FUNDACION COLEGIO AMERICANO DE QUITO

DEPARTAMENTO DE CIENCIAS EXPERIMENTALES

Suppletory Exam Study Guide

Biology – 12th Grade

2018-2019

Resources to study:
• Class Notes and PowerPoint Presentations
• Worksheets
• Returned Homework / Projects
• Returned Quizzes/Tests
• Test corrections

Content

Topic 1: Cell Respiration

Key terms:
  
Adenosine Diphosphate Cytochrome c Mitochondria
 
(ADP) Electron carriers Nicotinamide Adenine
 
Adenosine Triphosphate Electron transport chain Dinucleotide (NAD+,
(ATP) 
Ethanol production NADH)
 
Aerobic and anaerobic 
Fermentation Outer membrane

cell respiration 
Flavin adenine Oxaloacetate
 
Aerobic respiration Dinucleotide - (FAD, Oxidation
 
Alcoholic fermentation FADH2) Oxidative
 
Anaerobic respiration Glycolysis phosphorylation or

Anaerobic respiration in 
H protons OXPHOS

humans 
Highly charged - e- Phosphorylation
 
ATP production 
Hydrolization of ATP Preparation phase
 
ATP Synthase 
Inner membrane Protein complex in the

ATP synthesis 
Intermembrane space cristae membrane
 
Cell respiration equation 
Krebs cycle Proton pumps

and definition 
Lactate production Pyruvate
 
Chemiosmosis 
Lactic acid Redox reactions
 
Citrate 
Lactic acid fermentation Reduction
 
Citric acid cycle 
Macromolecules Respirometer and

Coenzyme A (CoA) breaking down respiration
 
Coenzyme q 
Matrix Steps in glycolysis
 
Cristae Yeast and its uses

Key Concepts:
1. Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.
2. ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.
3. Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.
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 4. Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
5. Use of anaerobic cell respiration in yeasts to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide in baking.
6. Lactate production in humans when anaerobic respiration is used to maximize the power of
muscle contractions.
7. Analysis of results from experiments involving measurement of respiration rates in
germinating seeds or invertebrates using a respirometer

Topic 2: Metabolism

Key terms:
 Activation energy  Ethylene  Metabolic pathways
 Active site  Examples of enzyme  Metabolism
 Anabolism inhibitors  Methanol
 Bioinformatics  Exergonic reactions  Non-competitive
 Catabolism  Feedback inhibition inhibitors
 Catalyzed reactions  First law of  Oxidation
 Chemiosmotic theory thermodynamics  Oxidative
 Chemogenomics  Flow of electrons in phosphorylation
 Competitive and non- living organisms  Photophosphorylation
competitive inhibitors  Fomipizole  Rate of a reaction
 Competitive inhibitors  Induced fit model of  Rate of the reaction
 Effectiveness of enzymes enzyme action  Reduction
 End product inhibitors  Inhibition  Second law of
 Endergonic reactions  Isoleucine thermodynamics
 Enzyme inhibitors  Malaria  Thermodynamics
 Ethanol  Mechanisms of enzyme  Threonine
action

Key Concepts:
1. Metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
2. Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyze.
3. Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive.
4. Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition
5. End-product inhibition of the pathway that converts threonine to isoleucine.
6. Use of databases to identify potential new anti-malarial drugs
7. Calculating and plotting rates of reaction from raw experimental results.
8. Distinguishing different types of inhibition from graphs at specified substrate concentration

Topic 3: Photosynthesis

Key terms:
 Absorption spectrum for  Chlorophyll a and b  Electromagnetic
chlorophyll  Chloroplast spectrum
 Action spectrum for  Chloroplast vs.  Excited state electrons
photosynthesis mitochondria  Factors that affect the
 Antenna complex  CO2 rate of photosynthesis
 ATP Synthase  Cyclic  Fates of glucose
 Calvin and Benson Cycle photophosphorylation  Ferredoxin
 Calvin´s experiment  Cytochrome complex  Fixation of CO2
 Carbon fixation  Effects of photosynthesis  Flavin adenine
 Carotene on Earth Dinucleotide - (FAD,
 Chlorophyll FADH2)

