communicate at some
other time.
Think Efficiently and
Critically. On the average, we
speak at a rate of 100 to 200
words per minute. However, we
think at a much faster rate,
anywhere from 400 to 600 words
per minute. What do we do with
this excess thinking time while
listening to someone
speak? One technique is to
apply this spare time to analyzing
what is being said. They
critically review the material by
asking the following kinds of
questions:
 What is being said to
support the speaker's
point of view? (Evidence)
 What assumptions are
being made by the
speaker and the listener?
(Assumptions)
 How does this
information affect me?
(Effect)
 Can this material be
organized more efficiently?
(Structure)
 Are there examples that
would better illustrate
what is being said?
(Example)
 What are the main points
of the message?
(Summary)
Sending Messages
Messages should be clear and
accurate, and sent in a way that
encourages retention, not
rejection.
 Use Verbal Feedback Even
If Nonverbal Is Positive
And Frequent. Everyone
needs reassurance that
they are reading
nonverbal communication
correctly, whether a smile
means "You're doing
great," "You're doing
better than most
beginners," or "You'll
catch on eventually."
 Focus Feedback On
Behavior Rather Than On
Personality. It's better to
comment on specific
behavior than to
characterize a pattern of
behavior. For example,
instead of calling a
colleague inefficient,
specify your
complaint: "You don't
return phone calls; this
causes problems both in
and outside your office."
 Focus Feedback On
Description Rather Than
Judgment. Description
tells what
happened. Judgment
evaluates what
happened. For example,
in evaluating a report
don't say, "This is a lousy
report!!" Instead,
try: "The report doesn't
focus on the information
that I think needs
emphasis," or "This report
seems to have a lot of
grammatical and spelling
mistakes."
 Make Feedback Specific
Rather Than General. If
feedback is specific, the
receiver knows what
activity to continue or
change. When feedback
is general, the receiver
doesn't know what to do
differently. For example,
in an office situation,
instead of saying "These
folders are not arranged
correctly," it's better
feedback to say, "These
should be arranged
chronologically instead of
alphabetically."
 In Giving Feedback,
Consider the Needs and
Abilities of the
Receiver. Give the
amount of information
the receiver can use and
focus feedback on
activities the receiver has
control over. It's fruitless
to criticize the level of
activity, if the decision to
grant the necessary
monies for materials,
personnel or technology
is made at a different
level.
 Check to See if the
Receiver Heard What You
Meant to Say. If the
information is important
enough to send, make
sure the person
understands it. One way
of doing this is to say, "I'm
wondering if I said that
clearly enough. What did
you understand me to
say?" or "This is what I
hear you saying. Is that
right?"
Selecting the Best
Communication Method
In communicating with decision
makers, use the most
appropriate communications
method. One way to do this is
to ask yourself the following
questions.
 What is the purpose of
your message? Do you
plan to tell them
something
new? Inform? Do you
plan to change their
view? Persuade?
 What facts must be
presented to achieve your
desired effect?
 What action, if any, do
you expect decision
makers to take?
 What general ideas,
opinions and conclusions
must be stressed?
 Are you thoroughly
familiar with all the
important information on
the innovation?
 What resources and
constraints affect
adoption of the
innovation? How much
time is available? How
much money is available
 Which method, or
combination of methods,
will work most effectively
for this
situation? Personal
contact--requires
scheduling, time and
interpersonal skills.
Telephone contact--requires
good verbal skills and an
awareness of voice tones as
nonverbal communication.
Letter--requires writing skills.
e-mail�informal, needs to be
short and to the point, but not
get lost in clutter. May require
frequent follow-up.
News release--requires writing
skills and cooperation of the
media and time.
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Speaking to Communicate
Spoken communication occurs in
many different settings during
the course of successful
innovation and change. These
may be divided into three main
types:
 The formal and informal
networks in which peers
exchange information,
such as professional
associations, work units,
work teams, etc.
 The activities of change
agents, opinion leaders,
etc.
 The contacts established
at team meetings,
conferences, training
courses, etc.
Whether to use oral
communication is a decision we
all make frequently in the course
of a workday. The change agent
must be able to identify those
situations in which oral
communication is the most
appropriate one to use. Don
Kirkpatrick suggests the
-following guidelines for making
such decisions.
