Introduction On Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Technical Workshop
Introduction on Solar Photovoltaic

Energy
April 25, 2017
PARIS- FRANCE
Presented by Magali GONTIER– ENGIE Lab Laborelec
Magali.Gontier@engie.com,
Confidential Restricted Public Internal

CONTENTS
PV market introduction
Chapter 1 - Status & expected evolution
- PV cost breakdown & module price evolution
Solar resource.
- Solar radiation nature and components
Chapter 2 - Irradiance on a PV panel and influencing factors
- Solar resource maps
PV technology
- Photovoltaic effect
Chapter 3 - PV cell
- PV module
- PV string
PV system components
Chapter 4 - PV system profiles
- Grid-connected PV system architecture & components
PV market introduction
PV annual globally installed capacity went from 1,1 to 75 GW
in 12 years. 303 GW were installed globally @ end 2016.
Strong start in 2008 – Stagnation 2011-2012 – Recovery 2013-2016
5%
PV Market Alliance 2017 – Becquerel Institute
00/00/2015 PRESENTATION TITLE ( FOOTER CAN BE PERSONALIZED AS FOLLOW: INSERT / HEADER AND FOOTER") 4
Europe’s share in newly installed capacity has lowered as
European market matures and others kick in
European solar PV capacity : 100+ GWp in 2016
 100 GW cumulative capacity reached in Q2 2016 in Europe
European solar PV total grid connections 2000-2015
UK and Germany led the yearly installations in 2015 and
2016. 12 markets added more than 100 MWp in 2016
PV now represents a significant share of the electricity
demand in several countries, with European average ~3%
Becquerel Institute
Market perspectives – global annual PV market scenarios until 2020
Annual global new installed PV capacity in various scenarios 2015 - 2020
75
Source: PV Market Alliance – Becquerel Institute 2016
Annual market forecasts for the main European countries
Expected leader in 2020 is Germany, followed by France, Italy and the UK
Germany should become the biggest

European player, followed by France,
Italy and the UK.
Europe had the highest share of decentralized PV
installations in 2015
Becquerel Institute
Very different PV market structures among countries with
regular changes in political aims
Segmentation of cumulative installed PV capacity in selected European countries in 2015
Global market breakdown – perspectives of rooftop solar
growth
Scenarios for global PV development 2015 – 2020 :

annual installed capacity for rooftop and utility-scale segments
59
54
31
18
Medium scenario
Source: PV Market Alliance – Becquerel Institute 2016
European market breakdown perspective shows a strong
share of commercial-scale PV
B2B PV’s LCOE is expected to significantly decrease in the
coming years, below conventional generation
Source: Wind and PV : EU reference plants update and evolution of LCOE at 2025 horizon (ENGIE – Septembre 2016)
LCOE breakdown for rooftop PV B2B is and will remain
dominated by the investment cost of the PV modules.
Detailed split of LCOE of rooftop PV (B2B) 2015, LCOE of rooftop PV system for B2B (200 kW) in 2015 and in
in EUR/MWh 2025 for different scenarios, in EUR/MWh
Source: Wind and PV : EU reference plants update and evolution of LCOE at 2025 horizon (ENGIE – September 2016)
PV modules represent the biggest share of capex, and will
remain so despite foreseen cost reductions.
2015 cost for systems of different sizes, in EUR/kW Future cost for 100 kW systems in different scenarios, in EUR/kW
(200 kW)
Source: Wind and PV : EU reference plants update and evolution of LCOE at 2025 horizon (ENGIE – September 2016)
Module prices evolution – the learning curve
30,00 3000
25,00 2500
20,00 2000
MWc / an
€ / Wc
15,00 1500
10,00 1000
5,00 500
Silicon shortage era :

0,00 0
Mass production era :
Industrialisation but
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Industrialisation
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Production mondiale annuelle de modules Coût du module photovoltaïque en euros / Wc difficulties, especially for
problems solved +
the polysilicon supply
First developments : Production
Small companies equipment in China ~
with little automation same as in Europe,
at lower cost
20% LC
An even steeper learning curve might be expected
20% LC
0,4 USD/Wp
37% LC
Source: Becquerel Institute 2016
Solar resource
Solar energy : a huge amount of FREE primary energy…
but low level of energy, not easy to capture for power applications
 Solar energy
— Energy derived directly from the Sun, at a distance
from the Earth of ~149,6 million km
— Energy issued from nuclear fusion of hydrogen

nuclei into helium (sun fuses 430 – 600 millions
tons of hydrogen each second)
 Solar constant
— Amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit
area directly exposed to the sunlight at the top of
the Earth’s atmosphere, when the Earth is at a
distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (AU) from the Sun
(at the average Sun-Earth distance)
— Equal to approximately 1368 W/m²
World’s potential vs effective use of solar energy
The actual solar spectrum at ground level is influenced by
the atmosphere (some wavelengths are absorbed)
Spectrum distribution outside the AM 0