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 Glycerate 3 phosphate
(GP)
 Grana
 Inner membrane
 Lamella
 Light dependent
reactions
 Light independent
reactions
 Limiting factors of
photosynthesis
 Lollipop apparatus
 Lumen
 Mg in chlorophyll
 Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate
(NADP+, NADPH)
 Non-cyclic
photophosphorylation
 Outer membrane  Ribulose
 PGAL  Ribulose biphosphate
(phosphoglyceraldehyde carboxylase (RuBisCO)
G3P)  Ribulose bisphosphate
 Pheophytin (Pheo) (RuBP)
 Photolysis of water  Separation of
 Photon photosynthetic pigments
 Photophosphorylation by Chromatography
 Photosynthesis vs. Cell  Starch grains and oil
respiration droplets as energy
 Photosystem I storage sites
 Photosystem II  Steps in photosynthesis
 Pigments  Stroma
 Plastoquinone (Pq)  Structure of chloroplast
 Reaction center assist function
 Reduction of 3PG to  Thylakoids
G3P  Triose phosphate
 Regeneration of RuBP

Key Concepts:
1. Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy.
2. Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength and red the longest.
3. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more than other
colors.
4. Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water.
5. Energy is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide.
6. Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are possible limiting factors on the
rate of photosynthesis.
7. Light-dependent reactions take place in the intermembrane space of the thylakoids.
8. Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma.
9. Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions.
10. Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons.
11. Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-dependent reactions.
12. Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid membranes.
13. Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton gradient.
14. ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient.
15. Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP.
16. In the light-independent reactions a carboxylase catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose
bisphosphate.
17. Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP.
18. Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates. Ribulose bisphosphate is
reformed using ATP.
19. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in photosynthesis
20. Changes to the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and rock deposition due to photosynthesis.
21. Calvin’s experiment to elucidate the carboxylation of RuBP.
22. Drawing an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and an action spectrum for photosynthesis.
23. Design of experiments to investigate the effect of limiting factors on photosynthesis.
24. Separation of photosynthetic pigments by chromatograph. (Practical 4)
25. Annotation of a diagram to indicate the adaptations of a chloroplast to its function.

Topic 4: Species, communities and ecosystems

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Key terms:
 A sealed ecosystem to  Ecosystem  Phosphorous cycle
stablish sustainability  Euthrophication  Phosphorous in an
 Abiotic factors  Factors affecting a sealed ecosystem
 Alternative hypothesis ecosystem  Population
 Autotrophs  Habitat  Primary succession
 Biotic factors  Herbivores  Producers
 Carnivores  Heterotrophs  Random sampling
 Chi-square test  Hybrids  Sampling and chi square
 Community  Mesocosm test
 Consumers  Niche  Saprotrophs
 Contingency tables  Nitrates and nitrates in  Secondary succession
 Critical value an ecosystem  Species
 Degrees of freedom  Nitrogen cycle  Stages in succession
 Detritivores  Null hypothesis  Statistical significance
 Ecological succession  Nutrient cycle  Sustainability of
 Ecology  Omnivores ecosystems
 Systematic sampling

Key Concepts
1. Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
2. Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate populations.
3. Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species have both
methods).
4. Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion.
5. Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion.
6. Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by external
digestion.
7. A community is formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with
each other.
8. A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the abiotic environment.
9. Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic environment.
10. The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling.
11. Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time.
12. Classifying species as autotrophs, consumers, detritivores or saprotrophs from a knowledge of
their mode of nutrition.
13. Setting up sealed mesocosms to try to establish sustainability. (Practical 5)
14. Testing for association between two species using the chi-squared test with data obtained by
quadrat sampling.
15. Recognizing and interpreting statistical significance

Topic 5: Energy flow

Key terms:
 Biomass  Final consumers  Producers
 Ecosystems and energy  Food chain  Pyramids of energy
 Energy flows  Food web  Secondary consumers
 Energy lose  Heat lose  Sunlight as the initial
 Energy passed through  Kilojoules source of energy
ecosystems  Primary consumers  Trophic level
 Energy vs. nutrients  Types of energy

Key concepts:
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1. Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight.
2. Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds by photosynthesis.
3. Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by means of feeding.
4. Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used in living organisms and converted
to heat.
5. Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy.
6. Heat is lost from ecosystems.
7. Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food chains and the biomass of higher
trophic levels.
8. Quantitative representations of energy flow using pyramids of energy.