Use Oral Communication When:
 The receiver is not
particularly interested in
receiving the
message. Oral
communication provides
more opportunity for
getting and keeping
interest and attention.
 It is important to get
feedback. It's easier to
get feedback by observing
facial expressions (and
other nonverbal behavior)
and asking questions.
 Emotions are high. Oral
communication provides
more opportunity for
both the sender and the
receiver to let off steam,
cool down, and create a
suitable climate for
understanding.
 The receiver is too busy or
preoccupied to read. Oral
communication provides
more opportunity to get
attention.
 The sender wants to
persuade or
convince. Oral
communication provides
more flexibility,
opportunity for emphasis,
chance to listen, and
opportunity to remove
resistance and change
attitudes.
 When discussion is
needed. A complicated
subject frequently
requires discussion to be
sure of understanding.
 When criticism of the
receiver is involved. Oral
communication provides
more opportunity to
accomplish this without
arousing
resentment. Also, oral
communication is less
threatening because it
isn't formalized in writing.
 When the receiver prefers
one-to-one contact.
Presentation Styles
There are different styles of
making a presentation and
different people will use the
approach that suits them.
Good Old Boy: This is usually an
experienced person who is the
peer of most of the audience.
Generally, there is a lot of good
information but it may be poorly
organized or poorly delivered.
The Entertainer: This person
relies on jokes and stories to get
their point across. Good visual
aids could be an important
feature of the
presentation. Sometimes there
is too much emphasis on
satisfying the audience that little
information is actually
transferred.
The Academic: This person
tends to be very precise and
deliberate in presenting
information. There is
considerable content and it
usually is well
organized. Unfortunately. it can
also be boring and irrelevant and
not relate well to the audience.
The Reader: This person decides
to read his material word for
word. The material is often not
especially prepared for an oral
presentation and can be overly
technical, boring and hard to
understand. All topics are
covered and what is said is
precise and accurate.
The Snail: This person is nervous
about the presentation and goes
into a shell. Like a snail, this
person also moves slowly and the
presentation seems to last
forever. What is best? You
have to have a style you are
comfortable with. Ideally, you
have the rapport of the good old
boy, the organization and
content of the academic, the
ability to get and maintain
interest of the entertainer, and
the precision of the reader. If
you do this you will avoid the
slow pace of the snail and
effectively present information to
your listeners.
The Gadgeteer: This person uses
every gimmick and technique in
his or her presentation and visual
aids. It can be overdone with
the message getting lost among
the bells and whistles.
Components of an Effective Oral
Report
Introduction Capture the
attention of the group right from
the start.
 Give the necessary
explanation of the
background from which
the problem derived.
 Clearly state and explain
the problem.
 Clearly state your
objectives.
 Indicate the method(s)
used to solve the
problem.
 Suggest the order in
which you will provide
information.
Organization
 Provide sufficient
introductory information.
 Use transitions from one
main part to the next and
between points of the
speech.
 Use summary statements
and restatements.
 Make the main ideas of
the report clearly
distinguishable from one
another.
Content
 Have adequate
supporting data to
substantiate what you
say.
 Avoid using extraneous
material.
 Present supporting data
clearly--in terms of the
ideas or concepts you are
trying to communicate.
 Were the methods of the
investigation clearly
presented?
 Visual Aid Supports
 Use clear drawings, charts,
diagrams or other aids to
make explanations vivid
and understandable.
 Make visual aids fit
naturally into the
presentation.
 Be completely familiar
with each visual used.
 Don't clutter your report
with too many visual aids.
Conclusion
Conclude your report with finality
in terms of one or more of the
following:
 the conclusions reached
 the problem solved
 the results obtained
 the value of such findings
to the county
 recommendations offered
Question Period
 Give evidence of
intelligent listening in
interpreting the
questions.
 Organize answers in
terms of a summary
statement, explanation,
and supporting example.
 Show flexibility in
adapting or improvising
visual aids in answering
questions.
Delivery
 Be natural,
"communicative" in your
delivery.
 Use frequent eye contact
to maintain rapport with
the audience.
 Vary your delivery with
appropriate movements
and gestures.
 Speak distinctly.
 Display confidence and
authority.