AM 0 atmosphere (0.2 to 3 m)
— Ultraviolet : 6.4%
— Visible : 48%
— Infrared : 45.6% γs
AM 1 AM 1.5
AM
1.5
Radiation absorbed by the
atmosphere (O2, CO2, H2O, etc.)
Infrared Wavelength (nm)

Visible spectrum
Solar radiation components at ground level
 Global radiation = direct radiation + diffuse radiation + albedo
— Direct radiation: radiation directly from the solar disc (which was not absorbed, reflected or scattered by the
atmosphere, clouds, particles in the air, …)
— Diffuse radiation : radiation from the sky (fraction of direct radiation scattered in all directions)
— Albedo: radiation reflected by the ground (quantity varies depending on the type of ground, e.g. grass, snow,
trees)
1,368 W/m²
Solar constant
Reflection
Atmosphere
Absorption
Diffuse radiation
Absorption Direct radiation Albedo (reflection)
The position of the earth along its orbit influences the length
of day, max. sun elevation and quantity of radiation received
 The Earth orbits the Sun in a low

eccentricity ellipse (over a period Spring
of 365.25 days) equinox
declination
declination
Summer
solstice
Winter
solstice
 Solar declination δ: angle between
the Earth-Sun direction and the
equatorial plane
 Changes to :
— the length of days,
— the maximum elevation of the sun

Autumn
— the quantity of radiation received equinox
The quantity of solar radiation on a horizontal plane at a
given latitude varies throughout the year
Hmax = maximum elevation of the sun at true noon
φ = latitude of the site
panel plane
Received
radiation Received
radiation Received
radiation
Winter solstice Equinox Summer solstice
Daily annual path of the sun (northern hemisphere example)
Zenith
21 June
21 September
21 March
O
21 December
N
4:00
S
6:20
8:33
E
Diagrams of the sun’s elevation
Polar
diagram
Rectangular
diagram
14
Irradiance according to angle and orientation
Example : France - Lyon
Correction factors of solar potential

(compared to south orientation with
30° tilt) for this location :
0,93 0,93 0,93 0,93 0,93
0,90 0,96 1 0,96 0,90
0,78 0,88 0,91 0,88 0,78
0,55 0,66 0,68 0,66 0,55
Position to be avoided (unless

imposed by architectural
constraints)
Correction factors of solar potential

(compared to south orientation with
30° tilt) in %
Seasonal variation of the radiation received by a fixed PV
panel will depend on its tilt.
Monthly variation of irradiance on a fixed-tilt panel, with 3 different tilts
tilt
Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) and Global Horizontal
Irradiance (GHI) differ from the irradiance on a tilted PV panel
 DNI: Direct Normal Irradiance = direct irradiance on a plane normal to the

sunrays (perfect tracking)
 DHI: Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance = diffuse irradiance on a horizontal plane
 GHI: Global Horizontal Irradiance = direct + diffuse irradiance on a

horizontal plane
 DNI and GHI are the metrics usually presented on solar resource maps
 Irradiance on a PV panel depends on the panel’s position (fixed or not)
GHI Map of Europe
DNI map of Europe
PV technology
Photovoltaic effect was discovered in 1839. It is a property of
semiconductor materials to convert radiation into electricity
Origins: The photovoltaic effect was first discovered by Edmond Becquerel in
1839, followed by Hertz and Einstein.
Edmond Becquerel: Discovered the photovoltaic effect (the
change in the behaviour of electrodes in a conducting
solution when subjected to light) in 1839.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz: 1886/87
Further understanding of the photovoltaic
Father effect. A metal plate subjected to light
Son
emits electrons, the quantity of which is
contingent on, among other things, the
light intensity.
Albert Einstein: 1905

The concept of light quanta:
photons. Explains the
photovoltaic effect.
The photovoltaic effect is a photoelectric effect.

It is used in photovoltaic cells to generate electricity from solar radiation.
This effect is achieved by having the photons from the light absorbed into a semiconductor
material, which then generates electron-hole pairs and creates voltage, which may
create a current.
3
Atoms and electric current
 The atom (from the Greek atomos, meaning indivisible)

is the basic building block of matter. According to the
planetary model created by the great Danish physicist
Niels Bohr in 1913, atoms are made up of a nucleus
around which electrons gravitate, like the planets
around the sun.
— The nucleus contains protons (subatomic particles with
positive electric charge) and neutrons (without electric
charge).
— Electrons are particles with negative electric charge. They

revolve around the nucleus in set orbits, called ‘shells’ or
‘bands’. Each band can only hold a limited number of
electrons. The outermost band of most atoms is not full and
can therefore (temporarily) take on or lose electrons.
 An atom in its basic state is electrically neutral