Topic 6: Carbon Cycling

Key terms:
 Air fluctuations  Air monitoring stations  Air monitoring stations
 Aquatic ecosystems and  Carbon fluxes  Methane
carbon  Fluxes  Methane removal
 Biomass  Fossil fuel formation  Methane sources
 Carbon  Fossilized organic matter  Peat
 Carbon cycle  Gigatonnes  Peat formation
 Carbon dioxide  Ice cores  Pools

Key Concepts:
1. Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.
2. In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.
3. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.
4. Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the
atmosphere.
5. Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and
some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.
6. Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.
7. Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic
conditions in waterlogged soils.
8. Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or
into oil and gas that accumulate in porous rocks.
9. Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and fossilized organic matter.
10. Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard parts that are composed of calcium
carbonate and can become fossilized in limestone
11. Estimation of carbon fluxes due to processes in the carbon cycle.
12. Analysis of data from air monitoring stations to explain annual fluctuations.
13. Construct a diagram of the carbon cycle.

Topic 7: Climate change

Key terms:
 Atmospheric  Global temperatures  Human emissions and
concentrations of CO2  Global temperatures and atmospheric levels of
 Carbon dioxide CO2 concentration CO2
 Causes of climate change  Greenhouse effect  Ice core experiment in
 Climate change  Greenhouse gases Russia
 Climate patterns and  Human activities and  Methane
greenhouse gases climate change.  Nitrogen oxides
 Gases concentration on  Ocean acidification
Earth’s surface  Threats to coral reefs
5
 Water vapor

Key Concepts:
1. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are the most significant greenhouse gases.
2. Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less impact.
3. The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation as well as on its
concentration in the atmosphere.
4. The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat).
5. Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that retain the heat in the atmosphere.
6. Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by concentrations of greenhouse gases.
7. There is a correlation between rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide since the start
of the industrial revolution 200 years ago and average global temperatures.
8. Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are largely due to increases in the combustion of
fossilized organic matter.
9. Threats to coral reefs from increasing concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide.
10. Correlations between global temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations on Earth.
11. Evaluating claims that human activities are not causing climate change.

Topic 8: Anatomical terminology and tissues

Key terms:
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 Abduction/adduction
 Anatomical position
 Anatomy
 Anterior/posterior
 Basement membrane
 Body cavities
 Body quadrants
 Classification of
connective tissue
 Classification of
epithelial tissues
 Classification of the
muscle tissue
 Connective tissue
 Coronal plane  Physiology
 Cranial cavity  Planes
 Cranial/caudal  Proximal/distal
 Dorsal cavity  Rotation external/internal
 Dorsal/palmar/plantar  Sagittal plane
 Epithelial tissue  Spinal cavity
 Flexion/extension  Superficial/intermediate/
 Glandular epithelium deep
 Histology  Superior/inferior
 Muscle tissue  Thoracic cavity
 Nervous tissue  Tissues
 Organ  Transverse plane
 Organ systems  Types of tissues
 Pelvic cavity  Unilateral/bilateral
 Ventral cavity

Key Concepts:
1. Tissues are a level of organization that forms organs and systems
2. Organs and systems are levels of organization that form the human body
3. Anatomy and physiology describe the structure and the function of the human body
4. There are names and principles agreed on by anatomy and physiology to describe and study the
human body