 Express enthusiasm for
your ideas.
VISUAL COMMUNICATION
There's an old saying that "a
picture is worth a thousand
words." Life would indeed be
difficult without paintings,
photographs, diagrams, charts,
drawings, and graphic
symbols. These are some of the
reasons why SHOWING is such an
important form of
communication.
 Most people understand
things better when they
have seen how they work.
 Involved, complex ideas
can be presented clearly
and quickly using visual
aids.
 People retain information
longer when it is
presented to them
visually.
 Visuals can be used to
communicate to a wide
range of people with
differing backgrounds.
 Visuals are useful when
trying to condense
information into a short
time period.
Visual aids--used imaginatively
and appropriately--will help your
audience remember more.
Consider the following:
 People think in terms of
images, not words, so
visuals help them retain
and recall technical
information.
 Visuals attract and hold
the attention of
observers.
 Visuals simplify technical
information.
 Visuals may be useful in
presenting technical
information to a
nontechnical audience.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written materials often bear the
greatest burden for the
communication of new ideas and
procedures. Effective writing is
the product of long hours of
preparation, revision and
organization. One book that
follows its own rules is Strunk
and White's Elements of Style, a
short book which argues
persuasively for clarity, accuracy,
and brevity in the use of
English. Its entire philosophy is
contained in one paragraph:
�Vigorous writing is concise. A
sentence should contain no
unnecessary words, a paragraph
no unnecessary sentences, for
the same reasons that a drawing
should have no unnecessary lines
and a machine no unnecessary
parts. This requires not that the
writer make all his sentences
short, or that he avoid all detail
and treat his subjects only in
outline, but that EVERY WORD
TELL.�
Clear, vigorous writing is a
product of clear, vigorous
thinking. Clarity is born of
discipline and imagination.
Kirkpatrick gives the following
guidelines for using written
communication:
Use Written Communication
When:
 The sender wants a
record for future
references.
 The receiver will be
referring to it later.
 The message is complex
and requires study by the
receiver.
 The message includes a
step by step procedure.
 Oral communication is
not possible because
people are not in the
same place at
 the same time.
 There are many
receivers. Caution: the
receivers must be
interested in the subject
and will put forth the time
and effort to read and
understand.
 It is
cheaper. Caution: the
same as above.
 A copy of the message
should go to another
person.
 The receiver prefers
written.
Advantages of Written Materials
 Highly technical topics can
be presented using words
and diagrams.
 Written material provides
a permanent record that
can be referred to from
time to time or passed on
to others.
 Written material can be
duplicated in large
quantities or distributed
on the Internet relatively
inexpensively.
 It is fairly easy to
distribute written
material to many people,
but this practice is getting
increasingly expensive
and its effectiveness
questionable.
 Written material is
preferred when it is
desirable to get the same
information to a group of
people.
 Written records and
reports are sometimes
useful in legal matters.
 Written material may be
useful for documenting
the success or progress of
some project or activity.
Disadvantages of Written
Material
 People seldom take the
time and effort to read
technical materials.
 The preparation of
written documents is
time-consuming.
 Once prepared in large
quantities, printed
documents are difficult to
change.
 Written material provides
little feedback for the
sender.
 Technical documents are
often too long and
complex for the majority
of readers.
 A portion of the
population may not be
able to read written
material.
 Too much reliance on
written material as a
communication method
may obscure the true
needs of potential users.
Communication ethics is the notion
that an individual's or group's
behavior are governed by their morals
which in turn affects communication.
Generally speaking communication
ethics deals with the moral
good present in any form of human
communication. This includes
interpersonal communication, mass
mediated communication, and digital
communication.Communication
ethics concerns the creation and
evaluation of goodness in all aspects
and manifestations of communicative
interaction. Because both
communication and ethics are tacitly
or explicitly inherent in all human
interactions, everyday life is fraught
with intentional and unintentional
ethical questions—from reaching for a
cup of coffee to speaking critically in a
public meeting. Thus ethical questions
infuse all areas of the discipline,
including rhetoric, media studies,
intercultural/international
communication, relational and
organization communication, as well
as other iterations of the field.
Keywords: philosophy, moral
reasoning, values, principles, integrity,
power, justice, normativity, alterity, r
elation, communication and critical
studies