because it has equal numbers of protons and electrons.
Electrons pairing and atoms link
 If a band is full (i.e. holds the maximum number of electrons it can contain), the electrons
pair up. If not, they remain unpaired.
 Unpaired electrons on the outermost band are known as valence electrons and these form
bonds with other atoms (by pairing up with the other atom’s valence electrons).
Silicon crystal
Silicon atom
The majority of PV cells are made of doped silicon
 “impurities” (Boron and Phosphorus) are injected in the silicon to create a n-type silicon layer
(with an excess of electrons) and a p-type silicon layer (with a deficit of electrons)
 A bond missing an electron is a hole. Holes can move freely through the silicon crystal
structure by switching places with electrons from nearby bonds (positive charge mobile carriers).
Similarly, excess electrons in a bond can move freely in the crystal (negative charge mobile
carriers). Inside n-type or in p-type silicon taken individually, mobile carriers move randomly (no
specific direction).
 The electric state of the atoms is neutral if the number of surrounding electrons matches the
amount of protons in their nucleus. Otherwise, they become a charged ion.
The p-n junction creates a local electrical field that pushes
electrons away from the p-side (towards the n-side).
Electrically neutral
Free negative carriers
 At the junction of the N and P layers, free

electrons can initially migrate from the N- Electrically neutral
Free positive carriers
side to the P side (leaving holes behind),
while holes can migrate from the P side
towards the N side (leaving tightly-held
electrons behind).
 This creates a local imbalance of

electrical charge, generating an electric
field opposed to the movement of the Electrically charged
charge carriers (electrons are pushed (lost negative carriers)
away from the p-side and holes are

pushed away from the n-side) and a
voltage across the junction (built-in
Electrically charged
voltage). (lost positive carriers)
Photons can free electrons from their atoms, which can
circulate in an external circuit, pushed by the electric field.
N-type layer
 The photons in sunlight can release their energy
upon contact with the electrons of the outer
band, “exciting” the electrons. E
 If a photon’s energy is sufficient to move an

electron from the valence band to the higher P-type layer
conduction band (i.e. to overcome the material’s
bandgap), the electron is freed from the atom,
creating new electron-hole pairs.
 The p-n junction’s electric field pushes the

electrons towards the n-type layer and holes
towards the p-type layer, preventing them from re-
combining  creates an electric potential (VOC).
 The electrons tend to pair back up with the holes

(to go back to an equilibrium state). When both
sides are connected externally, they will circulate
in this circuit to do so, creating electric current. Animation: click here
Solar cells characteristics : short-circuit current (ISC) and
open-circuit voltage (VOC)
Solar cells characteristics : Maximum Power current (IMP)
and Maximum Power voltage (VMP)
 Power = Current x Voltage
 The setpoint generating the most power is the Maximum Power Point (MPPT).
 A cell’s I-V curve (and MPPT) is affected by its temperature and the received irradiance.
The amount of generated current is ~proportional to the
incident radiation, while voltage is only slightly impacted.
Cell temperature strongly influences its voltage (in particular
for c-Si cells), reducing maximum power.
 Voltage drop of a c-Si cell

with temperature increase :
~ -2 mW/°C
 Current almost unaffected

(only slight increase)
 Maximum power drop of a

c-Si cell with temperature
increase : ~ -0,4 %/°C
PV sub-technologies are classified according to the material
used in the PV cell’s absorber layer
PV CELL MATERIALS
NON-ORGANIC (Mineral based)

ORGANIC
Global annual production share (Carbon – based)
by sub-technology in 2015
SILICON (Si) NON-SILICON
Multi-Si
69%
CRYSTALINE THIN FILMS

CONCENTRAT
(c-Si) ED PV Organic PV
(OPV)
Amorphous Cadmium Highly efficient
Multicrystalline telluride (CdTe) multi-junction
Sillicon (a-
(mc-Si) solar cells
Si)
Mono-Si
24% Copper-
Indium-Gallium
Monocrystalline
Multi-junction Diselenide (CIGS)
CIGS (sc-Si)
CdTe thin-film silicon
1% (a-Si/µc-Si)
a-Si 5%
Copper-Indium-
1% Diselenide (CIS)
Dye-sensitized solar cells

Gallium- (DSSC)
Arsenide (GaAs)
Source : Fraunhofer ISE
Hybrid organic /
non organic
Crystalline Silicon represents the vast majority of PV
modules production today. CdTe dominates thin-film market.
Source : Fraunhofer ISE
Crystalline silicon (c-Si) is the most mature PV technology, it
is largely deployed and it has the highest efficiencies.
Global annual production share by sub-
technology in 2015
Multi-Si
69%
Mono-Si
24%
CIGS CdTe
1% 5%
a-Si
1%
CRYSTALINE SILICON (c-Si) PV THIN FILM (TF) PV
AMORPHOUS Si (a-Si) CdTe CIGS
Picture
of a typical system
Global installed capacity