Topic 9: Human Physiology - Digestion and absorption

Key terms:
 Absorption  Annotated diagram of the  Carbohydrate digestion
 Absorption mechanisms digestive system  Cardias
 Accessory glands  Arteriole  Cecum
 Alimentary canal  Ascending colon  Cellulase
 Ampulla de Vater  Bile  Cellulose
 Amylase  Carbohydrase  Cellulose digestion
6
 Cholecystokinin (CCK)  Ileum  Pharynx
 Chyme  Ingestion  Protease
 Chymotrypsin  Jejunum  Protein digestion
 Circular muscles  Lacteal  Pyloric sphincter
 Common bile duct  Large intestine  Rectum
 Descending colon  Laryngopharynx  Salivary glands
 Digestion  Lipase  Secretin
 Duodenum  Liver  Serosa
 Endopeptidase  Longitudinal muscles  Sigmoid colon
 Enzymatic hydrolysis in  Lower esophageal  Small intestine
the digestive system sphincter  Smooth muscle
 Enzymes and digestion  Lumen  Starch digestion
 Epiglottis  Maltase  Stomach
 Esophagus  Microvilli  Sublingual glands
 Fat digestion  Mucosa  Submandibular glands
 Gall bladder  Nasopharynx  Submucosa
 Gastrin  Nucleic acid digestion  Transport
 Goblet cells  Optimal pH of enzymes  Transport mechanisms
 Hepatic portal vein  Oropharynx  Transverse colon
 Hormonal control of  Pancreas  Trypsin
digestion  Pancreatic duct  Venule
 Hydrolization of  Parotid gland  Villi
macromolecules  Peristalsis  Villi absorption
 Ileocecal valve  Peritoneum

Key Concepts:
1. The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with
enzymes and moves it along the gut.
2. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine.
3. Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine.
4. Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out.
5. Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins.
6. Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients.
7. Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the
products of digestion to the liver.
8. Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested food in the intestine.
9. Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.
10. Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a microscope
or in a micrograph

Topic 10: Blood System

Key terms:
 Angioplasty  Blood pressure  Cardiovascular system
 Aorta  Blood vessels  Chordae tendineae
 Aortic valve  Blood vessels  Control of the heartbeat
 Arteries  Blood vessels layers  Coronary arteries
 Atherosclerosis  Bundle of His  Coronary bypass surgery
 Atrioventricular node  Capillaries  Coronary heart disease
 Blood  Cardiac arrest  Diastole
 Blood cells  Cardiac cycle  Electrocardiogram
7
 Endocardium  Lymphatic system  Sinoatrial Node
 Epicardium  Lymphoid Organs  Size and position of the
 Epinephrine  Mitral valve heart
 Erythrocyte  Myocardium  Spleen
 Fluids in the blood  Myogenic activity of the  Superior and inferior
system heart vena cava
 Functions of the blood  Papillary muscles  Systemic circulation
system  Pericardium  Systole
 Heart  Plasma  Thrombocytes
 Heart attack  Pressure changes within  Thymus
 Heart circulation chambers in the heart  Tonsils
 Heart pacemaker  Pulmonary artery  Tricuspid valve
 Leaflets  Pulmonary circulation  Tunica adventia
 Left Atrium  Pulmonary valve  Tunica intima
 Left Ventricle  Pulmonary vein  Tunica media
 Leukocyte  Purkinje fibers  Veins
 Lub dub  Right Atrium  William Harvey
 Lymph  Right Ventricle
 Lymph Nodes  Semilunar valves

Key Concepts:
1. Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of the body.
2. Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibers in their walls.
3. The muscle and elastic fibers assist in maintaining blood pressure between pump cycles.
4. Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Capillaries have permeable walls that allow exchange of
materials between cells in the tissue and the blood in the capillary.
5. Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and return it to the atria of the
heart.
6. Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by preventing backflow.
7. There is a separate circulation for the lungs.
8. The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle cells in the right atrium called the
sinoatrial node.
9. The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker.
10. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction as it is propagated
through the walls of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles.
11. The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses brought to the heart through two nerves
from the medulla of the brain.
12. Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous physical activity.
13. William Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood with the heart acting as the pump.
14. Pressure changes in the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta during the cardiac cycle.
15. Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries
16. Identification of blood vessels as arteries, capillaries or veins from the structure of their walls.
17. Recognition of the chambers and valves of the heart and the blood vessels connected to it in
dissected hearts or in diagrams of heart structure.

Topic 11: Gas exchange

Key terms:
 Abdominal wall to help  Boyle´s law  Carbonic anhydrase (CA)
ventilation  Bronchiole  Cricoid cartilage
 Air ways  Bronchus  Diaphragm
 Alveoli  Carbaminohemoglobin  Emphysema
8
 Ethmoid sinus  Laryngopharynx  Pressure alveoli-capillary
 Expiration  Larynx  Respiratory cycle
 Frontal sinus  Lung lobes  Respiratory membrane
 Gas diffusion  Lungs  Sphenoid sinus
 Gas exchange  Maxillary sinus  Surfactant
 Gas exchange  Mucus  Thyroid cartilage
 Hematosis  Nasopharynx  Trachea
 Hemoglobin and gas  Nose  Type I and type II
exchange  Nostrils pneumocytes
 High altitude physiology  Oropharynx  Upper respiratory tract
 Hydroxyhemoglobin  Oxyhemoglobin  Ventilation
 Hyoid bone  Parietal and visceral  Vocal cords
 Inspiration pleura  Voice box
 Intercostal muscles  Pharynx  Wind pipe
 Iron  Pleura

Key Concepts:
1. Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli
and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries.
2. Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange.
3. Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist surface inside the
alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension.
4. Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles.
5. Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the
lungs to ventilate them.
6. Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do work when
they contract.
7. Causes and consequences of lung cancer.
8. Causes and consequences of emphysema.
9. External and internal intercostal muscles, and diaphragm and abdominal muscles as examples of
antagonistic muscle action.
10. Monitoring of ventilation in humans at rest and after mild and vigorous exercise. (Practical 6)

Topic 12: Hormones, Homeostasis and Reproduction

Key terms:
 “Target” cells  F cells  Luteal phase
 Acini  Fallopian tubes  Male and Female
 Adrenal gland  Follicular phase reproductive organs
 Alpha cells  FSH  Melatonin
 Beta cells  Glucagon  Menstrual cycle
 Cervix  HCG  Menstruation
 Control of blood glucose  Homeostasis  Ovaries
 Delta cells  Hormones  Ovary (female)
 Endocrine glands  Hyperglycemia  Ovulatory phase
 Endocrine vs. Nervous  Hypoglycemia  Oxytocin
Systems  Infertility  Pancreas
 Endometrium  Insulin  Pancreatic Islets or Islets
 Epididymis  In-vitro fertilization of Langerhans
 Estrogen  Leptin  Pancreatic polypeptide
 Exocrine glands  LH  Penis
9
 Pineal gland  Testes (male)  Thyrotropin-releasing
 Pituitary gland  Testis hormone (TRH)
 Positive and negative  Testosterone  Thyroxin
feedback  The Endocrine system  Type I Diabetes
 Progesterone  The thyroid system  Type II Diabetes
 Prostate gland  Thymus  Uterus
 Scrotum  Thyroid gland  Vagina
 Seminal vesicle  Thyroid stimulating  Vas deferens
 Somastatin hormone (TSH)  William Harvey

Key Concepts:
1. Insulin and glucagon are secreted by β and α cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood
glucose concentration.
2. Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body
temperature.
3. Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit
appetite.
4. Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms.
5. A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete
testosterone.
6. Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and
development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
7. Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
8. The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian
and pituitary hormones
9. Causes and treatment of Type I and Type II diabetes.
10. Testing of leptin on patients with clinical obesity and reasons for the failure to control the disease.
11. Causes of jet lag and use of melatonin to alleviate it.
12. The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal secretion of hormones, followed by the use of
artificial doses of hormones to induce superovulation and establish a pregnancy.
13. William Harvey’s investigation of sexual reproduction in deer.
14. Annotated diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of structures and
their functions.