188 GWp 2.7 GWp 12 GWp 3.5 GWp
227 GW (Dec 2015)
Module efficiency (%) 14 - 22.5% 6 - 10.9% 9 - 16.3% 10 - 16.5%
Module power ~240 Wp (poly) - 327 Wp (mono) ~100 Wp ~115 Wp ~100 Wp
• Long term experience.
• Becomes more interesting when there is no space-use constraint.
• High efficiency, less space needed.
• Homogeneous design, attractive for building integration.
• No rare or toxic materials.
Main advantages • Lower energy demand for module production than c-Si.
• New homogeneous designs (high
of each sub-technology • Warranty on power production: 20 - 25 y.
efficiency)
• In some cases, better suited for warm climate (lower losses due to
• Warranty on power production:
temperature increase than c-Si).
25 y and above.
! Authorisation to install CdTe modules on rooftops depends on country legislation
c-Si offers a large choice of sub-technologies and
efficiencies
 c-Si PV: large choice of sub-technologies and efficiencies.

The trend towards high efficiency designs is omnipresent.
MONO-CRYSTALLINE SI MULTI-CRYSTALLINE SI
STANDARD CELL DESIGN HIGH EFFICIENCY CELL DESIGNS
Picture
(module, cell)
Sunpower Sanyo
(back contact) (heterojunction)
156 mm
Cells = wafer cut High efficiency designs Cells = several small

Description from a single crystal (back contact cells, heterojunction)… crystals of different orientation
Module efficiency (%) 14 - 16.5% 22.5% 13 - 15.9%
Highest efficiency.
Higher efficiency than multi, Especially recommended with tracking Cheapest crystalline
Pros & cons but more expensive systems. Better visual aspect for back technology in $/MWp
contact cells
Continuous efficiency increase of all technologies
Attention : best research cells ≠ commercial modules!
Best research-cell efficiencies are shown on the right for all PV-technologies:
Crystalline in blue; Thin-films in green; Emerging technologies in orange; Multijunction in purple
Source: NREL – 09/03/2017
The trend towards increased efficiency of the c-Si
technologies is expected to continue
 Cell-to-module ratio currently ~98%
 Expected to increase above 100% in the coming decade.
Expected average stabilized c-Si solar cell efficiencies in mass production (156 x 156 mm) Expected trend curve for c-Si 60-cells (156 x 156 mm) modules power
Source : ITRPV 2017
PV modules technological trends : towards high efficiency
designs
High-
efficiency
designs
Standard
design
Source : International Technology Roadmap for PV 2016
Typical c-Si PV modules manufacturing process
silicon > polysilicon > ingot > wafer > cell > module
 Silicon is currently used to Step 2 :

produce the majority of PV Silicon crystallisation
(ingot) and wafering
cells Step 1 :
Silicon
purification
 It is the 2Nd most abundant
element on Earth (after Step 3 :
oxygen) Cells
manufacturing
— Found under the form of Si
oxydes (sand, quartz, …)
Raw Silicon
Step 4 :
Module assembly
Silicon purification and ingots manufacturing (crystallization)
 Purification metallurgical grade (MG) silicon : 99%

solar grade (SoG) silicon or “polysilicon” : 99.9999%
electronic grade (EG) silicon : 99.99999999%
Electric arc furnace Dissolution in Distillation,

1,700°C / 3,000°C + washed coal hydrochloric acid at purification
(reduction Si02 +C  Si+CO2 ) 300°c 950°C
96-99% pure
silicon Trichlorosilane
(max. 1/1012 SiHCLl3
foreign atom) Purified Silicon
granulates
Silica sand (polysilicon)
Silicon dioxide SiO2
 Melting & crystallization

Crystal seed dipped in
silicon melt & slowly
dawn out
Ingot of silicon 99.9999% pure

Melting in a quartz
crucible
Boron doping, cast in

rectangular shape, controlled
heating & cooling
Sawing ingots into wafers produces losses of silicon
material. Alternative manufacturing techniques emerge.
 A lot of silicon is lost in sawing process (sawdust & wafers chemical cleaning to remove sawing
residues & marks)
 Alternative manufacturing techniques are developed to produce directly thin silicon ribbons or
cells, avoiding the ingot making and sawing processes.
Ingots
Wafers (~180µm)
Wafers are doped in Phosphorus and Boron, then layered
with anti-reflective coating
Phosphorus gas is diffused

into a diffusion furnace
(800 to 900 °C) to dope the
upper surface of wafers
Laying of an anti-
Wafer doped in reflective coating (silicon
phosphorus and nitride or titanium
boron dioxide)
Front and back metallization is added to the cells before
testing cells for sorting according to their power
 Example: Al-BSF PV cell structure

— Bulk silicon : usually p-type Si
FRONT — Emmiter (top) doped negatively
— Surface passivation + Anti-reflective coating