Topic 13: Genetics and inheritance

Key terms:
  Codominance  Down Syndrome
 Allele  Color blindness  Duplication
 Analysis of pedigree  Crossings of ABO blood  Endogenous factors for
charts types mutations
 Antigen-antibody and  Cystic fibrosis  Eukaryote and
blood types  Deletion prokaryote chromosomes
 Autosomal dominant  Deterioration of a cell  Exogenous factors for
inheritance structure in mutations
 Autosomal recessive gametogenesis  Expressed and non-
inheritance  Diploid and haploid expressed traits
 Autosomes nuclei  Gene
 Blood types  Dominance and  Genetics
 Carrier expression  Genotype and phenotype
 Chromosome number  Dominant and recessive  Gregor Mendel
and species traits  Hemophilia
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 Heterozygote  Locus  Phenylketonuria
 Homologous  Mendel´s Laws  Pure breed
chromosomes  Mendel´s principles of  Sex chromosomes
 Homozygote inheritance  Sex determination
 Human Genome Project  Monohybrid cross  Sex linked heredity
 Huntinton´s disease  Monosomy  Sickle cell anemia
 Hybrid  Mutations at the base  Substitution
 Impact of the level  Tay-sachs disease
environment  Mutations at the  The Punnet square
 Insertion chromosome level  TraitsCommon ancestry
 Inversion  Mutations in the  Translocation
 Karyogram and structure of the  Trisomy
karyotype chromosome  Variations in
 Law of Dominance  Mutations, types chromosomes
 Law of Independent  Non-disjunction  X-linked recessive
Assortment  Outsider rules pedigrees
 Law of Segregation  Pedigree charts

Key Concepts
1. A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences a specific
characteristic.
2. A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome.
3. The various specific forms of a gene are alleles.
4. Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases.
5. New alleles are formed by mutation.
6. The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism.
7. The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the Human Genome Project.
8. Comparison of the number of genes in humans with other species
9. Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with histone proteins.
10. In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that carry different genes.
11. Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not necessarily the same
alleles of those genes.
12. Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes.
13. Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair.
14. The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of members of a species.
15. A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of decreasing
length.
16. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are chromosomes that do not determine
sex.
17. Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with experiments in which large numbers of
pea plants were crossed.
18. Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene.
19. Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but co-dominant alleles have joint
effects.
20. Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of autosomal genes, although
some genetic diseases are due to dominant or co-dominant alleles.
21. Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of inheritance is different with sex-linked
genes due to their location on sex chromosomes.
22. Inheritance of ABO blood groups.
23. Application: Red-green color blindness and hemophilia as examples of sex-linked inheritance.
24. Inheritance of cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease.
25. Construction of Punnett grids for predicting the outcomes of monohybrid genetic crosses.

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26. Comparison of predicted and actual outcomes of genetic crosses using real data.
27. Analysis of pedigree charts to deduce the pattern of inheritance of genetic diseases.
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Topic 14: Evolution and Biodiversity – Natural Selection

Vocabulary:
 Charles Darwin  Narrow gene pool  Homologous structures
 Species  Separation  The Pangea
 Population  Speciation  The appendix
 Adaptation  Evolution  The tailbone
 Galapagos’ Finches  Evidence for evolution  Wisdom teeth
 Natural selection  Paleontological  The third eyelid
 Overproduction evidences  Body hair and goose
 Overpopulation  Embryologic evidences bumps
 Competition  Anatomic evidences  The tonsils
 Variation  Bio geographical  Ear muscles
 Camouflage evidences  The palmar grasp reflex
 Random mutation  DNA evidence  Lamarck and Darwin
 Gene pool  Vestigial structures  Lamarck’s theory
 Fossils  Natural Selection

Key Concepts:
1. Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change.
2. The fossil record provides evidence for evolution
3. Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution.
4. Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members of the same species.
5. Mutations cause variation between individuals in a species.
6. Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment and way of life.
7. Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring while the less well
adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring.
8. Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring.
9. Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted
and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species.
10. Changes in beaks of the Galapagos finches.

Topic 15: Hominids

Vocabulary:
 Primates  Homo erectus  Homo Sapiens Sapiens
 Prosimians  Homo Sapiens  Opposable thumb
 Anthropoids Neanderthalensis  Origin of modern
 Australopithecus  Homo Saeins humankind
 Homo habilis Cromagnonensis  Characteristics of the
 Phylogenic tree modern humankind

Key Concepts:
1. A primate is a member of the biological order, it is the group that contains all the species
commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans
2. There is an evolution process from the primitive hominids to the homo sapiens
3. Evolution traces primitive humans back to Asia and Africa.
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