(ARC)
— Connectors : fingers, busbars
REAR
 In standard cells :
— busbars and fingers are added at the front
(Al deposition)for electrons collection;
— the back is fully metallized.
Cells are assembled into modules
 The cells are interconnected by thin metal strips (tin-plated copper) between the contact on the front (-)
and that on the back (+).
 EVA (ethyl vinyl acetate) is the most commonly used encapsulant material in PV modules. It
encapsulates and insulates the PV cells circuit, and seals the module components together.
 Thin (3.5 to 4 mm) tempered glass with low iron content (increased transparency) at the front, with anti
reflective surface treatment (ARC). (anti-glare surface treatment / ALBARINO glass used in airports)
 A backsheet at the rear surface of the module prevents the ingress of water and water vapour and acts as
electrical insulator. In most modules, a thin polymer sheet (e.g.Tedlar TPA, PET), is used as the rear
surface.
 In standard modules, a frame (anodized Aluminium) is added for mechanical strength and mounting
EVA
GLASS
FRAME
Expansion STRIP
seal
CELLS Backsheet
The module’s electric connections are in a sealed junction
box at the rear
 The connections are housed in a sealed

terminal housing affixed to the back of the
module or the frame.
 The connection boxes may or may not be

accessible and may contain bypass
diodes (typically 2 or 3).
 The quality of the seal is crucial to

guaranteeing the module’s service life.
Bypass diodes in modules help reducing shading losses
Shade partially
covering the cell
No shade
on the cell
The datasheet of a module: Performance is rated at Standard
Test Conditions (STC)
 STC is an industry-wide standard to

indicate the performance of PV
modules:
• cell temperature of 25°C
• irradiance of 1000 W/m2
• air mass 1.5 (AM1.5) spectrum

• correspondS to the irradiance and
spectrum of sunlight incident on a clear
day upon a sun-facing 37°-tilted surface
with the sun at an angle of 41.81° above
the horizon.
The datasheet of a module: Normal Operating Cell
Temperature (NOCT) is closer to the reality than STC
 Standard Test Conditions are not

met in real operational
circumstances (1000 W/m² is a
strong irradiance that will heat the
cells well above 25 C°!).
 “Normal Operating Cell

Temperature” characteristics are
closer to the module’s behaviour
in the field :
• Ambient temperature of 20°C
• Wind speed 1 m/s
• irradiance of 800 W/m2
• air mass 1.5 (AM1.5) spectrum
Connecting modules in series adds up the voltage at the
ends. Connecting them in series adds up the currents.
2 modules
in parallel
2 modules
in series
1 module
Example of a basic modules configuration
3 strings of 4 modules
DC side
4V
V V V V
Module
I
I 3I
I
String
Example: V = 12 V, I = 3 A
So V array = 48 V
I array = 9 A
String of modules = PV modules connected in serial
PV systems
DC PV Systems
SUNLIGHT SOLAR MODULE CONTROLLER DC LOADS
Sunlight DC elec DC elec
• Use the DC electricity
• Ensures that the solar modules

• Convert sunlight into electricity are operating at their
(DC) BATTERIERS
maximum power point (tension
and current that maximize DC elec
power)
• Manages batteries
loading/unloading
• (optionally) includes pay-as- • stores and restitutes the DC electricity
you-go system / prepayment
meter
 DC PV Systems typically include pico systems like solar portable lanterns and chargers, small
Solar Home Systems (SHS) kits and DC microgrids (powering only DC loads, e.g. telecom towers)
AC PV Systems
SUNLIGHT SOLAR MODULE DC/AC INVERTER GRID / LOADS
Sunlight DC elec AC elec
 Ensures that the solar  Electricity is fed into the grid or

modules used within households or
are operating at their minigrids (hybrid systems).
maximum power point
(voltage and current
that maximize power).
 Converts DC electricity from
the modules to AC
(alternative current)
electricity.
 Connects to the grid
through transformers.
 Can be associated with
storage.
 Available in sizes varying
from 225 W (micro inverters)
to 2 MW (central inverters).
 AC PV Systems include large Solar Home Systems, solar-powered microgrids (often combined
with other power sources) and PV power plants
 Increasingly, hybrid DC-AC systems are found, combining DC storage (and loads) with AC loads
and/or grid connection.
System profile : pico system
 Configuration
— The battery and regulator at least are integrated in
the same unit (the PV module and load can also be
integrated) Total Sundaya system
— Plug & Play system, does not require specific layout

or installation Little Sun lantern
 Applications
— Domestic
— Mobile applications
— Leisure and travel Waka-Waka solar charger

Integrated battery &
controller junction box
— General public
System profile : Solar Home Systems (SHS)
 Configuration
— The PV module, DC load and the load
regulator/battery are separate. Load regulator and
battery my be integrated or separate.
— The layout and installation are specific to every

SHS system depending on the application.
Standard kits are available on the market.
— Requires maintenance
 Applications
— Domestic and/or public
— Mobile applications
SIMPA ‘SPARK 40’ SHS

2 LED lights (2.5W)+ 1 DC fan
(14W) + Mobile charging + Solar
panel (40W) + battery (40 Ah )
System profile : solar water pumping
 Configuration
— As there is no electricity storage system, the energy
produced is consumed directly (stored in
hydraulic/cold form)
— (Inverter used if AC load involved)
— Requires professional layout, installation and

maintenance (but less so than systems with storage
facilities)
 Applications
— Pumping, irrigation
— Agricultural applications (grain mill, refrigeration

unit)
— Industrial process applications
System profile : Large DC System
 Configuration
— PV field, battery set, load regulator, DC loads

maintenance
 Applications
— (mostly) industrial applications (e.g. telecom towers)
System profile : Large DC/AC System
 Configuration
— PV field, battery set, load regulator, inverter, DC
and/or AC loads

maintenance
 Applications
— Residential
— Institutions
— Industrial applications
System profile : Hybrid (DC/AC) System
 Configuration
— PV field, battery set, load regulator,
inverter/charger set, additional power sources
(wind turbine / genset / …), DC and/or AC loads

maintenance
 Applications
— Residential
— Institutions
System profile : micro grid
 Configuration
— Independent mini AC network powered by several
sources (e.g. PV, genset)
— Surplus energy stored in a battery set

maintenance
 Applications
— Collective electrification
System profile : backup
 Configuration
— Backup system on defective electricity network
— Secondary source (PV or genset, etc.) and battery

set

maintenance
 Applications
— Domestic and collective use in urban areas
— Institutions
— Sensitive industrial applications
System profile : grid-connected PV system
 Configuration
— Module/inverter system with or without battery
 Applications
— Generation for resale of electricity
— Generation for personal consumption and resale of

surplus
— Generation for personal consumption alone
— System affixed to the ground, roofs, canopies,

façades, etc.
Grid-connected PV plant architecture
example
DC AC
 The following components make up a PV plant:

— Module mounting structure Connection to
the LV or HV
String cables grid through a
— PV modules transformer
Connectors
— Electrical connectors Overcurrent protections
Strings
— DC connection boxes with protections DC circuit breaker combiner
box
DC Lightning arrester General AC
— DC connections circuit
AC Lightning breaker
— Inverters arrester
— AC connections Inverters
— AC main LV board with protections Main PV Inverter

cable output
— Monitoring system General DC circuit
circuit breaker breaker
Towards gro
DC Lightning arrester in main boar
DC existing)
cabinet Ground
The PV modules
 Function : generate DC electrical power

— Voltage : 400 – 1000 (or 1500) VDC
60 cells 60 cells
270 - 300 Wp 250 - 280 Wp
(160 - 180 W/m²) (150 - 167 W/m²)
72 cells 72 cells
310 - 360 Wp 300 - 325 Wp
(155 - 180 W/m²) (150 - 162 W/m²)
Conventional mono Conventional poly
(some 96 cells modules

exist too)
Main modules suppliers
CenGen Metier
approval ranking
Still to be assessed
A simple mechanism leveraging on Group's procurement
capabilities allows BUs to access low prices for PV panels
 ENGIE is now sourcing large quantities of PV panels in China thanks to ENGIE Solar (ex Solaire
Direct).
 Corporate Procurement department (D3S), Key Program Distributed Generation and ENGIE Solar
have gathered the needs of ENGIE’s BUs on panels for distributed generation.
 framework agreement under negotiation with suppliers. BU CPOs and BU buyers will be
informed about prices, terms and conditions when validated.
 BUs will have access to this thanks to a simple procurement process for distributed generation
— Low prices for tier 1 panels (lowest target price range : 30cUSD/Wp for 260 Wp poly c-Si modules)
— Minimum purchase order of one 40 feet container (~200 kWp)
— Payment conditions depending on the volumes ordered
— Optional : logistics optimization & quality control by BU China Sourcing teams.
 this framework contract will require to build some form on commitment on forecasts
DC connectors
 Function
— Interconnection between PV modules
— Make it possible to separate module strings safely
— Guarantee a top-quality connection over time to prevent any risk of

heating (causes fires, etc.)
 A vast range of products are available, though they provide

different levels of efficiency. Many mechanical differences.
 Main manufacturers
MC3 and MC4

Sunclix
DC cables
 Function: Transmit DC energy between the modules and the inverter

DC connection boxes (string combiners / DC cabinet)
 Functions :
— Parallelise module strings
— Protect module strings from return current
— Make it possible to switch and disconnect sources

upstream of the inverter (maintenance) (DC circuit
breaker)
— Protect the equipment from lightning (lightning arrester)
— Make emergency switches in certain situations
— Optionally = monitoring + communication
Inverters convert Direct Current in
Alternative current compatible with the grid
 Functions:
— Converts DC into AC compatible with the network
— MPPT tracking : Adapts the inverter’s operating point to the solar field’s
maximum power point (following irradiance and T°)
— Small and medium power inverters also provide protection by

decoupling the PV from the grid
 Operating principles :
— Inverters are bridge structures that normally comprise electronic
switches like IGBTs (power transistors).
— Usually the direct electrical energy supplied is modulated via suitable

control switching to obtain a signal alternating at the grid
frequency.
— This alternative signal is then filtered by an inductance before the

transformer (or after it in other layouts) to obtain a sinusoidal
alternative signal at the frequency of the grid and complying with
the grid requirements on distortion rates.
Inverters efficiency
 An inverter’s efficiency can be expressed in several ways

— Max Efficiency (<99%) : not representative
— Euro Efficiency :
ηeuro  0,03  η5%Pn  0,06  η10%Pn  0,13  η20%Pn  0,10  η30%Pn  0,48  η50%Pn  0,20  ηPn
— CEC Efficiency :
ηCEC  0,04  η10%Pn  0,05  η20%Pn  0,12  η30%Pn  0,21  η50%Pn  0,53  η75%Pn  0,05  ηPn
 Depends on : PAC
η
PDC
— DC/AC voltage
— Operating power
— Temperature
— Aux. consumption (if included)
 Inverter global efficiency also depends on the MPP Tracker
dynamic efficiency (speed of Max Power Point tracking)
MPP Tracking
 MPP Tracking according to wheather conditions

— MPPT range must cover PV operating range
— High algorithm efficiency (above 99%)
— Certified by independent certification authorities
Inverters architectures
Central inverters String inverters Individual inverters

(µ inverters / AC modules)
Architecture Advantages Drawbacks
Central High conversion efficiency Maintenance (single failure point)
String Modularity Compatibility among different

manufacturers
Individual Modularity Lower efficiency
Individual optimisation Complex programming
No mismatch loss
Central inverters
 Main manufacturers :
— Schneider electric, Ingeteam, SMA, ABB, GE, KACO, TMEIC
 Pros/Cons :
— Pros
• Competitive cost
• Standard solution, very quick to install
• Large power range available (from 100 kW to 1250 kW)
• DC connection box integrated into the inverter
• Everything centralized at a single point
• Efficiency slightly higher than that of string inverters
• In HV, can be connected to the HV/LV transformer and delivery station
— Cons
• Complex maintenance (manufacturer’s approved personnel, LTSA)
• Maintenance costs often higher than those for string inverters
• Land requirement (space on either an existing site or the creation of a new one)
• Often indoor products (installed in shelter or delivered in container)
• Less flexible design for multi-azimuth roofs or for different powers/roof
 Solution often suitable for very large power plants (from several
MWp : Ground Mount of large-scale, single-sloped Rooftop)
String inverters
— SMA, ABB, Fronius, Kaco, Delta, Ingecon, Huawei
 Pros /Cons :
— Pros
• Provide for flexible design, especially on buildings (multi MPPT)
• Competitive cost for outdoor medium-power systems
• Easy and quick to install
• Large power range available (1.2 to 80 kW)
• Increasingly includes DC connection box (cost optimisation)
• Communication between inverters (e.g. via wifi, PLC, …)
• Limits production losses in the event of a fault (modularity)
• Excellent efficiency
• Very easy to repair (swap)
• Systematic outdoor product versions
• Guarantee extensions (10, 15 and 20 years) offered
— Cons
• heavy when over 50 kW
• More expensive than central inverters (but tends to balance out)
UPDATE?
Micro inverters
 Pros
— Optimise the productivity of a field where there is a drop shadow
— Simple installation (Plug & Play)
— Fourth generation product, reliable, 20-year guarantee
— Little impact on potential production if there is a fault
— Vast temperature range -45°C to 65°C
— Very low DC voltage, which reduces the risk of fire
 Cons
— One of the most expensive solutions to invest in
— Difficult to access the devices below the modules
— Insignificant gain in potential production (except complex sites, multislopes,… )
— Relatively low European efficiency: 95.7% on average
 Product ranges (< 300W)
— 60 cell modules: power from 210 to 310 Wp – inverter 215 to 250W
— 72 cell modules: power from 300 to 310 Wp – inverter 250W
 => Solution primarily for residential applications / safety problem
AC main LV board
 Function
— Parallelizes inverters
— Surge and short circuit protection for inverter AC connections
— Switch and disconnect sources upstream (circuit breaker)
— Provide general protection from lightning (lightning arrestor)
— Make emergency switches in certain situations
Connecting the PV AC main LV board to the substation
LV
 LV, total sale PV AC main substation
Inverters LV board
LV
Customer
Inverters PV AC main substation
AC main LV
LV board
board
 LV, sale of surplus / self-

consumption
Connecting the PV AC main LV board to the substation
 HV, total sale
AC PV main LV DELIVERY
board STATION
Inverters + transformer
circuit-breaker
LV/HV transformer
Monitoring system
 Function
— Local and remote monitoring of the plant’s operation, raises the main alarms indicating faults on the inverters
— Prevent unnecessary travel to the site
 Typical data monitored
— Inverters data (voltage, current)
— (Junction boxes : string current)
— site’s solar irradiance: pyranometer or reference Si cell
— temperature in important areas (T° field, T° below the modules)
— wind speed (not always required): anemometer
 Ideally device with open protocols: needs to run for 20-25 years
 Two main types of monitoring device:

— Proprietary systems: The inverter manufacturer provides a system only compatible with their equipment.
— Open systems: A gateway collects and archives data from all inverters (with open protocols) and exchanges
data with an operating/analysis software of your choice.
Monitoring systems - comparison
Example of proprietary system (SMA) :
 Proprietary system Sunny Web Box + Sunny Portal
— Collects and processes data using the inverter manufacturer’s

equipment and software
— no compatibility issues
— slow tool development
 Open system
— Collects and processes data using equipment and software different Example of open systems (external) :
to that of the inverter manufacturer Solar Log or WebDynSun
+ software (SolarID, Greenrrco, Alfileo, etc.)
— longer engineering, possible compatibility issues, communication
— more secure operation in the long term
— Commercial products available from independent suppliers
+
— Several SCADA tools used inside the Group for monitoring utility-
scale PV plants ENGIE in-house system :
…
— New monitoring device developed inside ENGIE for distributed PV
systems
• Simple, low-cost monitoring
• Reliable (Sigfox-based => coverage, grid loss alarm)
• Compatibility with all equipment, regardless of the manufacturer
• SMS alarming system

Introduction On Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction On Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Technical Workshop

Introduction on Solar Photovoltaic

Presented by Magali GONTIER– ENGIE Lab Laborelec

Confidential Restricted Public Internal

Strong start in 2008 – Stagnation 2011-2012 – Recovery 2013-2016

PV Market Alliance 2017 – Becquerel Institute

 100 GW cumulative capacity reached in Q2 2016 in Europe

European solar PV total grid connections 2000-2015

Annual global new installed PV capacity in various scenarios 2015 - 2020

Source: PV Market Alliance – Becquerel Institute 2016

Germany should become the biggest

Segmentation of cumulative installed PV capacity in selected European countries in 2015

Scenarios for global PV development 2015 – 2020 :

Silicon shortage era :

Source: Becquerel Institute 2016

— Energy issued from nuclear fusion of hydrogen

— Equal to approximately 1368 W/m²

Spectrum distribution outside the AM 0

Infrared Wavelength (nm)

 Global radiation = direct radiation + diffuse radiation + albedo

 The Earth orbits the Sun in a low

— the maximum elevation of the sun

Hmax = maximum elevation of the sun at true noon

φ = latitude of the site

Winter solstice Equinox Summer solstice

Correction factors of solar potential

0,93 0,93 0,93 0,93 0,93

0,90 0,96 1 0,96 0,90

0,78 0,88 0,91 0,88 0,78

0,55 0,66 0,68 0,66 0,55

Position to be avoided (unless

Correction factors of solar potential

Monthly variation of irradiance on a fixed-tilt panel, with 3 different tilts

 DNI: Direct Normal Irradiance = direct irradiance on a plane normal to the

 DHI: Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance = diffuse irradiance on a horizontal plane

 GHI: Global Horizontal Irradiance = direct + diffuse irradiance on a

 Irradiance on a PV panel depends on the panel’s position (fixed or not)

Albert Einstein: 1905

The photovoltaic effect is a photoelectric effect.

 The atom (from the Greek atomos, meaning indivisible)

— Electrons are particles with negative electric charge. They

 An atom in its basic state is electrically neutral

 At the junction of the N and P layers, free

 This creates a local imbalance of

away from the p-side and holes are

 If a photon’s energy is sufficient to move an

 The p-n junction’s electric field pushes the

 The electrons tend to pair back up with the holes

 Power = Current x Voltage

 Voltage drop of a c-Si cell

 Current almost unaffected

 Maximum power drop of a

NON-ORGANIC (Mineral based)

CRYSTALINE THIN FILMS

Dye-sensitized solar cells

Source : Fraunhofer ISE

CRYSTALINE SILICON (c-Si) PV THIN FILM (TF) PV

AMORPHOUS Si (a-Si) CdTe CIGS

Global installed capacity

! Authorisation to install CdTe modules on rooftops depends on country legislation

 c-Si PV: large choice of sub-technologies and efficiencies.

Cells = wafer cut High efficiency designs Cells = several small

Module efficiency (%) 14 - 16.5% 22.5% 13 - 15.9%